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Hamas's attack on Israel last week was what any reasonable person would consider an atrocity deserving of moral outrage. Hundreds of innocent civilians were killed, and dozens more were taken into captivity. It thus is understandable that such an event would elicit intense emotion and a thirst for revenge.Being understandable is not the same as being wise or effective, for Israel itself or for regional peace and security.Israel has now embarked on a violent offensive against the Gaza Strip and its residents. However, as much as that offensive may be defended as intended to establish deterrence or to destroy a hostile military force, it is in large part an act of raw revenge. It is a national catharsis amid an atmosphere of intense grief and anger.The casualty count from the Israeli bombardment of the Gaza Strip is rising too fast to venture an up-to-date figure, but Palestinian health authorities reported that as of Monday, 2,800 Palestinians had been killed and 10,000 wounded, with more than half of the dead being women and children. In addition, Israel — which already had maintained a blockade of Gaza — cut off all movement of food, fuel, water, and electricity to the territory. This is quickly generating a humanitarian disaster of a proportion commensurate with the Strip's population of more than two million, with specific consequences ranging from hospitals lacking the supplies and electric power needed to treat the wounded to families running short of food.On top of all this, Israel, through a pre-invasion warning leaflet, has told the more than one million residents of Gaza City and the rest of the northern half of the Strip to head south. Given the lack of food, water, and housing wherever those people could go, such a movement, as U.N. Secretary General Antonio Guterres has stated, ranges between the "extremely dangerous" and the "impossible." Evacuation does not even buy safety, as indicated by lethal Israeli attacks on convoys that were using what Israel had designated as a "safe route."The scale of physical human suffering in the Gaza Strip already exceeds what Hamas inflicted on Israel last week. And Israel is just getting started as the Israeli aerial assault is likely to transition to a ground offensive.Given the extensive and careful planning that clearly went into the recent Hamas attack, it can be assumed that Hamas's planning did not end there. The group surely anticipated a strong Israeli reprisal, has done all it can to prepare for that reprisal, and has calculated that when the whole episode is over it will have served Hamas's interests more than Israel's. Drawing Israel into an extremely difficult urban warfare campaign on Hamas's own turf may have been one of the group's objectives.The hostages Hamas seized in southern Israel (as many as 150) vastly complicates any Israeli military operation. Hamas claims that Israeli airstrikes already have killed 13 of the hostages — an unconfirmed but plausible claim given the destruction from the airstrikes. The remaining hostages will be in grave danger from a ground assault, regardless of whether Hamas positions them to function as human shields.Animosity across the region and much of the rest of the world will be substantial and will work against Israeli interests and Israeli security. Arab governments will be less inclined than before to expand relations with Israel.In the occupied West Bank — where even before October 7, anger over Israeli policies and actions made the chance of a new popular uprising or intifada significant — heightened anger over more Israeli killing of Palestinian brethren in Gaza increases that chance. There already are signs of the current violence in Gaza spilling over into the West Bank, with at least 46 Palestinians killed and 700 injured in clashes with Israeli security forces and settlers since the Hamas attack.In Gaza itself, an expansion of Israeli-inflicted bloodshed among the Palestinian residents will feed expanded anger against Israel among the remaining residents, with all the potential for new violence that such anger always has entailed. Destruction of Hamas's military capability, even if that could be completely achieved, does not remove the problem. Hamas was never the whole story of violent Palestinian reaction to Israeli policies. Much of the recent rocket fire from Gaza has been carried out by the Palestine Islamic Jihad, a smaller and more radical Gaza-based group. The anger and the violence will find other channels — perhaps through groups and cells not yet formed — even if neither Hamas nor the PIJ were still functional.The Israeli objective in a new ground invasion of Gaza may go beyond "mowing the lawn," to use the Israelis' term for their periodic surges in military attacks against Palestinians, and extend to destroying the ability of Hamas to function any more as Gaza's de facto government. But even if that objective is achieved, then a big unanswered question is, who does govern the Gaza Strip? The Palestinian Authority is widely discredited among Palestinians and seems unable to rise above its residual role as a security auxiliary to the Israeli occupation of the West Bank. Direct Israeli rule of Gaza would be a prescription for even more resentment over occupation and more potential for violent Israeli-Palestinian clashes.U.S. policy on the crisis shows signs of having been swept up in some of the same emotions and rage as most Israelis have. In this respect, the policy is tracking with a broader mood that the Hamas attack has generated in the American body politic, in which the safest public posture is expression of unflinching support for Israel. It is even more hazardous to one's political health than it usually is to say anything that places the crisis within the context of longstanding Israeli policies toward the Palestinians. Related to this, the Biden policy of essentially going all in with Israel likely has domestic political calculations behind it.The administration's pronouncements have often reduced the crisis to an easy-to-emote-over tale of good versus evil, which ignores likely motivations for what was a carefully calculated attack undertaken in response to Israeli policies and actions.Continuing this theme, administration officials have likened what Hamas did to the Islamic State or ISIS. The brutal tactics that Hamas used during its incursion into southern Israel can indeed be compared to some notorious actions by ISIS, but beyond that the comparison is meaningless. ISIS is not part of any longstanding situation comparable to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory. ISIS is an international terrorist group whose ideology and ambitions know no international boundaries.Hamas is a nationalist group seeking political power in a Palestinian state and has no interest in international terrorism beyond that theater. ISIS has never spoken about observing an open-ended truce to live peacefully next to a state that is currently its adversary. Hamas has. ISIS has never competed in, much less won, a free and fair election. Hamas has. Why and how the tactics and objectives of Hamas have evolved into what it displayed this month have to do with peaceful avenues of competition being closed. To reduce the entire conflict into a matter of one set of outrageous tactics is to miss all the other dimensions of that conflict.Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia has been calling for de-escalation. Russia and China have called for an immediate cease-fire, and Russia is proposing a U.N. Security Council resolution to that effect.The Biden administration is moving in the opposite direction. Secretary of State Antony Blinken on social media endorsed Turkish efforts to secure a cease-fire, but later deleted the post. While President Biden said on Sunday that Israeli occupation of Gaza would be a "big mistake," current administration policy is to otherwise endorse the escalation of the violence that Israel currently is conducting in the Gaza Strip.The administration should think carefully about how U.S. interests differ from Israeli interests and objectives. Israel violently exacting revenge in this case is not a U.S. interest. Given that the foremost responsibility of a government is ensuring the safety and security of its own citizens, one of the important U.S. interests at stake concerns how some of those citizens may have become hostages in the Gaza Strip and will be greatly endangered by escalated Israeli military attacks.In addition to Americans among the hostages Hamas seized, an estimated 500 to 600 other U.S. citizens — mostly Palestinian Americans — are in the Gaza Strip. They are hostages, too — trapped there after the Israeli shutdown of all movement in and out of the territory, and in serious danger of becoming casualties of Israeli air or ground operations. One of those Americans, a woman whose home is Salt Lake City and currently is stuck in Gaza with her family, said, "I feel like I've been abandoned by my country. We're American citizens and we're not being treated as American citizens."Another U.S. interest is preventing the current warfare to spread regionally. The more that the fighting involving Israelis and Gazans escalates, the greater is the danger of such spread, even though other actors in the region are not seeking a wider war. Those in the U.S. who habitually try to stir up conflict with Iran are using the current crisis to do more stirring. This is despite the fact that no evidence has emerged of any direct Iranian role in the Hamas attack — as attested to most convincingly by official Israeli spokespeople, given that the Israeli government usually is eager to implicate Iran in anything condemnable. Press reports citing sources within the U.S. government indicate that Iranian government officials were surprised by Hamas's action.The Biden administration nonetheless has foolishly picked this moment to draw Iran into the Gaza crisis in a way by reneging at least temporarily on its commitment, under a recent prisoner swap deal that freed five imprisoned Americans, to permit some frozen Iranian assets to be used for humanitarian purposes inside Iran. Accusations by opponents of the administration that this money had some connection, however indirect, with Hamas military operations are patently false, given that none of the money involved had yet been expensed. The administration's move will further damage U.S. credibility regarding a willingness to make good on commitments, thereby making it more difficult for the U.S. to reach beneficial agreements with any other government, not just Iran.The administration evidently wanted to make a critical statement about the longstanding and well-known supply relationship between Iran and Hamas. If a patron that has supplied arms or money to a client is to be punished — to the extent even of previous agreements being reneged upon — this raises a question about yet another U.S. interest at stake in the current crisis: avoiding opprobrium and repercussions stemming from some other state's actions.If Iran is to be condemned for any actions by Hamas, even actions Iran did not instigate or control, then what is the attitude to be taken toward the United States regarding destructive and anger-inducing actions in Gaza by its client Israel, the recipient of voluminous U.S. financial, military, and diplomatic support?The world won't likely remember gentle admonitions from President Biden about observing the rule of law. It will instead focus on the U.S. effectively giving a green light for — and materially assisting — an assault that not only flouts the laws of war but brings death and suffering to thousands of innocent persons.There will be hostile reactions to all this, including from violent extremist groups. Revenge is an urge that is not unique to Israelis. Those who are quick to make comparisons with ISIS should reflect on the fact that probably the most consistent theme in the propaganda, interrogations, and claims of terrorists — including al-Qaida — who have attacked U.S. interests has been U.S. support for Israel and its treatment of the Palestinians.

