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Politics is an essential part of people's life. It influences every aspect of nowadays society. Economics and culture, social life and personal problems of each human, education and healthcare, everything depends on the current politics established in the country.

This article assesses the role of geographical and social factors that influenced the toponyms currently officially fixed on the maps of Australia and Oceania. It is noted that the fundamental reason for naming the toponyms of Australia and Oceania is the desire of speakers of different languages to leave a memory of themselves on geographical maps. The names of the largest number of Australian place names were given by the first settlers — navigators and discoverers. A significant number of them are English geographical names. Among the least common extralinguistic factors influencing the formation of toponyms, the names of vital objects by natives stand out. The instability of such toponyms in the language is noted. Such toponyms are mostly descriptive. Due to the wide field for research activities, a unified universal classification of toponyms has not yet been developed. The article analyzes the classifications of toponyms existing in linguistics and proposes its own classification of toponyms based on practical material from the geographical names of Australia and Oceania. The main criteria for highlighting the structural elements of the classification is the presence or absence of word-formation elements, many of which are typical for the sphere of toponymy. A large group is formed by phrases, which the authors of the article subdivide depending on the number of components. Particular attention is paid to the use of the article as part of the toponym, as well as graphic signs. The classification presented by the authors of the article also makes it possible to judge that the toponyms of Australia and Oceania are part of the lexical system of the general literary language.

In Australia, the federal government is in charge of providing the health care to patients. The government agencies determine the list of reimbursable pharmaceuticals and medical services and also define the preferential categories of the population. The states and territories may have their own health care programs in addition to the federal ones. The Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee (PBAC) is responsible for the health technology assessment (HTA) and decides which technology is eligible for reimbursement by the federal budget. The drug evaluation process includes five stages: a review of general information about the product, assessment of its clinical efficacy, cost-effectiveness analysis, assessment of financial implications of including the drug in the reimbursement list, and consideration of any other factors that may influence the committee decision. In addition to the full reimbursement of pharmaceuticals, the committee may decide to provide funding based on a managed entry agreement. ; Главные направления деятельности системы здравоохранения Австралии координируются федеральным правительством, которое определяет перечни возмещаемых препаратов и медицинских услуг, а также устанавливает льготные категории населения. Штаты и территории могут иметь собственные медицинские программы в дополнение к федеральным. Консультативный Комитет по фармацевтическим льготам (англ. – Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee, PBAC), отвечающий за оценку технологий здравоохранения (ОТЗ), принимает решение о целесообразности государственного возмещения препарата. Рекомендации PBAC играют решающую роль при принятии министром здравоохранения решения о возмещении. Процесс оценки лекарственных препаратов состоит из пяти этапов: обзор общих сведений о препарате, оценка клинической эффективности, оценка экономической эффективности, оценка финансовых последствий включения препарата в возмещаемые списки и обзор дополнительных факторов, которые могут повлиять на решения комитета. Помимо полного возмещения стоимости применения препарата для популяции пациентов Австралии, комитет может вынести решение о предоставлении финансирования на основе соглашений об организации доступа пациентов к ЛП.

The paper presents a comparative analysis of the political and economic situation that existed in the Asia and the Pacific region (APR). The author shows that the «new» policy of Washingt reproduces the former with small changes. The concept of relations between the United States and their partners and its impact on the position of Australia, as an ally of the United States, and on the APR as a whole, are studied. ; В работе представлен сравнительный анализ политической и экономической ситуации, существовавшей в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе (ATP). Автор показывает, что «новая» политика Вашингтона воспроизводит прежнюю с небольшими изменениями. Исследуются концепция взаимоотношений США с партнерами и ее влияние на положение Австралии, как союзника США, и на АТР в целом.

