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This is a descriptive study. A child soldier is a child under the age of 18 that is recruited into the armed forces and engages in political violence. Child Soldiers are recruited by a state or non-state armed group and used as fighters, cooks, suicide bombers, human shields, messengers, spies, or for sexual purposes. This work of research describes the plight of child soldiers taking in context the scenario of different nations. The International mechanisms to combat this problem have also been discussed in the research paper. THOMAS LUBANGAs trial has also been discussed.Further, the reasons behind the delivery of Child soldiers have also been highlighted. The research work also highlights the different challenges which are still to be contented.

A growing wave of scholarship suggests that ideology has demonstrable effects on various forms of armed conflict. But ideology remains a relative theoretical newcomer in conflict research, and scholars lack developed microfoundations for analyzing ideologies and their effects. Typically, existing research has primarily presented ideology as either an instrumental tool for conflict actors or a source of sincere political and normative commitments. But neither approach captures the diverse ways in which contemporary social science theorizes the causal connection between ideas and action, and both struggle to reconcile the apparently strong effects of ideology on conflict at the collective level with the relative rarity of 'true believers' at the individual level. This article addresses such problems by providing key microfoundations for conceptualizing ideologies, analyzing ideological change, and explaining ideologies' influence over conflict behavior. I emphasize that ideology overlaps with other drivers of conflict such as strategic interests and group identities, show how ideologies can affect conflict behavior through four distinct mechanisms – commitment, adoption, conformity, and instrumentalization – and clarify the role of both conflict pressures and pre-existing ideological conditions in ideological change. These microfoundational claims integrate existing empirical findings and offer a foundation for building deeper explanations and middle-range theories of ideology's role in armed conflict.

During armed conflict, people with disabilities are victims of a vicious cycle of violence, social polarization, deteriorating services and deepening poverty. They are among the most marginalized and excluded part of the population affected by the armed conflict. They are at greater risk in situations of conflict, most likely to be left behind when populations flee and also at greater risk of violence and discrimination. The international normative framework related to people with disabilities in armed conflicts is mainly based on human rights law and international humanitarian law. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities moves the meaning of disability from regarding persons with disabilities as objects of medical care and charity to recognizing them as subjects with rights. There is still a long way to go in effectively protecting disabled people during armed conflicts. It seems that legal norms in this respect are sufficiently precise. 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The impact of armed conflict on gender differentials in schooling appears to be highly context-specific, as the review of the literature and the findings from the three studies in this symposium reveal. In some settings boys' schooling is more negatively affected than that of girls. In others, the reverse is the case. Effects are largely shaped by events surrounding a conflict, pre-war gender differences in educational attainments, and education and labor market opportunities in the absence of war. Rigorous evaluations of post-conflict policies and aid projects can provide useful information to address educational needs and gender differentials in these environments.

This article presents a novel way to conceptualize the protection of data in situations of armed conflict. Although the question of the targeting of data through adversarial military cyber operations and its implications for the qualification of such conduct under International Humanitarian Law has been on scholars' and states' radar for the last few years, there remain a number of misunderstandings as to how to think about the notion of "data." Based on a number of fictional scenarios, the article clarifies the pertinent terminology and makes some expedient distinctions between various types of data. It then analyzes how existing international humanitarian and international human rights law applies to cyber operations whose effects have an impact on data. The authors argue that given the persisting ambiguities of traditional concepts such as "object" and "attack" under international humanitarian law, the targeting of content data continues to fall into a legal grey zone, which potentially has wide-ranging ramifications both for the rights of individual civilians and the functioning of civilian societies during situations of conflict. At the same time, much legal uncertainty surrounds the application of human rights law to these contexts, and existing data protection frameworks explicitly exclude taking effect in relation to issues of security. Acknowledging these gaps, the article attempts to advance the debate by proposing a paradigm shift: Instead of taking existing rules on armed conflict and applying them to "data," we should contemplate applying the principles of data protection, data security, and privacy frameworks to military cyber operations in armed conflict.

In recent years, cities in countries such as Syria, Ukraine, and Somalia have been sites of major incidents of armed conflict. Such violence has led observers to note that armed conflict is becoming more urbanized in nature and increasingly affecting cities. However, existing research has not been able to ascertain whether armed conflict is gradually more concentrated in cities, for two reasons. First, most studies employ a grid-based design which does not theoretically or operationally correspond to cities. Second, some studies take the city as the unit of analysis, but look only at a few major cities in certain regions of the world, or include a broader range of political violence. To assess whether armed conflict is indeed becoming more urban in character, we analyze global patterns of armed conflict 1989–2017. We match the UCDP Georeferenced Events Dataset to cities with at least 100,000 inhabitants, and analyze over time the share of fatalities incurred by armed conflict. We include violence be-tween organized armed actors (inter- and intrastate), but also conflict-related violence against civilians which captures acts of terrorism. With this novel approach, we identify an overall reduction over time in the share of armed conflict violence taking place in cities.