En esta cuarta sección del evento Economía de la Informalidad Conferencia 2020, se presento la Ponencia de la profesora Pascaline Dupas, profesora de la Universidad de Stanford, La ponencia de la profesora Pascaline Dupas, titulada Informality in the time of Covid-19 (Informalidad en tiempos de Covid-19) hace un recorrido sobre las relaciones económicas que se desarrollan en un contexto de informalidad y analiza cómo la pandemia ha afectado de manera diferencial a poblaciones formales e informales a través de tres fuentes de datos diferentes. Dupas divide su presentación en tres partes. La primera muestra una perspectiva amplia de la informalidad y la correlación entre este fenómeno y el desarrollo económico de los países. La segunda es sobre las razones por las cuales la pandemia de Covid-19 podría imponer retos en relación con la informalidad. La tercera es sobre los impactos que se han observado en el corto plazo como consecuencia del Covid-19. En la primera parte de su ponencia, Dupas hace énfasis en que la informalidad no es únicamente laboral (por ejemplo, firmas que se ocultan de la regulación del gobierno, o trabajadores que no cuentan con contratos laborales formales), sino que trasciende a los ámbitos de vivienda, transporte, comercio, pagos, seguros, consumo, gravámenes e instituciones. De hecho, resalta que estos aspectos suelen sobreponerse y ocurrir simultáneamente, o uno como consecuencia de algún otro. Más aún, la informalidad en cada una de estas áreas está relacionada con condiciones de vida más difíciles y menos oportunidades. Por ejemplo, Dupas presenta amplia evidencia de la correlación entre las dimensiones de la informalidad usando datos para la capital marfileña Abiyán, mostrando que las personas que viven en asentamientos informales adolecen de derechos de propiedad, son más propensas a tener que hacer pagos informales a autoridades locales para evitar desalojos, suelen depender de instituciones informales y suelen tener menor cobertura de tarjetas gubernamentales de identificación. Los empleados informales, por su lado, tienen ingresos irregulares que les dificulta aceptar compromisos con entidades formales. Por esta razón, cuando requieren una red de seguridad frente a riesgos, suelen acudir a seguros informales, así como a créditos informales. Asimismo, pagos informales a las autoridades (corrupción) permiten que se mantenga la informalidad en asentamientos, contratos y comercio. Esto lleva a la pregunta sobre si la informalidad es una elección. Frente a esto, Dupas argumenta que, por el lado de los trabajadores, la mayoría preferirían tener contratos formales reconocidos frente a la ley y con seguridad social. Por su lado, las firmas informales preferirían mantenerse en esa condición por cuestiones de viabilidad (no serían rentables en escenarios formales). A su vez, Dupas dice que las personas que viven en asentamientos informales no encuentran otras opciones de vivienda asequible que estén a una distancia razonable de las oportunidades laborales. En la segunda parte de su ponencia, Dupas argumenta que el Covid-19 ha levantado preocupaciones por sus efectos sobre la población informal. En primer lugar, los asentamientos informales son más propensos para la transmisión masiva del virus, pues son muy densos en términos de población, tienen muchas personas por hogar, tienen fuentes acuíferas comunales, acceso limitado a redes de saneamiento y a instalaciones de higiene. De la misma forma, se desplazan usando medios de transporte congestionados y compran en lugares muy concurridos. Lo anterior se traduce en el hecho de que hay una seroprevalencia de Covid-19 del 54% en los asentamientos informales de Mumbai (India) y del 53% en los de Buenos Aires (Argentina). Por otro lado, la informalidad está relacionada con menor resiliencia a las cuarentenas o bloqueos relacionados con el Covid-19. Lo anterior se debe a que estas medidas eliminan los ingresos de los trabajadores, obligan a los individuos a acceder a mercados más costosos, imponen restricciones al transporte público informal y dificultades de movilidad. A esto se suma que, dado que tienen menor acceso a cuentas financieras formales, se hace más difíciles de alcanzar con ayudas gubernamentales. Asimismo, suelen experimentar una caída en los ingresos de remesas. En la tercera parte, Dupas documenta una serie de impactos económicos del Covid-19. Hace referencia a casos de estudio en Colombia, México, Costa de Marfil y Ghana. En el caso de Colombia y México, analizan la encuesta IPA RECOVR realizada por IPA, que incluye tanto a Bogotá como al Distrito Federal. En estas ciudades, se evidenciaron pérdidas de trabajos, que fueron más pronunciadas sobre la informalidad. Las personas formales en estas ciudades reportaron pérdidas de empleo de un 40%, mientras que esa cifra alcanzó el 80% entre los informales. Los trabajadores informales reportaron que, post-Covid, trabajaron menos horas que antes y ganaron menos que antes. En el caso de Ghana, Dupas hizo referencia a los efectos causales de la educación sobre la resiliencia ante choques como el de la pandemia de Covid-19. Frente a esto, mostró resultados que indican que las beneficiarias de programas educativos tuvieron mayor resiliencia laboral en términos de permanencia e ingresos. Finalmente, Dupas concluyó con cuatro puntos. Primero, que la informalidad tiene muchos dominios interconectados entre sí. Segundo, que la informalidad estuvo relacionada con vulnerabilidad aumentada frente a las crisis. Tercero, que los impactos del Covid-19 tienen una gran probabilidad de extenderse en el largo plazo. Lo anterior, sobre todo, porque las inversiones en nutrición de la primera infancia y en educación han caído debido a la pandemia. Y estas inversiones son muy importantes para el desarrollo de mediano y largo plazo de los niños, niñas y adolescentes. Por último, resaltó que la recuperación de esta situación va a ser intrincada. Esto, debido a la destrucción de negocios, activos y trabajos que significó la pandemia y las cuarentenas consecuentes para los individuos. Todo esto, con un enfoque diferencial frente a la informalidad que indica que va a ser mucho más difícil recuperarse para los que antes de la pandemia ya eran informales. ; In this fourth section of the Economics of Informality Conference 2020 event, the Presentation by Professor Pascaline Dupas, a professor at Stanford University, The presentation by Professor Pascaline Dupas, entitled Informality in the time of Covid-19 (Informality in times of Covid-19) takes a tour of the economic relations that develop in a context of informality and analyzes how the The pandemic has differentially affected formal and informal populations through three different data sources. Dupas divides his presentation into three parts. The first shows a broad perspective of informality and the correlation between this phenomenon and the economic development of the countries. The second is about the reasons why the Covid-19 pandemic could pose challenges in relation to informality. The third is about the impacts that have been observed in the short term as a consequence of Covid-19. In the first part of his presentation, Dupas emphasizes that informality is not only labor (for example, firms that hide from government regulation, or workers who do not have formal labor contracts), but that it transcends of housing, transport, commerce, payments, insurance, consumption, taxes and institutions. In fact, it highlights that these aspects tend to overlap and occur simultaneously, or one as a consequence of some other. Furthermore, informality in each of these areas is related to more difficult living conditions and fewer opportunities. For example, Dupas presents ample evidence of the correlation between dimensions of informality using data for the Ivorian capital Abidjan, showing that people who live in informal settlements lack property rights, are more likely to have to make informal payments to authorities. To avoid evictions, they tend to rely on informal institutions and tend to have less coverage from government identification cards. Informal employees, on the other hand, have irregular income that makes it difficult for them to accept commitments with formal entities. For this reason, when they require a safety net against risks, they tend to turn to informal insurance, as well as informal loans. Likewise, informal payments to the authorities (corruption) allow informality to be maintained in settlements, contracts and commerce. This leads to the question of whether informality is a choice. Faced with this, Dupas argues that, on the workers' side, the majority would prefer to have formal contracts recognized by the law and with social security. For their part, informal firms would prefer to remain in that condition for viability reasons (they would not be profitable in formal settings). In turn, Dupas says that people living in informal settlements do not find other affordable housing options that are within a reasonable distance of job opportunities. In the second part of his presentation, Dupas argues that Covid-19 has raised concerns about its effects on the informal population. First, informal settlements are more prone to massive transmission of the virus, as they are very dense in terms of population, have many people per household, have communal water sources, limited access to sanitation networks and hygiene facilities. In the same way, they travel using congested means of transport and shop in crowded places. This translates into the fact that there is a Covid-19 seroprevalence of 54% in the informal settlements of Mumbai (India) and 53% in those of Buenos Aires (Argentina). On the other hand, informality is related to less resilience to quarantines or blockades related to Covid-19. This is because these measures eliminate workers' income, force individuals to access more expensive markets, impose restrictions on informal public transport and mobility difficulties. Added to this is that, given that they have less access to formal financial accounts, it is more difficult to achieve with government aid. They also tend to experience a drop in remittance income. In the third part, Dupas documents a series of economic impacts of Covid-19. It refers to case studies in Colombia, Mexico, Ivory Coast and Ghana. In the case of Colombia and Mexico, they analyze the IPA RECOVR survey conducted by IPA, which includes both Bogotá and the Federal District. In these cities, job losses were evidenced, which were more pronounced on informality. Formal people in these cities reported job losses of 40%, while that figure reached 80% among informal ones. Informal workers reported that, post-Covid, they worked fewer hours than before and earned less than before. In the case of Ghana, Dupas referred to the causal effects of education on resilience to shocks such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Faced with this, it showed results that indicate that the beneficiaries of educational programs had greater work resilience in terms of permanence and income. Finally, Dupas concluded with four points. First, that informality has many interconnected domains. Second, that informality was related to increased vulnerability to crises. Third, that the impacts of Covid-19 have a high probability of spreading in the long term. The above, above all, because investments in early childhood nutrition and education have fallen due to the pandemic. And these investments are very important for the medium and long-term development of children and adolescents. Finally, he stressed that the recovery from this situation will be intricate. This, due to the destruction of businesses, assets and jobs that the pandemic meant and the consequent quarantines for individuals. All this, with a differential approach to informality that indicates that it will be much more difficult to recover for those who were already informal before the pandemic.

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :농업생명과학대학 농경제사회학부(지역정보전공),2020. 