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The article is devoted to the analysis of the social danger of an act - a sign of the concept of «criminal offense», which actually performs the functions of the category of criminal law and is important for the entire system of concepts and norms of both the General and Special parts of criminal law. The most essential features and properties of this feature – a structural element of the concept - are considered, which reflect the social harmfulness and increased danger of this act for the values of society and social relations protected by criminal law, which are formed about these values. It is argued that the public danger of an act is organically inherent in a criminal offense, acts as its objective social characteristic, immanent to it as an objective social and legal phenomenon (fact of reality).Using a systematic approach, the author investigates the relationship and interconnection of this feature with other features of a criminal offense – with "criminal wrongfulness" and "criminal law punishability" of the act. It is noted that the social danger of an act is the social basis of criminalization and its recognition as criminally illegal and punishable. The signs of «public danger» and «criminal wrongfulness» of an act correlate with each other as the categories «content» and «form» correlate. The interrelation of the sign «social danger of an act» with the sign of «criminal-legal punishability of an act» is clarified. Attention is focused on the fact that the public danger of an act significantly affects the degree of punishability of the act, on the establishment in the sanction of the type and measure of punishment for committing a socially dangerous act provided for in the disposition of the article of the Special Part of the Criminal Code. At the same time, it is emphasized that the type and measure of punishment specified in the sanction are important formalized indicators of the degree of public danger of an act, which constitutes the content of a criminal offense and determine its severity when deciding whether to classify it (classification) as a criminal offense or a crime, and the latter to one of the categories – not heavy, heavy or especially heavy. The role and influence of the public danger of a criminal offense on the systemic and structural links between various elements of the law on criminal liability is considered.The conclusion is formulated that the sign «social danger of an act» in the structure of signs of the concept of «criminal offense» has a fundamental character, is an immanent (organically inherent) property of a criminal offense and therefore must certainly be indicated in the legislative definition of the concept of «criminal offense». ; Статья посвящена анализу общественной опасности деяния – признака понятия «уголовное правонарушение», которое фактически выполняет функции категории уголовного права и имеет важное значение для всей системы понятий и норм как Общей,так и Особенной частей уголовного права. Рассматриваются наиболее существенные черты и свойства этого признака – структурного элемента понятия – которые отражают социальную вредоносность и повышенную опасность этого деяния для охраняемых уголовным законом ценностей общества и общественных отношений, которые складываются по поводу этих ценностей. Утверждается, что общественная опасность деяния органически присуща уголовному правонарушению, выступает его объективной социальной характеристикой, имманентна ему как объективномусоциально-правовому явлению (факту реальной действительности).С применением системного подхода исследуется соотношение и взаимосвязь этого признака с другими признаками уголовного правонарушения – с «уголовнойпротивоправностью» и «уголовно-правовой наказуемостью» деяния. Отмечается, что общественная опасность деяния является социальной основой криминализации и признания его уголовно-противоправным и наказуемым. Признаки «общественная опасность» и «уголовная противоправность» деяния соотносятся между собой как соотносятся категории «содержание» и «форма». Выясняется взаимосвязь признака «общественная опасность деяния» с признаком «уголовно-правовая наказуемость деяния». Акцентируется внимание на том, что общественная опасность деяния существенно влияет на степень наказуемости деяния, на установление в санкции вида и меры наказания за совершение общественно опасного деяния, предусмотренного в диспозиции статьи Особенной части УК. При этом подчеркивается, что вид и мера наказания, указанные в санкции, выступают важными формализованными показателями степени общественной опасности деяния, которое составляет содержание уголовного правонарушения и определяют его тяжесть при решении вопроса об отнесении его (классификации) к уголовному проступку или к преступлению, а последнего к одной из категорий – к нетяжким, тяжким или особо тяжким. Рассматривается роль и влияние общественной опасности деяния уголовного правонарушения на системно структурные связи между различными элементами закона об уголовной ответственности.Формулируется вывод, что признак «общественная опасность деяния» в структуре признаков понятия «уголовное правонарушение» имеет фундаментальный характер, является имманентным (органически присущим) свойством уголовного правонарушения и поэтому должен быть непременно указан в законодательном определении понятия «уголовное правонарушение». ; Стаття присвячена аналізу суспільної небезпечності діяння – ознаки поняття «кримінальне правопорушення», що фактично виконує функції категорії кримінального права і має відправне та установче значення для всієї системи понять і норм як Загальної, так і Особливої частин кримінального права. Розглядаються найбільш суттєві риси і властивості цієї ознаки – структурного елемента поняття – що визначають соціальну шкідливість і підвищену небезпечність цього діяння для охоронюваних кримінальним законом цінностей суспільства і суспільних відносин, що складаються відносно цих цінностей. Стверджується, що суспільна небезпечність діяння органічно притаманна кримінальному правопорушенню, виступає його об'єктивною соціальною характеристикою, іманентна цьому правопорушенню як соціально-правовому явищу (факту) реальної дійсності.