The article notes that the main acts of the Australian Parliament governing the statutory depository institutions (including Australian banks, Australian offices and branches of foreign banks, construction societies, credit unions, specialized lending institutions and providers of purchased payment means) are: 1) banking activities in 1959; 2) The Reserve Bank Law (RBA) of 1959; 3) The Financial Sector Act (shareholding) of 1998; 4) The Corporations Act of 2001; 5) The Financial Sector Act (data collection), 2001. The regulation of the financial system in Australia is based on the structure of the "twin peaks", when the financial system is regulated not by one but by two financial regulators - the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) and the Australian Securities Commission and investments (ASIC). Large banks own approximately three-fourths of the total assets owned by "authorized depository institutions" (ADI) in Australia. ADI have assets of $ 4.6 trillion, which is about two and a half times that of the Australian economy at $ 1.8 trillion. The main types of ADI are: a) banks; b) building societies; c) credit unions; d) other financial institutions (ADI, which do not fall under any of the previous categories). ; В статье отмечается, что основными актами австралийского парламента, регулирующими уставные депозитные учреждения (ADI) (включая австралийские банки, австралийские представительства и филиалы иностранных банков, строительные общества, кредитные союзы, специализированные кредитные учреждения и провайдеры приобретаемых платежных средств) являются: 1) Закон о банковской деятельности 1959 г.; 2) Закон о Резервном Банке (RBA) 1959 г.; 3) Закон 1998 г. о финансовом секторе (доли участия); 4) Закон о корпорациях 2001 г.; 5) Закон о финансовом секторе (сбор данных) 2001 г. Регулирование финансовой системы Австралии создано по структуре «twin peaks», когда финансовая система регулируется не одним, а двумя финансовыми регуляторами - Австралийским управлением пруденциального регулирования (APRA) и Австралийской комиссией по ценным бумагам и инвестициям (ASIC). Крупные банки владеют приблизительно тремя четвертями от общего объема активов, принадлежащих «уполномоченным учреждениям по вложению депозитов» (ADI) в Австралии. ADI имеют активы в размере $ 4,6 трлн., что примерно в два с половиной раза превышает Австралийскую экономику ($ 1,8 трлн). Основными типами ADI являются: а) банки; б) строительные общества; в) кредитные союзы; г) другие финансовые учреждения (ADI, которые не подпадают под любую из предыдущих категорий)[1].

The European vector has always been one of the most important guidelines of the Commonwealth of Australia's international relations in the modern era. The article deals with the dynamics of the evolution of bilateral relations between Australia and the European Communities as well as Australia and certain European states and the factors that contributed to the transformation of the nature of these connections. Specific aspects of the bilateral cooperation are analysed. ; Европейский вектор остаётся одним из важнейших направлений международных отношений Австралийского Союза в современности. В статье рассматривается динамика развития двусторонних отношений между Австралией и Европейскими Сообществами, а также Австралией и отдельными европейскими государствами; факторы, повлиявшие на трансформацию характера связей. Анализируются и конкретные аспекты билатерального сотрудничества.

Toponyms are a complex system, the semantic and structural features of which reflect the cultural and historical peculiarities of the nation. The toponyms of Norfolk Island stand out from other toponyms of the English language due to the isolated geographical location of the island and its violent history. This article discusses in detail the extralinguistic factors that determine the semantic features of geographical names of Norfolk Island. The historical factors that influenced the creation of a significant number of place names include the fact that the settlement of Norfolk Island was founded as a British penal colony. Other factors include political and economic dependence on the UK, and later on Australia. It is noted that the most important among such factors is the motivation of the residents who inhabited Norfolk Island after its discovery by Captain J. Cook. The historical factors we are considering influence the formation of certain connotations of the toponyms of Norfolk Island and Australia. The article proposes a structural and semantic classification of toponyms of Australia and Oceania. The criteria that served as the basis for describing the classification include the presence of positive or negative stylistic coloring. It is noted that some names change their stylistic coloring. This phenomenon is an example of historical rehabilitation. Among the most common anthropogenic factors affecting the structure of toponyms, we have identified the influence of historical figures on the development of the island and the difficult living conditions of the first settlers. Such factors determine the choice of a toponym and are reflected in the presence or absence of its stylistic coloring.