2. Hong Sok(Brian) Kim. ; There is a vicious circle characterizing the economic situation in many rural regions. Farmland abandonment is one of the complex circles and causes economic stagnation, environmental and social problems such as depopulation, row productivities, migration and dropping food supply self-sufficiency and some of the interlinked factors among them. As consequences of these situations, it has been observed that this makes the vicious circle that farmland abandonment is increasing even more and problems of these are getting more serious. Therefore, it is essential to understand value of farmland and its multi-functions and to restrain farmland abandonment along with fostering community capacity in rural area. Moreover, in the theory of neo-endogenous rural development, the importance of local resources such as farmland and community capacity is mentioned as key factors for sustainable rural development. Considering the importance of multi-function of farmland and community capacity, it is necessary for many rural regions to take measurements with multi-dimensional perspective to contribute to maintain the farmland and foster community capacity. However, there is very few researches on discussion of sustainable rural development focusing on farmland and community capacity with empirical studies. Since sustainable rural development has broad contents, there is very few studies focusing on the relationship between multi-function of farmland and sustainable development based on empirical study. Therefore, in this dissertation, it is trying to clarify the effect of direct payment for hilly mountainous area of Japan and community capacity on farmland conservation in order to organize concept of sustainability through role of farmland. It also tries to find out how it links to sustainable rural development. The results and discussion from this dissertation would bring better understanding on the importance of multi-function of farmland as community's asset and territorial integration policy. Furthermore, it would clarify challenges of case of Japan and make them into policy implication for future policy or other countries. Especially, the effective governmental intervention and diversity of stakeholders are key factors for sustainable rural development as mentioned in the theory. This research can indicate specific implication for sustainable rural development by focusing on multi-function of farmland and conservation activities. It would bring academic contribution to the theory development and also the academic field of sustainable rural development policy. In order to maintain farmland, it is well known that community capacity is playing the key role. Even so, the discussion on the relationship between sustainability and role of community capacity are very few with empirical studies. In this point, this dissertation can clarify the importance of community capacity through farmland conservation activities and give implication on community capacity building. First essay is verifying the effect of direct payment for hilly mountainous area and community capacity on restraining farmland abandonment. In this essay, we use panel data and Difference in Differences (DID) estimator to estimate the effect of the policy by comparing treated group with controlled group. At the same time, if the policy brings the effect on reducing rate of farmland abandonment, it is trying to clarify what community's features influence into the effect. As a result, the area of target of the policy has more effect of reducing farmland abandonment compared to non-target area. Moreover, the more share of 65 years old farmers, the more abandonment was restrained. This could be explained that long term accumulation of capacity for collective activities is the key factor to achieve governmental new program with incentives. We conclude that it is necessary to encourage stakeholders by the policy to lead community capacity building for farmland conservation. The second essay is investigating the efficiency of the direct payment for hilly mountainous area since it is one of payment for ecosystem services (PES) and recent discussion is spread in questioning efficiency of the PES. It is generally difficult to measure efficiency of Japanese type of direct payment because it does not aim at specific goals such as kinds of biodiversity or soil condition improvement. Therefore, we utilize flooding damage mitigation effect as standard of efficient use of the direct payment. We assume that if the farmland avoiding abandonment by direct payment can mitigate flooding in some level, it is assumed that the payment on the farmland was executed efficiently. In addition, in the age of climate change, we suppose that flooding damage might increase in the near future. So, we utilize RCP8.5 scenario and calculate damage cost based on the scenario with precipitation. We use panel data and Tobit model to estimate correlation between damage cost and direct payment effect. At the same time, we estimate if community collective activities have influences into disaster mitigation. As a result, the disaster mitigation was observed in both where they are the target area of the direct payment and where they have community's collective farmland conservation activities compared to non-target non-activities area. From this result, it is possible to say that efficient use of direct payment needs community's collective conservation activities. Prediction of damage cost under RCP8.5 scenario shows increasing in almost all the area of the study area. We conclude that it is necessary to confirm importance of multi-function of farmland and conservation activities by the community for maintaining farmland in the age of climate change. These two essays lead conclusions as below. Firstly, it is significant to understand value of multi-function of farmland and restrain farmland abandonment for sustainable rural development because this mentioned multi-function of farmland brings not only production but also disaster mitigation, rural economy opportunities and cultural value on the residents. Secondly, fostering community capacity is key for maintaining farmland with encouraging by governmental intervention. Lastly, the community collective activities bring efficient implementation of governmental intervention. Therefore, in terms of farmland conservation activities with the direct payment, it has to implement with incentive for stakeholders. Japan is one of countries where they face decrease of farmers and new entities. It is necessary to give incentives to new entities not only for individual farmers or large scale of full-time farmers but also private company or part-time farmers and new type of farmers to secure stakeholders. Farmland use should be considered depending on the regional characteristics. In this decade, it is not easy to manage farmland only by large scale farmers or full-time farmers since the number of farmers are decreasing year by year. It is the time to include part-time or small-scale farmers and new type of entities for community farmland maintenance with incentives by the governmental intervention with balanced community self-sustain so that the local resources and higher community capacity make it possible to pursue sustainable rural development. ; 전 세계적으로 경제적 악순환이 발생하고 있으며, 특히 농촌에서 빈번히 관찰되고 있다. 농지 경작 포기는 많은 농촌지역에서 발생하는 경제적 악순환의 과정 중 하나로 농촌경제악화, 인구 감소, 저생산, 인구유출 및 식량자급률 저하 등을 발생시키고 이는 다시 농지 경작 포기 증가로 이어지게 된다. 따라서, 농지의 다면적 기능의 가치를 정확히 이해하고, 경작포기지의 확산을 방지함과 동시에 지역사회역량의 육성이 필수적이다. 또한 소위 지역자원, 즉 여기서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 보전과 지역사회역량의 중요성은 신 내생적 성장이론의 핵심가치 중 하나이며 지속적인 농촌개발의 논의에서 빼놓을 수 없는 요소로서 인식된다. 이러한 중요성에 비추어볼 때, 농지의 다면적 기능을 유지하고 지역사회역량을 육성하는 등의 정책은 비단 일본뿐만 아니라 다른 국가의 농촌지역에서도 유효할 것이다. 그러나 실증연구를 중심으로 한 농촌 발전에 관한 논의는 아직까지는 미비한 현황이다. 이에 본 논문에서는 일본 중산간 지역의 직접지불제도의 유효성과 지역사회역량의 효과를 검증함과 동시에 이들이 지속가능한 농촌개발과 어떻게 연계되고 있는지를 살펴보고자 한다. 연구 결과, 영토 보전적 관점과 농촌지역공동체 재산으로서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 중요성을 재확인하였을 뿐만 아니라, 농촌개발 정책과 다양한 수요자(Stakeholder)의 중요성 역시 실증연구를 통해 입증하였다. 즉, 지속가능한 농촌개발의 주요 요소로는 정부의 효과적인 정책적 개입과 다양한 수요자(Stakeholder)가 꼽히나 그 구체적인 분석은 미흡한 바, 본 연구에서는 지속가능성이 무엇인지를 농지의 다면적 기능과 연관지어 분석하여 지속가능한 농촌개발에 대한 구체적인 제언을 제시하였다. 또한, 농지의 다면적 기능을 유지하기 위해서는 지역사회역량이 중요한 역할을 한다는 점은 선행연구로서 제시되어 있으나, 이에 대한 실증적인 분석은 미흡한 바 본 연구는 지역사회역량을 강조한 신 내생적 성장이론과 그 촉진에 중점을 주어 일본 직불제도의 효과에 관해 실증적으로 분석하였다. 본 논문의 첫번째 연구는 일본의 중산간 지역 등 직접지불제도와 지역사회역량효과를 검정한 것이다. 이 연구는 패널 데이터를 이용한 Difference in differences(DID) 기법을 사용하여 정책대상지역과 비대상 지역 간의 비교를 통해 제도의 효과를 검증하였다. 또한, 직접지불제도가 효과가 있는 경우 구체적으로 어떤 지역사회역량이 영향을 미치는지를 추정하여 결론적으로 지역사회역량을 육성하는 정부정책이 필요하다는 제언을 할 수 있었다. 결과적으로 정책대상지역은 비대상지역과 비교해서 경작 포기지 억제효과를 확인할 수 있었다. 또한, 65세 이상 농가의 비율이 높을수록 경작 포기지 억제효과가 확인되었다. 이는 장년층의 축적이라는 지역사회역량이 정부 정책의 효율성을 높일 수 있음을 의미하며, 또한 정책의 인센티브로 인하여 지역사회활동이 더욱 활발해져 경작 포기지 억제와 연계된다. 이상의 논의에 따라 영토 보존적 정책과 농촌사회 재산으로서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 보전을 위해서는 다수의 농업 종사자가 불가피하며, 이를 장려하기 위한 직접지불제도 대상지역 선정이 필요하리라 생각된다. 경제학적으로 고려하여도 농민이 소유 농지를 포기하지 않고 유지관리하는 인센티브가 필요할 것이다. 두 번째 연구는 최근 논의되고 있는 직접지불제도의 효율성에 대한 연구이다. 일본형 직접 지불제도는 직접적인 효율성을 측정하기 어렵다. 그 이유는 생물 및 토양의 개선이라는 명확한 목표를 설정할 수 없기 때문이다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 농지의 다면적 기능 중 농지의 수해제어효과를 효율성의 기준으로 사용한다. 중산간지역 등 직접지불제도에 의해 경작 포기가 억제된 토양이 수해억제효과를 보였다고 하면 이를 효율적인 직접 지불이 실행되었다고 간주한다. 또한, 최근 예상되는 기후변화로 인해 홍수피해 증가가 예상된다. 본 연구에서는 RCP 8.5 시나리오를 토대로 장래 강수량 예측 데이터에 따라 얼마나 홍수피해액이 증가하는지를 제시하였다. 구체적으로는 패널 데이터를 사용하여 토빗모델에 의해 수해피해액과 정책대상지역간의 관계를 분석하였다. 그리고 직접 지불이 효율적으로 실행된 지역에서는 농촌사회적 특성 중 어느 특성이 강세를 보이는가를 동시에 검증하였다. 결과적으로, 정책대상지역이자 농촌 보전 활동이 활발히 실시되는 농촌공동체를 보유한 지역이 그렇지 않은 지역과 비교하여 수해피해액이 적음을 확인하였다. 이로부터 효율적으로 직불제를 실시하기 위해서는 농촌공동체에서의 활발한 농지보전활동 참여가 중요하다는 사실을 도출할 수 있다. 또한, 장래 예측 강우량에 따르면 당초 예상대로 홍수 피해액이 대부분 모든 지역에서 증가하므로, 기후변동에 직면한 현재 농지의 다면적 기능의 중요성을 재확인하고 농지보전과 농촌공동체 활성화에 힘써야 한다. 이상의 두 연구로부터 본 논문은 다음과 같은 최종 결론을 내렸다. 첫째, 농지의 다면적 기능의 가치를 명확히 이해하고 경작포기자를 억제하는 것이 지속적인 농촌개발에 있어 핵심이라는 점이다. 둘째, 지역사회역량의 육성이 농촌의 다면적 기능 유지 및 관리에 있어서 핵심이라는 점이다. 셋째, 농촌공동체의 공동작업이 존재하는 지역에서는 정부개입의 효율성이 매우 높기에 개인 농가 수 감소에 직면하고 있는 일본으로서는 친척 단위 참가 농업 종사자의 정부지원 및 이에 따른 인센티브 수여가 필요하다는 점이다. 장기적으로 바라보았을 때 농지의 조절을 통한 지역사회의 조정은 반드시 필요하며 설사 이것이 경제학적으로 모순된다 하더라도 농촌공동체의 특성에 의해 농지 이용 정책을 고려해야 할 것이다. 대규모 경영시행 농가, 전업농만의 농지 관리는 현대에서는 어려우며 겸업농가 및 자급적 농가의 존재 역시 지역 전체적인 농지관리에서는 필수 요소라 할 것이다. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1-1. Study Background 1 1-2. Purpose of Study and Contribution of the dissertation 9 1-4. Structure of the thesis 11 Chapter 2. Literature Reviews 13 2-1. Farmland Abandonment 13 2-2. Function of farmland to mitigate of disaster 23 2-3. Direct payment (DP) for hilly mountainous area 26 2-4. Social capital 34 2-5. Multi-function of Farmland in Japan 37 Chapter 3. The Effect of Direct Payment on the Prevention of Farmland Abandonment 39 3-1. Introduction 39 3-2. Agricultural Policy and Rural Development 42 3-3. Data and Methods 51 3-4. Results 63 3-5. Discussion and Conclusion 70 Chapter 4. Efficiency of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) on preservation of farmland in the age of Climate Change 73 4-1. Introduction 73 4-2. Purpose of Study 82 4-3. Data and Methods 82 4-4. Results and Discussion 90 4-5. Conclusion 99 Chapter 5. Conclusion and Policy Implication 103 Bibliography 107 Abstract in Korean 125 ; Doctor

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Narayanpet-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 482 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 1 ha (0.18%) by railway and 18 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 32 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm), 18 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 46 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 3 per cent sandy soils, 42 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 51 per cent clayey soils.  Almost area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 2 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent are slightly (e1) eroded, 86 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 4 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 6 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 29 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 35 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4),22 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 14 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 77 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 96 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 248(49) 126(25) Guava - - Maize - 360(72) Sapota - - Bajra - 374(74) Pomegranate - 248(50) Groundnut - 13(3) Musambi 159(32) 89(18) Sunflower 159(32) 89(18) Lime 159(32) 89(18) Redgram - 248(50) Amla 159(32) 215(43) Bengal gram 248(50) 126(25) Cashew - - Cotton 159(32) 215(43) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 374(75) Jamun - 159(32) Tomato - 119(24) Custard apple 248(49) 126(25) Drumstick - 248(50) Tamarind - 159(32) Brinjal 88(18) 286(57) Mulberry - - Bhendi 88(18) 286(57) Marigold - 374(74) Onion 88(18) 231(46) Chrysanthemum - 374(74) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 4 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Narayanpet-3 is located at North latitude 160 33' 1.89" and 160 31' 0.128" and East longitude 770 16' 10.075'' and 770 14' 49.22" covering an area of about 500.78 ha coming unde Munagala, Sangavara and Kondapura villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Narayanpet-3 micro watersheds of Mungal subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Narayanpet-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (35.29%) were marginal, 8 (23.53%) were small, 7 (20.59 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 81 (62.31%) men and 49 (37.69 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.7, marginal farmers 4, small farmers were 3.1, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 7.  Majority of the respondents (32.31%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 48.46 per cent illiterates, 0.77 percent were functional literates, 53.08 per cent pre university education and 2.31 per cent attained graduation.  About, 67.65 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.65 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 55.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 70.59 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.18 per cent possess TV, 23.53 per cent possess mixer grinder, 88.24 per cent possess mobile phones and 26.47 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 29.41 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.76 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.76 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.63, women available in the micro watershed was 1.37, hired labour (men) available was 8.58 and hired labour (women) available was 10.65.