Із застосуванням системного підходу досліджується співвідношення і взаємозв'язок цієї ознаки з іншими ознаками кримінального правопорушення – з «кримінальною протиправністю» і «кримінально-правовою караністю» діяння. Зазначається, що суспільна небезпечність діяння є соціальною основою (підставою) криміналізації діяння і визнання його кримінально протиправним, тобто передбаченим у законі про кримінальну відповідальність. Ознаки «суспільна небезпечність» і «кримінальна протиправність» діяння співвідносяться між собою як категорії «зміст» і «форма». З'ясовується співвідношення ознаки «суспільна небезпечність діяння» із ознакою «кримінально-правова караність діяння». Наголошується, що суспільна небезпечність діяння суттєво впливає на ступінь його караності, на встановлення в санкції виду і міри покарання за вчинення суспільно небезпечного діяння, передбаченого в диспозиції статті Особливої частини Кримінального кодексу України. При цьому підкреслюється, що вид і міра покарання, вказані в санкції, виступають важливими формалізованими показниками ступеня суспільної небезпечності діяння, яке становить зміст кримінального правопорушення, визначає його тяжкість та віднесення його (класифікації) до кримінального проступку або до злочину, а останнього до однієї з категорій: до нетяжкого або тяжкого чи особливо тяжкого. Розглядається вплив суспільної небезпечності діяння кримінального правопорушення на системно-структурні зв'язки між різними елементами закону про кримінальну відповідальність.Формулюється висновок, що ознака «суспільна небезпечність діяння» у структурі ознак поняття «кримінальне правопорушення» має фундаментальний характер, є іманентною властивістю кримінального правопорушення і тому має бути неодмінно вказана у законодавчому визначенні поняття «кримінальне правопорушення».

Introduction. Collective memory research helps to uncover the deeply imbedded meaning of the past in the present, to follow the identity development process in various communities, to find narrative structures that define societal foundations. Simultaneously, such research can be complicated from the empirical point of view. The scientific novelty of the given article lies in the fact that theoretical and methodological approaches to collective memory research have not yet been summarized and systematized up to this date. The goal of this research is to provide such a review and determine the most valid research methods in Memory Studies. The relevance of the presented research is determined by the fact that the proposition of a methodological apparatus for Memory Studies is necessary for the finalization of its formation as an independent discipline.Methodology and sources. Collective memory theory served as the theoretical-methodological foundation of the conducted research, it allowed to view the past not as a set given but as an object undergoing interpretation and representation. Such academics as M. Halbwachs, M. Bloch, A. Warburg, Jan and Aleida Assmann, J. Olick, A. Erll and others developed the following theory. A range of scientists dedicated their work to the discovery of collective memory research methods, among them M. Bulanova, W. Kansteiner, A. Erll, B. Zelizer, A. Confino, T. Kapitonova, V. Belokrylova, etc. J. Olick made a considerable impact into the understanding of the given issue, having suggested to view memory as a process developing in time, which required to define the methods of analysis that would be able to take this characteristic into account. However, a complete list as well as a general system and classification of methods have not been developed in the academic literature up to the present day. Having appeared at an intersection of various humanities and social sciences, Memory Studies adopts empirical research methods from Sociology, Political science, Culture Studies, Psychology, Media Studies, Visual Studies, etc. In course of the presented research, the relevant empirical research works in the Memory Studies field by international and Russian authors have been analyzed, we considered the research carried out by Ch. Lindt, A. Vasil'ev, T. Emel'yanova, A. Timofeeva, V. Kasamara, E. Hakokongas, E. Keightley, M. Meyers, B. Zelizer, and others. That allowed us to determine the most frequently applied collective memory research methods, to compile their overview and develop the author classification of the used methods.Results and discussion. An overview of key theoretical approaches to collective memory research was provided. They include functional, phenomenological, post-structural, social-historical and information approaches. J. Olick enriched the list of five theoretical approaches suggested by M. Bulanova by introducing the process-relativist approach to studying collective memory. The main research methods applied in Memory Studies were outlined; moreover, a classification of key disciplinary traditions that academics turn to in memory research was introduced featuring sociological, psychological, information, cultural and historical traditions as well as a separate branch of Computer Sciences.Conclusion. As a result of the conducted research, a systematic overview and an author's classification of theoretical-methodological approaches to collective memory analysis were introduced. The findings of the given research can be implemented by a range of academics working on the issues of group identity building, ways of working with contested past, historical events representation in the present, the functioning of memory communities, etc. The defining of the methodological apparatus of Memory studies serves as a moving force for the effective development, generalization and bringing to a common understanding the further