The problem of the definition of terrorism is controversial and relevant to international law. The universal definition is not yet reached in international treaties; thus the discussion of the question is important in distinguishing this phenomenon from other so called "regular" crimes. The aim of the article is to reveal the elements of the definition of terrorism, paying particular attention to the situations of armed conflict. The object of the research - norms of international law defining terrorism, enshrined in the provisions of international agreements concluded within the framework of various regional international organizations and the United Nations.

Soziale, politische und geografische Prozesse der Stadtentwicklung in Konflikt- und Grenzregionen werden in dieser Dissertation durch eine Kombination von Satellitenbildern und Feldforschung analysiert. Das Untersuchungsgebiet ist die Grenzregion zwischen der Demokratischen Republik Kongo (DRK) und Ruanda, die seit Anfang der 1990er Jahre von zwischen- und innerstaatlichen bewaffneten Konflikten betroffen ist. Im Fokus der Analyse liegt Goma, die Provinzhauptstadt von Nord-Kivu im Osten der DRK. Zusätzlich wird ein Vergleich mit Gomas Zwillingsstadt Gisenyi in Ruandas Westprovinz gezogen. Die Literatur zu urbanen Räumen im Kongo und in gesamt Subsahara-Afrika bezieht sich häufig auf Primärstädte. Über die Entwicklung von Sekundärstädten in Konfliktzonen, für die es kaum räumlich explizite Studien gibt, ist wenig bekannt. Diese Arbeit bietet zwei sich ergänzende Perspektiven durch die Kombination von Satellitenbildanalyse mit semi-strukturierten Interviews und Beobachtungen aus mehreren Forschungsaufenthalten. Das zweite Kapitel verwendet eine Zeitreihe hochaufgelöster Landsat-Szenen, um die Expansion von Goma zwischen 1986 und 2015 zu analysieren. Dieser Zeitrahmen umfasst internen Konflikt in Ruanda (1990-1994), die Kongo-Kriege (1996-2003) und deren von Gewalt geprägte Folgezeit. Das dritte Kapitel basiert auf der Analyse sehr hochauflösender Satellitenbilder. Eine feinskalige Kartierung von Urbanisierungsmustern zwischen 2005 und 2014 wird mit verantwortlichen Akteursgruppen verbunden. Das vierte Kapitel erweitert die Analyse auf Gomas ruandische Nachbarstadt Gisenyi. Es untersucht und vergleicht, wie sich zwischen- und innerstaatliche Konflikte und die jüngste Phase von Stabilität in Ruanda auf die räumliche Stadtentwicklung über die nationale Grenze hinweg auswirken. Die Arbeit schließt mit einer kritischen Reflexion über Nutzen und Grenzen des angewendeten Methodenmix und zeigt mögliche Bereiche für weitere Forschung auf. ; This dissertation combines satellite imagery analysis and field research to investigate the influence of armed conflict on urban spatial development in the eastern periphery of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and western Rwanda. This border region continues to be affected by inter- and intra-state conflict since the early 1990s. The primary study area is the city of Goma in Congo's North Kivu province. Additionally, a comparison is drawn to the adjacent city of Gisenyi in Rwanda's Western Province. The literature on urban areas in Congo and throughout Sub-Saharan Africa often refers to large primary cities. Little is known about urban development of secondary cities in conflict zones, and spatially explicit studies are rare. By combining satellite imagery analysis with semi-structured interviews and observations from field visits, this dissertation provides two complementary perspectives. The second chapter uses a time series of high-resolution Landsat images to analyze Goma's expansion between 1986 and 2015, a timeframe that includes conflict in Rwanda (1990-1994), the Congo Wars (1996-2003), and their violent aftermath. It shows how stages of urban growth relate to waves of forced displacement. The third chapter relies on very high-resolution (VHR) images for a fine-scale mapping of urbanization patterns between 2005 and 2014, and attributes them to groups of key actors. The fourth chapter extends the analysis to Goma's Rwandan twin-city Gisenyi. It compares how inter- and intra-state conflict, and recent stability in Rwanda affect urban development across a national border. The dissertation concludes by reflecting on the utility and limitations of this methodological combination for conflict regions, highlighting areas for further research.