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.73 per cent (39.98 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 4.25 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.49 per cent.  Out of the sample households 32.35 percent possessed bank account and 2.94 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 32.35 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households and 27.27 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Paddy was Rs.31255.33 , 37268.89, 36375.24, 22806.82 and 44325.40 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.50, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.10, 1: 1.40 and 1:2.10 respectively.  Further, 38.24 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.65 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 79470.59 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47705.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 20 horticulture trees and 45 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3338.24 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 11.76 per cent depends on own funds and 38.24 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 58.82 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 14.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 70.59 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (61.76%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 73.53 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.24 per cent of the households and 11.76 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 73.53 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 76.47 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (85.29%), pulses (88.24%) and oilseeds (32.35%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (79.41%) wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (61.76%), inadequacy of irrigation water (2.94%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (73.53%), high rate of interest on credit (47.06%), low price for the agricultural commodities (61.76%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.76%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (50.00%) and Less rainfall (11.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nagaraladoddi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 295 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area of 295 ha (100%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 56 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 34 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 5 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy (loamy sand) soils and 95 per cent clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils.  Entire area in the microwatershed is has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 1 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 59 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 40 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 70 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Available potassium is medium in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 65 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in 292 ha (99%) area and deficient (<0.2 ppm) in 2 ha (1%) area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 194(66) 87(29) Sapota - - Maize - 252(85) Guava - - Redgram - 194(66) Pomegranate - 194(66) Bajra 29(10) 252(85) Jackfruit - - Groundnut - 87(29) Jamun - 165(56) Sunflower 72(24) 122(42) Musambi 72(24) 122(42) Cotton 165(56) 116(39) Lime 72(24) 122(42) Bengal gram 194(66) 87(29) Cashew - - Chilli - 281(95) Custard apple 72(24) 209(71) Tomato - 159(53) Amla - 281(95) Drumstick - 194(66) Tamarind - 165(56) Mulberry - - Marigold - 281(95) Mango - - Chrysanthemum - 281(95)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. NGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Nagaraladoddi-2 is located at North latitude 160 33' 23.838" and 160 31' 6.086" and East longitude 770 25' 9.296'' and 770 24' 10.745" covering an area of about 294.61 ha coming under Duppalli village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Nagaraladoddi-2 micro watersheds of Ajalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Nagaraladoddi-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 9 (25.71%) were marginal, 9 (25.71%) were small, 11 (31.43 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 80 (53.69%) men and 69 (46.31 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.3, marginal farmers were 3.9, small farmers were 4.2, semi medium farmers were 4.7 and medium farmers were 4.7.  Majority of the respondents (46.31%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 46.31 per cent illiterates, 43.63 per cent pre university education and 4.03 per cent attained graduation.  About, 51.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 42.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 22.82 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 80.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 74.29 per cent possess TV, 48.57 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.35, women available in the micro watershed was 1.19, hired labour (men) available was 9.84 and hired labour (women) available was 14.9.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 85.73 per cent (57.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 11.44 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 4.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 11.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Paddy, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.43 percent possessed bank account and 74.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 74.29 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 11.11 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 188.89 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 83.33 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 16.67 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Paddy, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut was Rs.40477.88, 46971.35, 32690.13, 49477.76 and 66158.16 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 0.95, 1: 1.70, 1: 1.10 and 1:0.65 respectively.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 98685.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 70914.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 9 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 9171.43 for land development and Rs. 457.14 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned 62.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 45.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 51.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (91.43%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.71 per cent of the households and 25.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (91.43%) and oilseeds (34.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (80.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.14%), high rate of interest on credit (88.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.00%), inadequate extension services (60.00%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Dupalli-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 543 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 522 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 21 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 40 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 5 per cent sandy soils at the surface, 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 83 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Major area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed are moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 7 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 13 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 37 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 39 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the major area of the microwatershed is 16 dsm-1).  About 31 per cent of soils are low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 56 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 95 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed expect a small area of 2 ha where it is deficient.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 306(56) 187(34) Sapota - - Maize - 438(80) Guava - - Redgram - 307(56) Pomegranate - 307(56) Bajra 56(10) 436(80) Jackfruit - - Groundnut - 186(34) Jamun - 251(46) Sunflower 97(18) 210(38) Musambi 97(18) 210(38) Cotton 251(46) 243(44) Lime 97(18) 210(38) Bengal gram 306(56) 187(34) Cashew - - Chilli - 494(90) Custard apple 97(18) 396(72) Tomato - 284(52) Amla - 493(90) Drumstick - 307(56) Tamarind - 251(46) Mulberry - - Marigold - 494(90) Mango - 23(4) Chrysanthemum - 494(90)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Dupalli-3 is located at North latitude 160 33' 54.875" and 160 31' 5.924" and East longitude 770 24' 53.326'' and 770 23' 20.867" covering an area of about 542.57 ha coming unde Duppalli and Chandapura villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Dupalli-3 micro watersheds of Ajalapur sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Dupalli-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (35.29%) were marginal, 12 (35.29%) were small, 2 (5.88 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.88 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 90 (61.22%) men and 57 (38.78 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.3, small farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 3.5.  Majority of the respondents (31.29%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 25.85 per cent illiterates, 74.83 per cent pre university education and 4.76 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.35 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.65 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 52.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 70.59 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 55.88 per cent possess TV, 5.88 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.12 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.59 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 5.88 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.88 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.26, women available in the micro watershed was 1.00, hired labour (men) available was 5.44 and hired labour (women) available was 10.44.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 74.11 per cent (38.56 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 25.89 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.71 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Paddy and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.06 percent possessed bank account and 58.82 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 77.78 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 11.11 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Paddy and Cotton was Rs.28283.08, 22267.07, 22308.83, 52918.06 and 36889.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:3.10, 1: 2.50, 1: 2.10, 1: 1.70 and 1:1.60 respectively.  Further, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 122700.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62847.06 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 6 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1794.12 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.82 per cent depends on own funds and 2.94 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 70.59 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.76 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 26.47 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (61.76%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 67.65 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.29 per cent of the households and 14.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.18 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 52.94 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.88 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (73.53%), pulses (58.82%) and oilseeds (47.06%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (55.88%) wild animal menace on farm field (61.76%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (73.53%), inadequacy of irrigation water (61.76%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (73.53%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.35%), inadequate extension services (5.88%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (61.