research of collective memory structures formation and distribution as well as concepts related to it. ; Введение. Исследования коллективной памяти помогают раскрыть глубоко заложенные значения прошлого в настоящем, проследить процесс формирования идентичности различных сообществ, выявить нарративные структуры, определяющие общественные ориентиры. При этом подобные исследования являются проблематичными с эмпирической точки зрения. Научная новизна представленного исследования заключается в том, что до сих пор в академической литературе не были объединены и систематизированы теоретические и методологические подходы к анализу коллективной памяти. Цель данной статьи – сделать подобный обзор и определить наиболее валидные методы исследования в мемори стадиз. Актуальность проведенного исследования заключается в том, что утверждение методологического аппарата мемори стадиз необходимо для его окончательного оформления в самостоятельную область знания.Методология и источники. Теоретико-методологической основой проведенного исследования стала теория коллективной памяти, позволившая рассмотреть про-шлое не как устоявшуюся данность, а как объект, подвергающийся интерпретации и репрезентации. Данную теорию развивали такие исследователи как М. Хальбвакс, М. Блох, А. Варбург, Ян и Алейда Ассманн, Дж. Олик, А. Эрлл и др. Ряд ученых уделял внимание рассмотрению методов исследования коллективной памяти, среди них М. Буланова, В. Канштайнер, А. Эрлл, Б. Зелизер, А. Конфино, Т. Капитонова, В. Белокрылова и др. Дж. Олик внес значительный вклад в понимание данного вопроса, предложив рассматривать память как процесс, развивающийся во времени, что тре-бовало определить методы анализа, способные учитывать эту характеристику. Однако целостного перечня, а также единой системы и классификации методов на сего-дняшний день в академической литературе не разработано. Возникнув на стыке различных социальных и гуманитарных наук, мемори стадиз заимствует методы проведения эмпирических исследований из социологии, политологии, культурологии, психологии, медиа стадиз, визуальных исследований и т. д. В рамках проведения представленного исследования были проанализированы актуальные эмпирические труды в рамках мемори стадиз ряда зарубежных и российских авторов, таких как Ш. Линд, А. Васильев, Т. Емельянова, А. Тимофеева, В. Касамара, Е. Хакоконгас, Е. Кейтли, М. Мейерс, Б. Зелизер и др. Это позволило выявить наиболее часто используемые для исследования коллективной памяти методы анализа, составить их обзор и разработать авторскую классификацию применяемых методов.Результаты и обсуждение. Были рассмотрены основные теоретические подходы к исследованию коллективной̆ памяти. К ним относятся функциональный, феномено-логический, постструктурализм, социально-исторический и информационный. Дж. Олик дополнил перечень из пяти теоретических направлений, предложенных М. Булановой, указав на необходимость отметить процессо-релятивистский подход к изучению коллективной памяти. Были выявлены методы исследования, применяемые в мемори стадиз, и разработана классификация основных дисциплинарных традиций, которыми руководствуются академики при выборе метода исследования памяти: социологическая, психологическая, информационная, культурологическая и историческая, а также отдельный блок компьютерных наук.Заключение. В исследовании был сделан систематический обзор и разработана авторская классификация теоретико-методологических подходов к анализу коллективной памяти. Данные результаты могут быть использованы исследователями проблем построения идентичности групп, способов работы со сложным прошлым, ре-презентации исторических событий в настоящем, функционирования сообществ памяти и т. д. Определение методологического аппарата мемори стадиз выступает в качестве движущей силы эффективного развития, универсализации и приведения к единому пониманию дальнейших исследований формирования и распространения структур коллективной памяти и взаимосвязанных концептов.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the social danger of an act - a sign of the concept of «criminal offense», which actually performs the functions of the category of criminal law and is important for the entire system of concepts and norms of both the General and Special parts of criminal law. The most essential features and properties of this feature – a structural element of the concept - are considered, which reflect the social harmfulness and increased danger of this act for the values of society and social relations protected by criminal law, which are formed about these values. It is argued that the public danger of an act is organically inherent in a criminal offense, acts as its objective social characteristic, immanent to it as an objective social and legal phenomenon (fact of reality).Using a systematic approach, the author investigates the relationship and interconnection of this feature with other features of a criminal offense – with "criminal wrongfulness" and "criminal law punishability" of the act. It is noted that the social danger of an act is the social basis of criminalization and its recognition as criminally illegal and punishable. The signs of «public danger» and «criminal wrongfulness» of an act correlate with each other as the categories «content» and «form» correlate. The interrelation of the sign «social danger of an act» with the sign of «criminal-legal punishability of an act» is clarified. Attention is focused on the fact that the public danger of an act significantly affects the degree of punishability of the act, on the establishment in the sanction of the type and measure of punishment for committing a socially dangerous act provided for in the disposition of the article of the Special Part of the Criminal Code. At the same time, it is emphasized that the type and measure of punishment specified in the sanction are important formalized indicators of the degree of public danger of an act, which constitutes the content of a criminal