The subject. This article discusses the taxation of copper and nickel extraction in Australia, Canada, Chile, Kazakhstan and USAThe purpose of the article is to confirm or disprove the hypothesis that the experience of taxation of copper and nickel extraction in Australia, Canada, Chile, Kazakhstan and USA may be used for modifying the mineral extraction tax (MET) in Russia in order to increase the share of resource rent collected by the government.The methodology of research includes legal interpretation and economic analysis of the tax legislation in United States, Canada, Australia, Chile and Kazakhstan as countries with a well-developed tax system and a significant size of the mining sector in overall GDP.The authors select the legislative acts of these countries and regions that determine the procedure for collecting taxes in the extraction of metal ores, including those containing copper and nickel, as well as in the production of copper and nickel. The selected legislative acts are analyzed to determine the essential parameters of taxation. Particular attention is paid to the method of calculating the tax base, taking into account the approach to assessing the value of the taxable object, permissible tax deductions and exceptions, which allows authors to test the hypothesis put forward by determining which part of the value of a mineral resource is withdrawn during taxation.The main results, scope of application. Mineral extraction tax is the main tool for collecting natural resource rent in Russia. However, the level of taxation of solid minerals and coal is disproportionately low compared to their share in the production and export of raw materials. Thus, in 2018, the amount of MET on all minerals totaled 100.5 billion rubles, while the MET collected from oil and natural gas amounted to 5,979.6 billion rubles, i.e. 60 times as much. At the same time, the role of solid minerals in the Russian economy is comparable to the role of oil and gas. The share of the main types of minerals in the exports of the Russian Federation in 2018 was 20.4% compared to 56% for oil and gas, i.e. the difference of less than three times. The contribution of the industries related to the extraction of minerals and production of metals (mining of coal, ores, diamonds, metallurgy, fertilizer production) to the Russian GDP is about half as much as that of industries involved in the extraction and processing of oil and natural gas (7% and 14% of GDP respectively).In view of the above, it is important to develop a new approach to the taxation of solid minerals in Russia based on the world's best practices. In order to identify the general principles of their taxation, we have conducted a detailed analysis of the tax legislation in a number of countries with a well-developed tax system and a significant size of the mining sector (the United States, Canada, Australia, Chile and Kazakhstan). We focused on the taxation of copper and nickel ores mining.Conclusions. The analysis of the international experience of taxation of copper and nickel mining sector reveals the following trend: the tax is calculated based on the market value of the extracted minerals, which is linked to the price quotes for the relevant product on an organized metal exchange (for example, the price of pure metal on the London Metal Exchange). This approach can be used in the Russian tax practice in several ways. First, Russia can adopt the Australian model where royalty on a mineral resource can be levied at the time of sale of the useful component irrespective of the processing stage (ore, concentrate or metal). The second potential model is based on the actual sale price of the product (provided it is sold in an arm's length transaction) after deducting the costs of processing (i.e., smelting, enrichment etc., depending on the stage of processing) to arrive at the market value of the ore at the "mine mouth". The third is the Canadian model which is similar to the second one, but with the extraction costs also deducted from the sale price. ; Налог на доход от добычи полезных ископаемых (НДПИ) является главным способом изъятия природной ренты в России. Однако этот налог в основном ложится на нефтегазовую отрасль, в то время как уровень налогообложения руд цветных металлов (в частности, многокомпонентных комплексных руд, содержащих медь и никель) очень низок и не соответствует их доли в производстве и экспорте сырья. Ввиду этого становится актуальной задача поиска новых подходов к налогообложению медеи никельсодержащих руд исходя из принципов, принятых в мировой практике. В работе детально исследовано налоговое законодательство в отношении добычи и производства меди и никеля в странах с развитой налоговой системой на примере Австралии, Канады, США, Чили и Казахстана. На основе проведенного анализа сформулированы подходы к совершенствованию НДПИ в отношении руд цветных металлов и многокомпонентных комплексных руд, предполагающие связать размер налога с рыночной стоимостью добытых полезных ископаемых.