Throughout history, women have suffered most from armed conflicts in different forms. Thus, humanitarian law observes protective mechanisms for civilians specially women during armed conflicts. Despite protections and actions of international and non-international organizations, there are not enough guarantees to enforce protection of women in armed conflicts. In this regard, this study, entitled Humanitarian protection of women in armed conflicts, made an attempt to explore the related international documents. To do so, the conceptual framework of the study was first set up, defining concepts of war, the law of war, humanitarian law, civilian and protection of civilians. Then, kinds of protections, especially protection against sexual acts of violence, were explored under the title of women in armed conflicts. Finally, the question of whether the current support mechanisms are capable enough to protect women at the time of armed conflicts was discussed. As a conclusion, it can be said that the quality of providing or not providing humanitarian protection of women depends on controlling abundant variables including cultural factors (beliefs, principles, and national norms), psychological factors (policy-makers' tendencies and spirits), international factors (location and regional and international ties), social factors (national manner, ethnic structure, social history, minorities' situation, gender relations), political factors (government's structure and history, state/nation relations) and the relation between these factors as well. DOI:10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n3s2p40

In this article, I examine to what extent gender equality is associated with lower levels of intrastate armed conflict. I use three measures of gender equality: (1) a dichotomous indicator of whether the highest leader of a state is a woman; (2) the percentage of women in parliament; and (3) the female-to-male higher education attainment ratio. I argue that the first two measures in particular capture the extent to which women hold positions that allow them to influence matters of war and peace within a state. I further argue that all three measures, but especially the last two, capture how women are valued relative to men in a society, that is, the relative degree of subordination of women. Whereas female state leadership has no statistically significant effect, more equal societies, measured either in terms of female representation in parliament or the ratio of female-to-male higher education attainment, are associated with lower levels of intrastate armed conflict. The pacifying impact of gender equality is not only statistically significant in the presence of a comprehensive set of controls but also is strong in substantive terms.

Surveys provide crucial information about the social consequences of armed conflict, but armed conflict can shape surveys in ways that limit their value. We use longitudinal survey data from throughout the recent armed conflict in Nepal to investigate the relationship between armed conflict events and survey response. The Chitwan Valley Family Study (CVFS) provides a rare window into survey data collection through intense armed conflict. The CVFS data reveal that with operational strategies tailored to the specific conflict, duration of the panel study is the main determinant of attrition from the study, just as in most longitudinal studies outside of conflict settings. Though minor relative to duration, different dimensions of armed conflict can affect survey response in opposing directions, with bombings in the local area reducing response rates but nationwide political events increasing response rates. This important finding demonstrates that survey data quality may be affected differently by various dimensions of armed conflict. Overall, CVFS response rates remained exceptionally high throughout the conflict. We use the CVFS experience to identify principles likely to produce higher quality surveys during periods of generalized violence and instability.

Armed conflict has left noticeable marks on our heritage, and has increasingly become a target in itself despite protective legislature such as the 1950 The Hague convention. Both built heritage and stone objects are partially destroyed through the impact of projectiles such as bullets and shrapnel. This study investigates alterations to the fabric of sandstone, a commonly used material for building and sculptures, upon impact using a combination of microscopy and SEM-EDX.

BACKGROUND: A substantial portion of child deaths take place in countries with recent history of armed conflict and political instability. However, the extent to which armed conflict is an important cause of child mortality, especially in Africa, remains unknown. METHODS: Using information on (1) geocoded location, timing, and intensity of armed conflicts and (2) the location, timing, and survival of under-1 and under-5 children in 35 African countries from 1995 to 2015, we matched child survival with proximity to armed conflict. We measured the increase in mortality risk for children exposed to armed conflicts within 50km in the year of birth and, to study conflicts' extended health risks, up to 250km away and 10 years prior to birth. We also examined the effects of conflicts of varying intensity and chronicity (conflicts lasting several years), and effect heterogeneity by residence and child sex. We then estimate the number and portion of under-1 and under-5 deaths related to conflict. FINDINGS: We analyzed 15,441 armed conflict events that led to 968,444 armed conflict deaths, 1.99 million births, and 133,361 infant deaths (infant mortality rate of 67 deaths per 1,000 births). A child born within 50km of an armed conflict had a risk of dying before reaching age one of 5.2 per 1,000 births higher than being born in the same region during periods without conflict (95% CI 3.7-6.7; a 7.7% increase above baseline). This ranged from 3.0% increase for armed conflicts with 1-4 deaths to 26.7% increase for armed conflicts with >1,000 deaths. We find evidence of increased mortality risk from an armed conflict up to 100km away, and for 8 years after conflicts, with cumulative increase in infant mortality 2-4 times higher than the contemporaneous increase. In the entire continent, the number of infant deaths related to conflict from 1995 to 2015 were between 3.2 and 3.6 times the number of direct deaths from armed conflicts. CONCLUSIONS: Child mortality in Africa is substantially and sustainably increased in times of ...