offense and determine its severity when deciding whether to classify it (classification) as a criminal offense or a crime, and the latter to one of the categories – not heavy, heavy or especially heavy. The role and influence of the public danger of a criminal offense on the systemic and structural links between various elements of the law on criminal liability is considered.The conclusion is formulated that the sign «social danger of an act» in the structure of signs of the concept of «criminal offense» has a fundamental character, is an immanent (organically inherent) property of a criminal offense and therefore must certainly be indicated in the legislative definition of the concept of «criminal offense». ; Статья посвящена анализу общественной опасности деяния – признака понятия «уголовное правонарушение», которое фактически выполняет функции категории уголовного права и имеет важное значение для всей системы понятий и норм как Общей,так и Особенной частей уголовного права. Рассматриваются наиболее существенные черты и свойства этого признака – структурного элемента понятия – которые отражают социальную вредоносность и повышенную опасность этого деяния для охраняемых уголовным законом ценностей общества и общественных отношений, которые складываются по поводу этих ценностей. Утверждается, что общественная опасность деяния органически присуща уголовному правонарушению, выступает его объективной социальной характеристикой, имманентна ему как объективномусоциально-правовому явлению (факту реальной действительности).С применением системного подхода исследуется соотношение и взаимосвязь этого признака с другими признаками уголовного правонарушения – с «уголовнойпротивоправностью» и «уголовно-правовой наказуемостью» деяния. Отмечается, что общественная опасность деяния является социальной основой криминализации и признания его уголовно-противоправным и наказуемым. Признаки «общественная опасность» и «уголовная противоправность» деяния соотносятся между собой как соотносятся категории «содержание» и «форма». Выясняется взаимосвязь признака «общественная опасность деяния» с признаком «уголовно-правовая наказуемость деяния». Акцентируется внимание на том, что общественная опасность деяния существенно влияет на степень наказуемости деяния, на установление в санкции вида и меры наказания за совершение общественно опасного деяния, предусмотренного в диспозиции статьи Особенной части УК. При этом подчеркивается, что вид и мера наказания, указанные в санкции, выступают важными формализованными показателями степени общественной опасности деяния, которое составляет содержание уголовного правонарушения и определяют его тяжесть при решении вопроса об отнесении его (классификации) к уголовному проступку или к преступлению, а последнего к одной из категорий – к нетяжким, тяжким или особо тяжким. Рассматривается роль и влияние общественной опасности деяния уголовного правонарушения на системно структурные связи между различными элементами закона об уголовной ответственности.Формулируется вывод, что признак «общественная опасность деяния» в структуре признаков понятия «уголовное правонарушение» имеет фундаментальный характер, является имманентным (органически присущим) свойством уголовного правонарушения и поэтому должен быть непременно указан в законодательном определении понятия «уголовное правонарушение». ; Стаття присвячена аналізу суспільної небезпечності діяння – ознаки поняття «кримінальне правопорушення», що фактично виконує функції категорії кримінального права і має відправне та установче значення для всієї системи понять і норм як Загальної, так і Особливої частин кримінального права. Розглядаються найбільш суттєві риси і властивості цієї ознаки – структурного елемента поняття – що визначають соціальну шкідливість і підвищену небезпечність цього діяння для охоронюваних кримінальним законом цінностей суспільства і суспільних відносин, що складаються відносно цих цінностей. Стверджується, що суспільна небезпечність діяння органічно притаманна кримінальному правопорушенню, виступає його об'єктивною соціальною характеристикою, іманентна цьому правопорушенню як соціально-правовому явищу (факту) реальної дійсності.Із застосуванням системного підходу досліджується співвідношення і взаємозв'язок цієї ознаки з іншими ознаками кримінального правопорушення – з «кримінальною протиправністю» і «кримінально-правовою караністю» діяння. Зазначається, що суспільна небезпечність діяння є соціальною основою (підставою) криміналізації діяння і визнання його кримінально протиправним, тобто передбаченим у законі про кримінальну відповідальність. Ознаки «суспільна небезпечність» і «кримінальна протиправність» діяння співвідносяться між собою як категорії «зміст» і «форма». З'ясовується співвідношення ознаки «суспільна небезпечність діяння» із ознакою «кримінально-правова караність діяння». Наголошується, що суспільна небезпечність діяння суттєво впливає на ступінь його караності, на встановлення в санкції виду і міри покарання за вчинення суспільно небезпечного діяння, передбаченого в диспозиції статті Особливої частини Кримінального кодексу України. При цьому підкреслюється, що вид і міра покарання, вказані в санкції, виступають важливими формалізованими показниками ступеня суспільної небезпечності діяння, яке становить зміст кримінального правопорушення, визначає його тяжкість та віднесення його (класифікації) до кримінального проступку або до злочину, а останнього до однієї з категорій: до нетяжкого або тяжкого чи особливо тяжкого. Розглядається вплив суспільної небезпечності діяння кримінального правопорушення на системно-структурні зв'язки між різними елементами закону про кримінальну відповідальність.Формулюється висновок, що ознака «суспільна небезпечність діяння» у структурі ознак поняття «кримінальне правопорушення» має фундаментальний характер, є іманентною властивістю кримінального правопорушення і тому має бути неодмінно вказана у законодавчому визначенні поняття «кримінальне правопорушення».