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bandehalli-4 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 463 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 381 ha (82%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 82 ha (18%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 7 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 to 150 cm), 28 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 47 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 8 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 16 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 58 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 79 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 3 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 79 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 17 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 19 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 12 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 34 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 35 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 80 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 71 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is deficient (0.2 ppm) in 82 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 34(7) 156(34) Sapota - - Maize - 190(41) Pomegranate - 162(35) Bajra - 190(41) Musambi 3(1) 158(35) Groundnut - 28(6) Lime 3(1) 158(35) Sunflower 16(3) 145(32) Amla - 190(41) Redgram - 162(35) Cashew - - Bengal gram 34(7) 156(34) Jackfruit - - Cotton 34(7) 156(34) Jamun - 34(7) Chilli - 190(41) Custard apple 145(31) 45(10) Tomato - 31(7) Tamarind - 34(7) Drumstick - 162(35) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 190(41) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 190(41)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Chapter 1 FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bandehalli-4 is located at North latitude 160 32' 33.352" and 160 33' 7.175" and East longitude 770 23' 44.758'' and 770 21' 56.32" covering an area of about 462.70 ha coming under Badepalli, Ajalapura and Duppalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 respondents, 5 (14.29%) were marginal, 15(42.86%) were small and 7 (20%) were semi medium, 4 (11.43%) were medium, 1(2.86%) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 97 (56.40%) men and 74 (43.02%) were women. Majority of the respondents (40.70%) were in the age group of 35-60 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 47.09 per cent illiterates, 0.58 per cent were functional literates and only 2.91 per cent attained graduation.  About, 40 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 37.14 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 25.58 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 88.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 60 per cent possess mixer grinder and 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough and only 8.57 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, women available in the micro watershed was 1.83, hired labour (men) available was 15.8 and hired labour (women) available was 13.94.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 2.91 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 570 kms for about 6 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (53.57 ha), 66.47 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 33.53 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5 bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy. Cropping intensity was recorded as 100.03 per cent. 2  The sample households possessed 91.43 per cent bank account and 40 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 40 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 114.29 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 42.86 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut and Paddy was Rs.22021.52, 29835.91, 33094.02 and 466526.88 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.70, 1: 1.50, 1: 1.10 and 1: 0.60 respectively.  Further, 20 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 87831.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 63088.57 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture crops coconut (6) and Mango (20) trees in the fields and forest species have grown 10 teak, 52 neem, 18 tamarind and 6 acacia trees in their field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10571.43 for land development, Rs.3600 for adoption of improved livestock breeds and Rs.114.29 for adoption of improved crop production activities.  Source of finance raised from bank as a loan for land development and improved crop production.  Own funds were the source for land development and improved crop production for 22.86 per cent and improved livestock management for 5.71 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 74.29 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 14.29 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 48.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (71.43 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.57 per cent of the households and 11.43 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 40 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Cereals (97.14 %), pulses (97.14 %), oilseeds (45.71 %) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (100%) wild animal menace on farm field (94.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (94.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (60%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (94.29%), high rate of interest on credit (94.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (94.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (91.43%), inadequate extension services (60%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (94.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Babulgaon-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 404 ha in Babulgaon-2 microwatershed in Humnabad taluk of Bidar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 811 mm, of which about 609 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 109 mm during north-east and the remaining 93 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and three per cent is covered by waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 34 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 2nd week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture.  About 87 per cent of the soils are moderately deep to deep and very deep (75- >150 cm) and 10 per cent are shallow (25-50 cm) soils.  An area of 75 per cent has clayey soils at the surface and 22 per cent soils are loamy at the surface.  About 80 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 17 per cent gravelly to very gravelly (15-60% gravel) soils.  About 18 per cent of the area are very high (>200mm/m), 32 per cent medium (100- 150 mm/m) and 47 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) to very low (0.75%) in organic carbon and 5 per cent medium (0.5-0.75%) in organic carbon.  Major area of 85 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in about 2 per cent area.  About 30 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm).  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) and 4 per cent is deficient in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 27 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 19 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71 (18) 185 (46) Sapota 23 (6) 212(53) Maize - 185 (46) Jackfruit 97 (24) 151 (38) Red gram - 256 (64) Jamun 97 (24) 222 (55) Sunflower 71 (18) 185 (46) Musambi 23 (6) 296 (74) Cotton 65 (16) 187 (46) Lime 23 (6) 296 (74) Sugarcane - 185 (46) Cashew 103 (25) 136 (34) Soybean 71 (18) 200(50) Custard apple 181 (45) 144 (36) Bengalgram 71 (18) 185 (46) Amla 178 (44) 147 (36) Guava 23 (6) 212(52) Tamarind 97(24) 89 (22) Mango - 100 (25) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges that would help in supplementing the income, provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass. This helps in maintaining an ecological balance and also helps in mitigating the climate change.Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed (Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk, Bidar district) is located in between 17040' – 17042' North latitudes and 77014' – 77016' East longitudes, covering an area of about 404 ha, bounded by Mustari, Udbal, Bannahalli and Bilkhera villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified for each watershed. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Babulgaon-2 micro-watershed in Raipalli sub-watershed, Humnabad taluk and Bidar district are presented here. Social Indicators;  Male and female ratio is 68.1 to 31.9 per cent to the total sample population.  Younger age group of 18 to 30 populations is around 57.5 per cent to the total population.  Literacy population is around 85.1 per cent.  Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 50 per cent.  Fire wood and liquefied petroleum gas is the source of energy for a cooking among 70 per cent.  About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card.  About 30 percent of farm households are having MGNREGA card for rural employment.  Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system are among all households.  Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities, among all these study area household are not having toilet facilities.  Women participation in decisions making are around 90 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators;  The average land holding is 0.63 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small farmers. The total cultivated area by dry land condition of among all sample households. 2  Agriculture is the main occupation among 19.1per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 42.6 per cent of sample households.  The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20229 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication.  The average value of livestock is around Rs.42667 per household; about 66.9 per cent of household are having livestock.  The average per capita food consumption is around 827grams (1879 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 82.9 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation.  The annual average income is around Rs.31803 per household. Among all farm households are comes under the below poverty line.  The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs. 2039. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services;  The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use.  The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 1406 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 548361 per year for the total area of 403 ha.  The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 22424/ ha/year. Per hector food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs. 35746) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 26202) and maize (Rs. 5324).  The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in sugarcane (Rs. 146532) followed by redgram (Rs.63166) and maize (Rs. 25152). Economic Land Evaluation;  The major cropping pattern is maize (17.3 %) followed by redgram (53.8%) sugarcane (25.5 %).  In Babulgaon-2 micro watershed, major soils of Babulgoan (BGN) series are having very soil depth cover around 17.7 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing redgram. Mudhanal (MNL) are also having deep soil depth cover around 3.7 % of area, major crops are redgram. Muthangi (MTN) soil series having moderately soil depth cover around 19.7 % of areas, crops are sugarcane. Mustarwadi (MWD) and soil series having very deep soil depth cover 24.7 % of areas crops are maize (29 %) and redgram (71%). 3  The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs. 66484/ha in MNL soil (with of BCR of 0.83) and Rs. 41914/ha in MWD soil (with of BCR 1.15).  In sugarcane the cost of cultivation in MTN soil is Rs. 123820/ha (with of BCR 1.21).  In maize the cost of cultivation Rs. 23492/ha in MWD soil (with BCR of 1.23)  The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM.  It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions;  Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation.  The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices.  Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments.  By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households.  By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (2.7 to 48%) followed by sugarcane (10.7%) and maize (75.2%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kadechoora microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 536 ha in Kadechoora microwatershed in Yadgir taluk of Yadgir district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 71 per cent is covered by soils, 29 per cent by water bodies, settlements and mining and industrial areas. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 71 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 29 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, mining, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 3 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm), about 59 per cent deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 9 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm) soils.  About 62 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 8 per cent loamy soils and one per cent sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area has non-gravelly soils.  