Раздел "Международные отношения" ; В статье рассматриваются основные факторы и особенности внешней политики Австралии по отношению к Китаю как к восходящей глобальной державе. Проанализированы поведение и внешнеполитические приоритеты Австралии с учетом специфики Азиатско-Тихоокеанского региона. Благодаря анализу позиций ряда правительств и наиболее важных стратегических документов, был определен характер отношений между Австралией и Китаем, а также обозначены дальнейшие действия и перспективы Австралии в роли государства «средней силы». В статье отмечается, что, несмотря на рост потенциала Китая в регионе и экономические выгоды от сотрудничества, Австралия продолжает поддерживать свои традиционные отношения с США в сфере безопасности и защиты прав человека.= The paper covers the major factors and characteristics of Australia's foreign policy towards China as a rising global power. It provides an analysis of the behavior and foreign policy priorities of Australia with a special regard to the Asia-Pacific region's peculiarities. Meticulous scrutiny of the position adhered to by a number of governments as well as core strategic documents revealed the nature of relations between Australia and China and specified further actions and prospects of Australia as a medium-power state. It is noted that regardless of China's rising power in the region and obvious economic benefits, Australia continues to maintain its traditional relations with the United States in the field of security and human rights protection.

Review of the USA, Argentina, Australia, Japan, and European Union registries is presented. The similarities and differences between the registries in terms of populations of rheumatoid arthritis patients and the target goals are studied ; Представлен обзор регистров США, Аргентины, Австралии, Японии, стран Европейского Союза, рассмотрены сходство и различия регистров по популяциям пациентов с ревматоидным артритом и поставленным целям.

In the article, the auther reveals the concept and legal bases of rationing of land use and gives the short characteristic of rationing of land use in the Republic of Uzbekistan. Law-enforcement practices of such countries as the USA, Australia, Austria, Germany, Canada, Greece, Italy, Great Britain, and Denmark are analysed. Based on the carried-out analysis it is developed suggestions for improvement of the land legislation.

После распада СССР доля России на международном рынке образовательных услуг значимо снизилось. Ведущие западные страны (США, Великобритания, Канада, Австралия, Япония) наоборот уверенно набирают иностранных студентов. Международный рынок образовательных услуг становится все более важной ареной конкуренции между странами. ; After the collapse of the USSR, Russia's share in the international market of educational services decreased significantly. Leading Western countries (USA, UK, Canada, Australia, Japan) on the contrary confidently recruit foreign students. The international market of educational services is becoming an increasingly important arena of competition between countries.

The article discusses the Sino-Australian relations during the Liberal Coalition government in 2013-2017. The author reviews the conceptual frameworks of Australia's foreign policy and gives a retrospective of the main in Sino-Australian relations. The purpose of the study is to analyze the main problems affecting the development of political ties and assess their impact on Sino-Australian economic cooperation. The main research method is the narrative method allowing to collect facts from various sources and assemble them into a sequence of relevant events. The author comes to the conclusion that China is an important trading partner of Australia. Its economic and military power has a great influence on the formation of Australian foreign policy in the region. The liberal government represented by Tony Abbott in 2013-2015 and Malcolm Turnbull in 2015-2017 takes Australia - US alliance and strengthening the defense ties with Japan as a basis of its foreign policy. It later became the cause of the deterioration of Sino-Australian relations. Nevertheless, the cooling of political relations did not affect the trade and economic cooperation. China and Australia have signed the Free Trade Agreement and increased trade turnover. ; Статья посвящена исследованию взаимоотношений между Китаем и Австралией в период пребывания у власти Либеральной коалиции в 2013-2017 гг. Автором сделан обзор концептуальных основ внешней политики Австралии, а также основных событий, повлиявших на отношения Китая и Австралии в рассматриваемый период. Цель настоящего исследования - проследить эволюцию китайско-австралийских отношений после победы на выборах Либеральной коалиции. Задачи исследования - определить место Китая в австралийской внешней политике, выявить основные причины ухудшения отношений, а также оценить степень их влияния на экономическое сотрудничество. Основным методом исследования является нарративный метод, который позволил собрать факты из различных источников и выстроить их в последовательную цепь событий. В заключение автор приходит к выводу о том, что Китай является важным торговым партнером Австралии, что наряду с его экономической и военной мощью оказывает большое влияние на формирование австралийской внешней политики в регионе. Либеральное правительство, представленное Тони Эбботтом с 2013 г. и Малкольмом Тернбуллом с 2015 г. сделали союз с США и Японией основой их внешней политики, что в последствии повлияло на ухудшение китайско-австралийских отношений.