The article is devoted to the analysis of the social danger of an act - a sign of the concept of «criminal offense», which actually performs the functions of the category of criminal law and is important for the entire system of concepts and norms of both the General and Special parts of criminal law. The most essential features and properties of this feature – a structural element of the concept - are considered, which reflect the social harmfulness and increased danger of this act for the values of society and social relations protected by criminal law, which are formed about these values. It is argued that the public danger of an act is organically inherent in a criminal offense, acts as its objective social characteristic, immanent to it as an objective social and legal phenomenon (fact of reality).Using a systematic approach, the author investigates the relationship and interconnection of this feature with other features of a criminal offense – with "criminal wrongfulness" and "criminal law punishability" of the act. It is noted that the social danger of an act is the social basis of criminalization and its recognition as criminally illegal and punishable. The signs of «public danger» and «criminal wrongfulness» of an act correlate with each other as the categories «content» and «form» correlate. The interrelation of the sign «social danger of an act» with the sign of «criminal-legal punishability of an act» is clarified. Attention is focused on the fact that the public danger of an act significantly affects the degree of punishability of the act, on the establishment in the sanction of the type and measure of punishment for committing a socially dangerous act provided for in the disposition of the article of the Special Part of the Criminal Code. At the same time, it is emphasized that the type and measure of punishment specified in the sanction are important formalized indicators of the degree of public danger of an act, which constitutes the content of a criminal offense and determine its severity when deciding whether to classify it (classification) as a criminal offense or a crime, and the latter to one of the categories – not heavy, heavy or especially heavy. The role and influence of the public danger of a criminal offense on the systemic and structural links between various elements of the law on criminal liability is considered.The conclusion is formulated that the sign «social danger of an act» in the structure of signs of the concept of «criminal offense» has a fundamental character, is an immanent (organically inherent) property of a criminal offense and therefore must certainly be indicated in the legislative definition of the concept of «criminal offense». ; Статья посвящена анализу общественной опасности деяния – признака понятия «уголовное правонарушение», которое фактически выполняет функции категории уголовного права и имеет важное значение для всей системы понятий и норм как Общей,так и Особенной частей уголовного права. Рассматриваются наиболее существенные черты и свойства этого признака – структурного элемента понятия – которые отражают социальную вредоносность и повышенную опасность этого деяния для охраняемых уголовным законом ценностей общества и общественных отношений, которые складываются по поводу этих ценностей. Утверждается, что общественная опасность деяния органически присуща уголовному правонарушению, выступает его объективной социальной характеристикой, имманентна ему как объективномусоциально-правовому явлению (факту реальной действительности).С применением системного подхода исследуется соотношение и взаимосвязь этого признака с другими признаками уголовного правонарушения – с «уголовнойпротивоправностью» и «уголовно-правовой наказуемостью» деяния. Отмечается, что общественная опасность деяния является социальной основой криминализации и признания его уголовно-противоправным и наказуемым. Признаки «общественная опасность» и «уголовная противоправность» деяния соотносятся между собой как соотносятся категории «содержание» и «форма». Выясняется взаимосвязь признака «общественная опасность деяния» с признаком «уголовно-правовая наказуемость деяния». Акцентируется внимание на том, что общественная опасность деяния существенно влияет на степень наказуемости деяния, на установление в санкции вида и меры наказания за совершение общественно опасного деяния, предусмотренного в диспозиции статьи Особенной части УК. При этом подчеркивается, что вид и мера наказания, указанные в санкции, выступают важными формализованными показателями степени общественной опасности деяния, которое составляет содержание уголовного правонарушения и определяют его тяжесть при решении вопроса об отнесении его (классификации) к уголовному проступку или к преступлению, а последнего к одной из категорий – к нетяжким, тяжким или особо тяжким. Рассматривается роль и влияние общественной опасности деяния уголовного правонарушения на системно структурные связи между различными элементами закона об уголовной ответственности.