About 59 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, less than one per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 12 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 29 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 7 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 64 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about one per cent area.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 22 per cent.  About 29 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 69 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kadechoora microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 378 (70) Sapota - - Maize - 44 (8) Guava - - Red gram - 333 (62) Pomegranate - 333 (62) Bajra - 377 (70) Jackfruit - - Ground nut - 22 (4) Jamun - 331 (62) Sunflower - 334 (62) Musambi - 333 (62) Cotton - 377 (70) Lime - 333 (62) Bengalgram 16 (3) 362 (67) Cashew - - Chilli - 377 (70) Custard apple - 378 (70) Tomato - 44 (8) Amla - 377 (70) Drumstick - 333 (62) Tamarind - 333 (62) Mulberry - - Marigold - 377 (70) Mango - - Chrysanthemum - 377 (70) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the microwatershed FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kadechur is located at North latitude 160 32' 18.441" and 160 31' 7.07" and East longitude 770 20' 40.809'' and 770 18' 25.451" covering an area of about 536.24 ha coming unde Kadechoora and Sowrashtralli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kadechur micro watersheds of Kadechur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 39 farmers were sampled in Kadechur micro-watershed among households surveyed 7 (17.95%) were marginal, 20 (51.28%) were small, 4 (10.26 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.13 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 109 (57.07%) men and 82 (42.93 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.5, marginal farmers were 4.9, small farmers were 5.4, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 6.5.  Majority of the respondents (47.12%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.74 per cent illiterates, 41.88 per cent pre university education and 6.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 69.23 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.95 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 45.03 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 74.36 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.95 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 84.62 per cent possess TV, 15.38 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 15.38 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.51 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.13 per cent possess tractor, 20.51 per cent possess bullock cart and 7.69 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.13 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 13.03, women available in the micro watershed was 1.51, hired labour (men) available was 1.80 and hired labour (women) available was 8.80.  Further, 5.13 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.14 per cent (52.64 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 9.86 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 7.69 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 5.13 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 56.41 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 20.83 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 41.67 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (86.67%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 75.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton and Jowar was Rs.31283.52, 33327.81, 36058.22 and 25644.97 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.42, 1: 3.50, 1: 1.40 and1: 0.56 respectively.  Further, 17.95 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 131225.64 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 88994.87 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 15 horticulture trees and 21 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 2.56 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3482.05 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 38.46 per cent depends on own funds and 5.13 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 35.90 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 38.46 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 66.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (79.49%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.05 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 89.74 per cent of the households and 12.82 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.44 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 38.46 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.44 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.56 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (64.10%), pulses (69.23%) and oilseeds (38.46%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (79.49%) wild animal menace on farm field (79.49%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (43.59%), inadequacy of irrigation water (69.23%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.05%), high rate of interest on credit (82.05%), low price for the agricultural commodities (76.92%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (53.85%), inadequate extension services (28.21%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (71.79%) and Less rainfall (5.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bhimanahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 642 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 592 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 50 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 87 per cent soils in the microwatershed are very deep (>150 cm) and 5 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 86 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 5 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m).  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 5 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 84 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) and about 4 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 - 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the entire soils in the microwatershed are non saline (0.75).  About 32 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 39 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 21 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha).  Less than 1 per cent area is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 92 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 7 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 71 per cent area and deficient in 21 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 561(87) 31(5) Sapota - - Maize - 592(92) Pomegranate - 561(87) Bajra - 592(92) Musambi 451(70) 110(17) Groundnut - 31(5) Lime 451(70) 110(17) Sunflower 451(70) 110(17) Amla 110(17) 482(75) Redgram - 561(87) Cashew - - Bengal gram 561(87) 31(5) Jackfruit - - Cotton 561(87) 31(5) Jamun - 561(87) Chilli - 592 (92) Custard apple 561(87) 31(5) Tomato - 482(75) Tamarind - 561(87) Drumstick - 561(87) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 592(92) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 592(92)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bhimanahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 32' 4.587" and 160 30' 8.645" and East longitude 770 13' 4.587'' and 770 11' 53.709" covering an area of about 641.91 ha coming unde Bheemanahalli, Belagundi and Gondedagi Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bhimanahalli-2 micro watersheds of Belagunda subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Bhimanahalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 8 (22.86%) were small, 9 (25.71 %) were semi medium, 3 (8.57 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 87 (50.88%) men and 84 (49.12 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.3, marginal farmers were 4.6, small farmers 5, semi medium farmers were 4.8, medium farmers were 5.7 and large farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (43.27%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 32.16 per cent illiterates, 69.00 per cent pre university education and 3.51 per cent attained graduation.  About, 60.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 40.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 34.50 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 51.43 per cent possess TV, 5.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.4, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 9.29 and hired labour (women) available was 17.86.  In the study area, about 0.58 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 60.00 kms for about 5.00 months. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 52.06 per cent (47.64 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 47.94 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 10.00 live bore wells and 10.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 28.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Cotton, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 77.14 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 97.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 76.47 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 5.88 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (94.12%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 52.94 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy, Cotton and Jowar was Rs.36691.84 , 33964.25 and 21455.24 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.3, 1: 1.6 and 1:1.7 respectively.  Further, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 93602.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62488.57 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 6 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 42.86 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4800.00 for land development and Rs. 5942.86 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 20.00 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 5.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 85.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 17.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 80.00 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (42.86%), pulses (31.43%) and oilseeds (17.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (45.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (40.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.86%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sidganhalli-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 411 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soil and 5 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 5 per cent sandy (loamy sand), 77 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 13 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 51 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 16 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 79 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 17 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 78 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 18 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 41 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 34 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 1 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%) in 82 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 42 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 52 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 57 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 37 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 62 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 33 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 45 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (>0.6 ppm) in 54 per cent and sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in 40 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 188(46) 159(39) Sapota 194(47) 150(37) Maize 4(1) 343(84) Pomegranate 194(47) 150(37) Bajra 188(46) 199(49) Musambi 194(47) 150(37) Groundnut - 197(48) Lime 194(47) 150(37) Sunflower 188(46) 154(37) Amla 194(47) 193(47) Redgram 188(46) 154(37) Cashew 194(47) 150(37) Bengal gram - - Jackfruit 194(47) 150(37) Cotton - 345(84) Jamun 191(46) 104(25) Chilli 188(46) 159(39) Custard apple 194(47) 193(47) Tomato 188(46) 159(39) Tamarind 191(46) 104(25) Brinjal 188(46) 159(39) Mulberry 127(31) 217(54) Onion 4(1) 343(84) Marigold 188(46) 159(39) Bhendi 188(46) 159(39) Chrysanthemum 188(46) 159(39) Drumstick 188(46) 156(38) Jasmine 188(46) 159(39) Mango 191(46) 104(25) Crossandra 188(46) 159(39) Guava 194(47) 150(37)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soil s like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Sidganhalli-3 is located at North latitude 150 32' 14.146" and 150 30' 35.926" and East longitude 760 13' 23.554'' and 760 12' 10.415" covering an area of about 478.72 ha coming under Kudrimutti and Watparwi Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Sidganhalli-3 micro watersheds of Irakallaguda subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 10 (28.57 %) were marginal, 11 (31.43%)were small, 6 (17.14 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 101 (56.11%) men and 79 (43.89 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (39.44%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 38.33 per cent illiterates, 62.22 per cent pre university education and 2.22 per cent attained graduation.  