Introduction. The purpose of this monitoring is to collect, analyse, and subsequently compare the legal mechanisms aimed at harmonising policies on science, technology and innovation in foreign countries and the Russian Federation. The study focuses on the mechanisms of harmonising government policies on science, technology and innovation that are applied abroad (specifically in India, Norway, Switzerland and Australia) and in the Russian Federation. Monitoring Tools. The study employs general scientific methods (analytical, systematic, functional) and specific scientific methods (the formal legal method, interpretation of legal rules). Results. The materials collected while preparing this paper paint a picture of the tools that are used around the world (in countries like India, Norway, Switzerland and Australia in particular) to harmonise government policies on science, technology and innovation. Looking at each of the countries listed, we examine the essential legal and regulatory documents, including strategic programme documents, used as basis for making decisions on taking specific measures in the field, as well as the powers of the relevant competent bodies. We also analyse similar regulations and mechanisms that exist in the Russian Federation. Conclusion. Our study results in determining the most successful examples of foreign mechanisms aimed at harmonising government policies on science, technology and innovation, which can be potentially borrowed in the Russian Federation. These insights can be used by lawyers and research associates as part of their professional and scientific activities in the field of legislation on science, technology and innovation. ; For citation: Dashkova MO, Vok MG. Comparison of Legal Mechanisms Aimed at Harmonising Policies on Science, Technology and Innovation in Foreign Countries and the Russian Federation. Science Governance and Scientometrics. 2021;16(4):541-570. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33873/2686-6706.2021.16-4.541-570

The paper deals with the analysis of crisis overcoming in 2008 by Australia on the basis of statistical data. An econometric model is elaborated. The econometric model is based on Cobb-Douglas production function for the Australian economy for the period of 2006–2014. Calculations are performed at 2005 values. Gross domestic product (GDP) at constant prices is calculated using Australia yearly GDP deflator index for the period of 2005–2014. R2determination coefficient is high for the Cobb-Douglas model. The R2 value is close to 1 and α + β > 1 for the second model that considers oil barrel price, government expenditures and investments. Capital elasticity is negative, and gross regional product (GRP) elasticity is positive that means high dependency of GRP on labor costs than capital costs. The significance of all coefficients is above 0.96. Calculations demonstrate that timely anti-crisis measures of the Australian Government contributed to GDP growth and mitigated the effects of crisis.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2016)1-24 ; Осуществлен анализ преодоления кризиса 2008 г. Австралией на основе статистических данных и построения эконометрической модели. Эконометрическая модель была построена посредством производственной функции Кобба-Дугласа для экономики Австралии за 2006–2014 гг. Вычисления произведены в ценах 2005 г. Валовый внутренний продукт (ВВП) в постоянных ценах вычислен с использованием погодового индекса-дефлятора ВВП Австралии за период 2005–2014 гг. Для модели Кобба-Дугласа коэффициент детерминации R2 высокий. Для второй модели с учетом цены за баррель нефти, государственных расходов и инвестиций коэффициент детерминации R2 близок к 1 и α + β > 1. Эластичность по капиталу отрицательна, а эластичность валового регионального продукта по труду положительна, что означает большую зависимость этого продукта от затрат труда, чем от затрат капитала. Значимость всех коэффициентов выше 0,96. Вычисления показывают, что своевременные антикризисные меры правительства Австралии способствовали росту ВВП и тем самым смягчили последствия кризиса.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2016)1-24