Формулируется вывод, что признак «общественная опасность деяния» в структуре признаков понятия «уголовное правонарушение» имеет фундаментальный характер, является имманентным (органически присущим) свойством уголовного правонарушения и поэтому должен быть непременно указан в законодательном определении понятия «уголовное правонарушение». ; Стаття присвячена аналізу суспільної небезпечності діяння – ознаки поняття «кримінальне правопорушення», що фактично виконує функції категорії кримінального права і має відправне та установче значення для всієї системи понять і норм як Загальної, так і Особливої частин кримінального права. Розглядаються найбільш суттєві риси і властивості цієї ознаки – структурного елемента поняття – що визначають соціальну шкідливість і підвищену небезпечність цього діяння для охоронюваних кримінальним законом цінностей суспільства і суспільних відносин, що складаються відносно цих цінностей. Стверджується, що суспільна небезпечність діяння органічно притаманна кримінальному правопорушенню, виступає його об'єктивною соціальною характеристикою, іманентна цьому правопорушенню як соціально-правовому явищу (факту) реальної дійсності.Із застосуванням системного підходу досліджується співвідношення і взаємозв'язок цієї ознаки з іншими ознаками кримінального правопорушення – з «кримінальною протиправністю» і «кримінально-правовою караністю» діяння. Зазначається, що суспільна небезпечність діяння є соціальною основою (підставою) криміналізації діяння і визнання його кримінально протиправним, тобто передбаченим у законі про кримінальну відповідальність. Ознаки «суспільна небезпечність» і «кримінальна протиправність» діяння співвідносяться між собою як категорії «зміст» і «форма». З'ясовується співвідношення ознаки «суспільна небезпечність діяння» із ознакою «кримінально-правова караність діяння». Наголошується, що суспільна небезпечність діяння суттєво впливає на ступінь його караності, на встановлення в санкції виду і міри покарання за вчинення суспільно небезпечного діяння, передбаченого в диспозиції статті Особливої частини Кримінального кодексу України. При цьому підкреслюється, що вид і міра покарання, вказані в санкції, виступають важливими формалізованими показниками ступеня суспільної небезпечності діяння, яке становить зміст кримінального правопорушення, визначає його тяжкість та віднесення його (класифікації) до кримінального проступку або до злочину, а останнього до однієї з категорій: до нетяжкого або тяжкого чи особливо тяжкого. Розглядається вплив суспільної небезпечності діяння кримінального правопорушення на системно-структурні зв'язки між різними елементами закону про кримінальну відповідальність.Формулюється висновок, що ознака «суспільна небезпечність діяння» у структурі ознак поняття «кримінальне правопорушення» має фундаментальний характер, є іманентною властивістю кримінального правопорушення і тому має бути неодмінно вказана у законодавчому визначенні поняття «кримінальне правопорушення».

Full author list: M dal Ponte, B Santiago, A Carnero Rosell, B Burningham, B Yanny, J L Marshall, K Bechtol, P Martini, T S Li, L De Paris, T M C Abbott, M Aguena, S Allam, S Avila, E Bertin, S Bhargava, D Brooks, E Buckley-Geer, M Carrasco Kind, J Carretero, L N da Costa, J De Vicente, H T Diehl, P Doel, T F Eifler, S Everett, B Flaugher, P Fosalba, J Frieman, J García-Bellido, E Gaztanaga, D W Gerdes, D Gruen, R A Gruendl, J Gschwend, G Gutierrez, S R Hinton, D L Hollowood, K Honscheid, D J James, K Kuehn, N Kuropatkin, M A G Maia, M March, F Menanteau, R Miquel, A Palmese, F Paz-Chinchón, A A Plazas, E Sanchez, V Scarpine, S Serrano, I Sevilla-Noarbe, M Smith, E Suchyta, M E C Swanson, G Tarle, D Thomas, T N Varga, A R Walker, DES Collaboration ; We present the discovery of 255 binary and 6 multiple system candidates with wide (> 5 arcsec) separation composed by ultracool dwarfs (UCDs) companions to stars, plus nine double ultracool dwarf systems. These systems were selected based on common distance criteria. About 90 per cent of the total sample has proper motions available and 73 per cent of the systems also satisfy a common proper motion criterion. The sample of ultracool candidates was taken from the Dark Energy Survey (DES) and the candidate stellar primaries are from Gaia DR2 and DES data. We compute chance alignment probabilities in order to assess the physical nature of each pair. We find that 174 candidate pairs with Gaia DR2 primaries and 81 pairs with a DES star as a primary have chance alignment probabilities < 5. Only nine candidate systems composed of two UCDs were identified. The sample of candidate multiple systems is made up of five triple systems and one quadruple system. The majority of the UCDs found in binaries and multiples are of early L type and the typical wide binary fraction over the L spectral types is 2-4. Our sample of candidate wide binaries with UCDs as secondaries constitutes a substantial increase over the known number of such systems, which are very useful to constrain the formation and evolution of UCDs. ; Funding for the DES Projects has been provided by the US Department of Energy, the US National Science Foundation, the Ministry of Science and Education of Spain, the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Higher Education Funding Council for England, the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics at the Ohio State University, the Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy at Texas A&M University, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Collaborating Institutions in the DES. The Collaborating Institutions