About, 40.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 40.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 25.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 48.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 60.00 per cent possess TV, 14.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 77.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 65.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 25.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 25.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 17.14 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.47, women available in the micro watershed was 3.67, hired labour (men) available was 20.03 and hired labour (women) available was 20.27.  Further, 100 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was adequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.98 per cent (49.09 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.02 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 10.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Groundnut, Sunflower, Red gram and Cowpea and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.82 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account.  About 60.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 19.05 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 80.95 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (95.24%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 61.90 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 4.76 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Groundnut, Sunflower, Red gram and Cowpea was Rs.45181.43, 54718.37, 51690.75, 61610.02 and 40909.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.80, 1: 1.60, 1: 0.56, 1: 1.03 and 1:2.40 respectively.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.29 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 89885.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 71714.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 15 horticulture trees and 25 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 628.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 25.71 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 117.14 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 117.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 57.14 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 65.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (5.71%) and pulses (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (48.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (54.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (88.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services (85.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramatirth Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 689 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 56 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 33 per cent by rock outcrops and 11 per cent by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 4 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 10 per cent are loamy soils and 42 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 48 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 54 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope) soils.  An area of about 48 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 8 per cent is severely eroded (e3) soils in the microwatershed.  An area of 8 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 17 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 31 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) soil reaction  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 24 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and about 32 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 10 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and about 45 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 34 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 41(6) 74(11) Guava - 45(6) Maize 41(6) 74(11) Sapota - 45(6) Bajra 45(6) 70(11) Pomegranate - 63(9) Groundnut 4(1) 87(12) Musambi - 63(9) Sunflower - 63(9) Lime - 63(9) Redgram - 69(10) Amla 45(6) 59(9) Bengal gram 13(2) 5(1) Cashew - 4(1) Cotton - 59(9) Jackfruit - 45(6) Chilli 41(6) 68(10) Jamun - - Tomato 41(6) 50(7) Custard apple 4(1) 104(15) Brinjal 41(6) 50(7) Tamarind - - Onion 41(6) 50(7) Mulberry - 45(6) Bhendi 41(6) 68(10) Marigold 41(6) 68(10) Drumstick - 58(8) Chrysanthemum 41(6) 68(10) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 7 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ramatirth is located at North latitude 160 59' 26.672" and 160 57' 19.615" and East longitude 770 11' 39.441'' and 770 8' 32.977" covering an area of about 685.96 ha coming under Ramathirtha and Allura .B villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ramatirth micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 33 farmers were sampled in Ramatirth micro-watershed among households surveyed 13 (39.39%) were marginal, 11 (33.33%) were small and 4 (12.12 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 79 (53.02%) men and 70 (46.98 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.4, marginal farmers were 4.8, small farmers were 4.7 and semi medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (42.95%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 43.62 per cent illiterates, 44.97 per cent pre university education and 7.38 per cent attained graduation.  About, 30.30 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 42.42 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 20.81 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 93.94 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 9.09 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 93.94 per cent possess TV, 30.30 per cent possess mixer grinder, 109.09 per cent possess mobile phones and 12.12 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 21.21 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 33.33 per cent possess plough, 36.36 per cent possess Weeder and 12.12 per cent possess Thresher.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 6.06 per cent possess local cow and 3.03 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.43, hired labour (men) available was 8.89 and hired labour (women) available was 14.56.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 94.06 per cent (31.73 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 5.56 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 3.03 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 90.91 percent possessed bank account and 42.42 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 27.27 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100.00 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Jowar and Green gram was Rs.30724.65 , 41187.76 and 58993.49, with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.10, 1: 0.80 and 1: 1.30 respectively.  Further, 27.27 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 69121.21 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 34575.76 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 79 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 6.06 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2242.42 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 39.39 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 36.36 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 48.48 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 81.82 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (81.82%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 84.85 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 84.85 per cent of the households and 30.30 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 57.58 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (69.70%), pulses (63.64%) and oilseeds (36.36%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (81.82 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (81.82%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (42.42%), inadequacy of irrigation water (60.61%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (81.82%), high rate of interest on credit (81.82%), low price for the agricultural commodities (75.76 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (57.58%), inadequate extension services (60.61 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (75.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chandaraki-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 608 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 505 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 1 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 101 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 505 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 150 cm).  About 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 13 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m), 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 35 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil, 38 per cent of area is low (57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 45 per cent of area and high (>337 kg/ha) in 38 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in an area of 18 per cent and medium (0.5-0.1 ppm) in an area of 65 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 61 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 135 (22) 94 (15) Guava - 77 (13) Maize 77 (13) 151 (25) Sapota - 77 (13) Bajra 77 (13) 151 (25) Pomegranate - 221 (36) Groundnut 74 (12) 10 (2) Musambi 131 (22) 90 (15) Sunflower 131 (22) 90 (15) Lime 131 (22) 90 (15) Redgram - 221 (36) Amla 77 (13) 138 (23) Bengal gram 131 (22) 13 (2) Cashew - - Cotton 131 (22) 16 (3) Jackfruit - 77 (13) Chilli 77 (13) 151 (25) Jamun - 131 (22) Tomato 77 (13) 7 (1) Custard apple 205 (34) 23 (4) Brinjal 77 (13) 7 (1) Tamarind - 131 (22) Onion 77 (13) 7 (1) Mulberry - 77 (13) Bhendi 77 (13) 151 (25) Marigold 77 (13) 151 (25) Drumstick - 208 (34) Chrysanthemum 77 (13) 151 (25) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Chandaraki-1 is located at North latitude 160 52' 29.368" and 160 50' 46.558" and East longitude 770 27' 47.027'' and 770 26' 17.986" covering an area of about 603.07 ha coming under Chandraki and Madhepalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Chandaraki-1 micro watersheds of Chandaraki subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Chandaraki-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (38.89%) were marginal, 7 (19.44%) were small, 10 (27.78 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.33 %) were medium large farmers. 2 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (55.97%) men and 70 (44.03 %) were women. The average population of landless was 2.5, marginal farmers were 4.6, small farmers were 4.3, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (38.36%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.65 per cent of illiterates, 17.61 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.84 per cent high school education, 8.18 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.63 per cent of them had Diploma, 9.43 per cent attained graduation and 3.14 them had other education.  About, 80.56 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 80.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 72.22 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.33 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 72.22 per cent possess TV, 80.56 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 30.56 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 36.11 per cent possess plough and 77.78 per cent possess Weeder, 8.33 per cent possess tractor, 5.56 per cent possess Harvester and 36.11 per cent possess Thresher.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.78 per cent possess local cow and 5.56 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 14.06 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.22. 2  Further, 5.56 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 0.63 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 850.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 94.31 per cent (59.84 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 4.24 per cent area is irrigated land.  