The development of information technologies in the modern world affects all spheres of human activity, including the sphere of military activities of states. The current level of development of military information technologies allows us to talk about a new fifth possible theatre of military operations, namely, cyberspace. The Tallinn Manual on International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, developed in 2013 and updated in 2017 by experts from the NATO States, also confirms the likelihood of armed conflict in cyberspace. It is indisputable fact that cyber operations committed in the context of an armed conflict will be subject to the same rules of International Humanitarian Law that apply to such armed conflict. However, many cyber operations that can be classified as military operations may be committed in peacetime and are common cybercrimes. In such circumstances, it is imperative to distinguish between such cybercrimes and situations of armed conflict in cyberspace. Due to the fact, that there are only two types of armed conflict — international and non-international, this problem of differentiation raises the question of the typology of armed conflicts in relation to cyberspace. The main questions within the typology of cyber armed conflicts are: whether an international armed conflict can start solely as a result of a cyber-attack in the absence of the use of traditional armed force; and how to distinguish between ordinary criminal behaviour of individuals in cyberspace and non-international armed conflict in cyberspace? The purpose of this article is to provide answers to these urgent questions. The author analyses the following criteria that play a role in solving the above problems: criteria for assigning a cyber attack to a state and equating such a cyber-attack with an act of using armed force in a cyber armed conflict of an international character; and criteria for the organization of parties and the intensity of military actions in a non-international cyber armed conflict. Based on the results of this analysis, the author gives relevant suggestions for solving the above issues.

Diese Diplomarbeit befasst sich mit der Thematik der zunehmenden Gewalt gegen medizinische Einrichtungen und medizinisches Personal. Sie zielt darauf ab die Hauptfaktoren für die mangelnde Einhaltung der bestehenden rechtlichen Normen zum Schutz des genannten Personals und der Einrichtungen zu eruieren. Zu Beginn soll der Leser mithilfe eines breiten Überblicks über die Entwicklung des humanitären Völkerrechts sowie die Entwicklung der Genfer Konvention und ihrer Zusatzprotokolle, ein Verständnis für deren Bedeutung im Zusammenhang mit der gegenständlichen Thematik bekommen. Im Folgenden wird durch die Erläuterung der einschlägigen gesetzlichen Normen für medizinisches Personal und Einrichtungen dargelegt, dass kein Mangel an ausreichend definierten gesetzlichen Normen zum Schutz der Gesundheitsversorgung in bewaffneten Konflikten vorliegt. Vielmehr mangelt es an der Umsetzung der zugrundeliegenden Regelungen, auf die im letzten Kapitel dieser Arbeit hingewiesen wird. Dem Leser soll ein Überblick über die jüngsten Entwicklungen im Bereich der Gewalt gegen medizinisches Personal und Einrichtungen in Afghanistan, Jemen und Syrien vermittelt werden. Die gewählten Länder dienen exemplarisch der Veranschaulichung der Entwicklung in Konfliktgebieten in den letzten Jahren. Der Schwerpunkt der Forschung wurde, je nach Land, auf einen spezifischen Aspekt der Gewalt gegen medizinisches Personal und Einrichtungen gelegt, um den Umfang der Thematik zu verdeutlichen. Unter anderem soll veranschaulicht werden, wie Organisationen wie beispielsweise die Weltgesundheitsorganisation, die Vereinten Nationen sowie das Internationale Komitee des Roten Kreuzes versuchen der zunehmenden Zahl von Angriffen entgegenzuwirken. Darüber hinaus wird gezeigt, dass die mangelnde Einhaltung und unzureichende Beachtung der rechtlichen Normen sowie die mangelnde Rechenschaft für die Verbrechen wesentliche Aspekte dieser Thematik bilden. ; This thesis addresses the rapidly rising number of violations against medical personnel and medical facilities despite the prohibition to attack them. It aims to locate the main factors for the lack of compliance with the existing legal framework concerning the protection of mentioned personnel and facilities. The first chapter shall provide the reader with a broad overview concerning the development of the International Humanitarian Law as well as the evolution of the Geneva Convention and its Additional Protocols with the intention to create an understanding for its importance regarding the aim to limit the inhumanity of war and the protection of people that are not or no longer engaged in hostilities. Subsequently, the following chapter shall, by pointing out the legislative framework for medical services, outline that there is no lack of legislative framework regarding the protection of health care in armed conflicts. Rather the issue lies with the implementation of the underlying regulations, which will be pointed out in the last chapter of this thesis. The reader shall be provided with an overview concerning the recent developments in the field of violence against health care in Afghanistan, Yemen and Syria, which are used as examples to illustrate the development in conflict areas over the past years. The focus of the research, depending on the country, has been placed on a specific aspect of violence against health care in order to illustrate the extensiveness of the issue. It will be illustrated how organizations such as the World Health Organization, the United Nations as well as the International Committee of the Red Cross try to counteract the increasing amount of attacks. Furthermore, it will be shown that the lack of compliance with the law and the insufficient observance of its rules as well as the lack of accountability for the crimes are main aspects of this issue. ; eingereicht von Nicole Freller ; Zusammenfassung in Englisch ; Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, Diplomarbeit, 2020 ; (VLID)4717438