are Argonne National Laboratory, the University of California at Santa Cruz, the University of Cambridge, Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas-Madrid, the University of Chicago, University College London, the DES-Brazil Consortium, the University of Edinburgh, the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zürich, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the Institut de Ciències de l'Espai (IEEC/CSIC), the Institut de Física d'Altes Energies, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München and the associated Excellence Cluster Universe, the University of Michigan, the NSF's National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory, the University of Nottingham, The Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Portsmouth, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, the University of Sussex, Texas A&M University, and the OzDES Membership Consortium. Based in part on observations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, NSF's National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. The DES data management system is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Numbers AST-1138766 and AST-1536171. The DES participants from Spanish institutions are partially supported by MINECO under grants AYA2015-71825, ESP2015-66861, FPA2015-68048, SEV-2016-0588, SEV-2016-0597, and MDM-2015-0509, some of which include ERDF funds from the European Union. IFAE is partially funded by the CERCA program of the Generalitat de Catalunya. Research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007-2013) including ERC grant agreements 240672, 291329, and 306478. We acknowledge support from the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020, and the Brazilian Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia (INCT) e-Universe (CNPq grant 465376/2014-2). This manuscript has been authored by Fermi Research Alliance, LLC under Contract No. DE-AC02-07CH11359 with the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes. This publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, and NEOWISE, which is a project of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology. WISE and NEOWISE are funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The analysis presented here is based on observations obtained as part of the VHS, ESO Programme, 179.A-2010 (PI: McMahon). This paper has gone through internal review by the DES collaboration. ACR acknowledges financial support provided by the PAPDRJ CAPES/FAPERJ Fellowship and by 'Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu de CIEMAT – Física de Partículas (Proyecto MDM)'

The author offers readers a comprehensive analysis of the legal history of the Turkic Khaganate (552-603), both during its formation (545-553) and during the reign of the prominent military leader Muqan Qaghan (553-572). The establishment of close political and legal ties between the Turks and the Eastern Roman Empire was the result of a peace treaty between the Byzantines and the Persians (562). In 562, 563, 565 and 566, the Turkic Khaganate sent its official ambassadors to Constantinople. At that time, the Turks had the legal status of vassals of the Chinese dynastic kingdom of Western Wei (according to the privilege of 545). The victory over the Zhuzhan Khaganate in 552 allowed the Turks to take control of all the Turko-Mongol and Manchurian tribes of the eastern part of the Eurasian steppe. In 554, the Turks began to fight against other heirs of the Hun tribe - the "White Huns-Hephthalites". Since the Hephthalites had long terrorized the eastern provinces of the New Persian Empire, the Iranian shahanshah (king of kings) Khosrow I Anushirvan (531579) decided to invite part of the Turkic horde to military service. At the same time, we assume that Khosrow Anushirvan, having a large staff of advisers of Greco-Roman origin, sought to use the lex foedus model , according to which the Roman Empire traditionally recruited and accepted "barbarians" for imperial military service. The idea was successful. Muqan Qaghan transferred the troops of his uncle Istdmi ("Western Horde") under the command of Khosrov, and Istdmi's daughter became the main wife of the Persian "king of kings". In 555-557, the Turks defeated the last pro-Zhuzhan forces in northern China (Avar tribes) and subjugated Khorezm. As a result of the defeat, someAvars retreated as far as the Volga-Don interfluve, wherein they began to ask the Byzantine emperor Justinian the Great (527-565) to grant them the status of federates. The Eastern Roman Empire accepted the Avars as its citizens and, de jure, founded the Avar Khaganate (558-805). Since the possessions of the Turkic Khaganate now reached the Volga, the Turks and Persians concluded a treaty on the division of Hephthalite possessions (566), which covered the borders of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ratification of the new agreement set an important precedent in the historical and legal life of Eurasia. The Turkic Khaganate recognized as its suzerains both the Chinese emperors of the Western Wei dynasty and the shahanshah of Persia ("the precedent of polyvassality"). At the same time, the Turks gave the "suzerains" all the necessary signs of attention and recognition, seeing