Open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.56 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.44 percent possessed bank account.  About 94.44 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 13.64 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 86.36 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (95.45%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.48868.88, 44389.25, 18089.82, 26988.16 and 23946.94 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 1.00, 1: 3.80, 1: 0.50 and 1:0.70 respectively.  Further, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.33 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 76055.56 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 41027.78 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 100 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 12361.11 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 88.89 per cent depends on own funds and 2.78 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 116.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 116.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (88.89%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.44 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.89 per cent of the households and 11.11 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 30.56 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (86.11%), pulses (83.33%) and oilseeds (5.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.67%) wild animal menace on farm field (55.56%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.56%), inadequacy of irrigation water (72.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (63.89%), high rate of interest on credit (66.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (69.44%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (52.78%), inadequate extension services (41.67%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (36.11%), Less rainfall (2.78%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 789 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 77 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 23 per cent by rock outcrops, others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 9 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 4 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 12 per cent are loamy soils and 61 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 48 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of 77 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands soils.  An area of about 4 per cent is slightly (e1) eroded, 72 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 1 per cent is severely eroded (e3) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 39 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 35 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 4 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 21 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and about 56 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 43 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and about 35 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 74 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 20 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1 (<1) 211 (27) Guava - 67 (8) Maize 59 (8) 152 (19) Sapota - 67 (8) Bajra 59 (8) 152 (19) Pomegranate - 111 (14) Groundnut 59 (8) 65 (8) Musambi - 111 (14) Sunflower - 112 (14) Lime - 111 (14) Redgram - 141 (18) Amla 59 (7) 79 (10) Bengal gram - 44 (6) Cashew - - Cotton - 67 (9) Jackfruit - 67 (8) Chilli 59 (7) 123 (15) Jamun - - Tomato 59 (7) 79 (10) Custard apple 59 (7) 123 (15) Brinjal 59 (7) 79 (10) Tamarind - - Onion 59 (7) 79 (10) Mulberry - 67 (8) Bhendi 59 (7) 123 (15) Marigold 59 (7) 123 (15) Drumstick - 67 (8) Chrysanthemum 59 (7) 123 (15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 9 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir-3 is located at North latitude 160 59' 12.832" and 160 57' 2.636" and East longitude 770 12' 16.869'' and 770 9' 22.368" covering an area of about 790.04 ha coming under Ramathirtha, Alur. B and Bheemanahalli Villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir-3 micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 13 (37.14%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 94 (58.39%) men and 66 (40.99 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 3.4, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (43.48%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 47.83 per cent illiterates, 0.62 percent were functional literates, 48.45 per cent pre university education and 4.35 per cent attained graduation.  About, 65.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 42.24 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 65.71 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.14 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 25.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 8.03 and hired labour (women) available was 7.43  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 1.86 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2040.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (48.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.13 per cent.  Out of the sample households 82.86 percent possessed bank account and 40.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 45.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 6.25 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 43.75 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 12.50 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Jowar was Rs.19867.45 and 17752.28 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30 and 1: 2.00 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 57361.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 36361.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 12 horticulture trees and 66 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1800.00 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 45.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 28.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 45.71 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (48.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (88.57 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (88.57 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Samanapur-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 594 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 198 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 281 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 115 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 450 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 2 per cent of area is very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 17 per cent loamy soils and 14 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 26 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in the microwatershed.  About 24 per cent of area is under very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 9 per cent area is nearly level (0-1%) lands.  An area of about 24 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 9 per cent area is slightly eroded (e1) soils.  Entire area of the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 30 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil, 57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 26 per cent of area and high (>337 kg/ha) in 7 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 17 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 15 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 14 (2) 121 (20) Guava - 23 (4) Maize 21 (4) 112 (19) Sapota - 23 (4) Bajra 21 (4) 112 (19) Pomegranate - 23 (4) Groundnut 9 (2) 14 (2) Musambi - 23 (4) Sunflower - 23 (4) Lime - 23 (4) Redgram - 135 (23) Amla 23 (4) - Bengal gram - - Cashew - 9 (2) Cotton - 14 (2) Jackfruit - 23 (4) Chilli 21 (4) - Jamun - 23 (4) Tomato 21 (4) - Custard apple 9 (2) 14 (2) Brinjal 21 (4) - Tamarind - - Onion 23 (4) - Mulberry - 23 (4) Bhendi 21 (4) - Marigold 23 (4) - Drumstick - 23 (4) Chrysanthemum 23 (4) - Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Somanapur-1 is located at North latitude 160 53' 45.837" and 160 52' 10.568" and East longitude 770 9' 53.37'' and 770 7' 48.858" covering an area of about 593.72 ha coming under Samanapura, Hatthakuni and Yakkihalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 respondents, - 17 (47.22%) were marginal, 8(22.22%) were small and 2 (5.56%) were semi medium and 6 (16.67%) were medium.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 111 (59.04%) men and 77 (40.96%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (37.77%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 43.62 per cent illiterates, 1.60 per cent attained graduation.  About, 61.11 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 38.89 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 31.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 58.33 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.56 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 58.33 per cent possess TV, 52.78 per cent possess mixer grinder and 91.67 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 41.67 per cent of the households possess plough and only 2.78 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 19.44 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.47, women available in the micro watershed was 1.36, hired labour (men) available was 6.19 and hired labour (women) available was 10.78.  Further, 83.33 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 16.67 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 5.85 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1135.71 kms for about 4.14 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (55.89 ha), 83.95 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 16.05 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 8 bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 22.22 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Horse gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.92 per cent.  The sample households possessed 88.89 per cent bank account and 30.56 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 75 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 55.56 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 33.33 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Horse gram was Rs.31814.64, 51835.16, 64185.51, 74934.73, and 22243.98 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1, 1: 0.90, 1: 0.70, 1: 0.30, and 1:0.90 respectively.  Further, 55.56 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 16.67 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 60138.89 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 43444.44 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown coconut (3) and Mango (1) in the fields and forest species have grown 3 teak, 48 neem, 4 tamarind, 1 banyan trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6944.44 for land development, Rs. 444.44 for creation of irrigation facility, Rs.7055.56 for adoption of improved livestock breeds, Rs.1638.89 for adoption of improved crop production activities and Rs. 138.89 for investment for orchard development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned the sources of finance raised from government sources for improved crop production was 2.78 per cent. Loan from bank for 13.89 per cent for land development, 5.56 per cent for irrigation facility and 25 per cent per cent for improved crop production. Own funds for 63.89 per cent for land development, 2.78 per cent for irrigation facility and 44.44 per cent for improved crop production.  Regarding marketing channels, 33.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 75 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 47.22 per cent of the households have used tractor and 61.11 per cent have used cart for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (88.89%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.33 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 86.11 per cent of the households and 13.89 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 72.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 52.78 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Cereals (102.78%), pulses (88.89%), oilseeds (61.11%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (102.78%) wild animal menace on farm field (80.56%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (72.22%), inadequacy of irrigation water (30.56%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (66.67%), high rate of interest on credit (66.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (75%), inadequate extension services (58.33%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.22%), Less rainfall (8.33%) and Source of Agritechnology information (Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (5.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project