this as a space for political manoeuvring, seeking to completely subjugate the key sections of the Great Silk Road. The transfer of power in Byzantium to Emperor Justin II (565-578) and the further intensification of trade contacts between Constantinople and the Turkic Khaganate led to the cooling of Iranian-Turkic relations. In 567, the Eastern Roman Empire initiated the resettlement of the Avars in Pannonia and Dacia, while the Northern Black Sea Coast was ceded to the Western Turkic Horde by Istem as a lex foedus. Thus, as of 568, the Turkic Khaganate legally declared itself dependent on the authorities of the Eastern Roman Empire, Iran and the Western Wei, which, of course, should have led to the outbreak of another international armed conflict. ; Автор пропонує читачам комплексний аналіз юридичної історії Тюркського каганату (552-603 рр.),як за доби його становлення (545553 рр.), так і в часи правління видатного полководця Муган-ка-гана (553-572 рр.). Встановлення тісних політико-правових зв'язків між тюрками і Східною Римською імперією було наслідком укладення мирної угоди між візантійцями та персами (562 р.). У 562, 563, 565 і 566 роках Тюркський каганат надсилав своїх офіційних послів у Константинополь. На той момент тюрки володіли юридичним статусом васалів китайського династичного царства Західна Вей (згідно з привілеєм 545 р.). Перемога над Жужаньським каганатом у 552 р. дозволила тюркам взяти під контроль усі тюрко-монголь-ські й маньчжурські племена східної частини Євразійського степу. У 554 р. тюрки почали боротьбу проти інших спадкоємців племені хунну - «гуннів-ефталітів». Оскільки ефталіти вже тривалий час тероризували східні провінції Новоперсидського царства, то іранський шахіншах («цар царів») Хосров Ануширван (531-579) прийняв рішення запросити частину тюркської орди на військову службу. При цьому ми припускаємо, що Хосров Ануширван, маючи великий штат радників греко-римського походження, прагнув використати юридичну модель lex foedus, згідно з якою Римська імперія традиційно вербувала та приймала на імперську військову службу цілі народи «варварів» (як германців чи слов'ян-землеробів, так і кочівників іранського, арабського чи гуннського походження). Задум був успішним. Муган-каган передав загони свого дядька Істемі («західну орду») під командування Хосрова, а донька Істемі стала дружиною персидського «царя царів». У 555-557 рр. тюрки розгромили останні прожу-жаньські сили в Північному Китаї (племена аварів) та підпорядкували своїй владі Хорезм. Внаслідокпоразки частина аварів відступила аж у Волго-Донське міжріччя, де в 558 р. стала просити візантійського імператора Юстиніана Великого (527-565) надати їм статус федератів. Східна Римська імперія прийняла аварів у своє підданство і де-юре заснувала Аварський каганат (558-805 рр.). Оскільки володіння Тюркського каганату тепер сягнули Волги, тюрки і перси уклали Договір про поділ ефталітських володінь (566 р.), що охоплювали межі сучасних Афганістану та Пакистану. Ратифікація нової угоди створила важливий прецедент в історико-правовому житті Євразії. Тюркський каганат визнавав своїми сюзеренами як китайських імператорів із династії Західна Вей, так і шахіншаха Персії («прецедент полівасалітету»). При цьому тюрки надавали «сюзеренам» усі необхідні знаки уваги та визнання, вбачаючи в цьому простір для політичного маневрування, прагнучи повністю підпорядкувати своїй владі ключові відтинки Великого Шовкового Шляху. Прихід до влади у Візантії імператора Юстина ІІ (565-578) та подальша активізація торговельних контактів Константинополя з Тюркським каганатом привели до охолодження ірано-тюркських стосунків. У 567 р. Східна Римська імперія ініціювала переселення аварів у Паннонію та Дакію, тоді як Північне Причорномор'я передавалось західнотюркській орді Істемі на правах lex foedus. Отже, станом на 568 р. Тюркський каганат юридично визнавав себе залежним від влади Східної Римської імперії, Ірану та Західної Вей, що, безумовно, мало призвести до вибуху чергового міжнародного збройного конфлікту.

We report the results of decade-long (2008-2018) γ -ray to 1 GHz radio monitoring of the blazar 3C 279, including GASP/WEBT, Fermi and Swift data, as well as polarimetric and spectroscopic data. The X-ray and γ -ray light curves correlate well, with no delay ≳ 3 h, implying general cospatiality of the emission regions. The γ -ray-optical flux-flux relation changes with activity state, ranging from a linear to amore complex dependence. The behaviour of the Stokes parameters at optical and radio wavelengths, including 43 GHz Very Long Baseline Array images, supports either a predominantly helical magnetic field or motion of the radiating plasma along a spiral path. Apparent speeds of emission knots range from 10 to 37c, with the highest values requiring bulk Lorentz factors close to those needed to explain γ -ray variability on very short time-scales. The MgII emission line flux in the 'blue' and 'red' wings correlates with the optical synchrotron continuum flux density, possibly providing a variable source of seed photons for inverse Compton scattering. In the radio bands, we find progressive delays of the most prominent light-curve maxima with decreasing frequency, as expected from the frequency dependence of the τ= 1 surface of synchrotron self-absorption. The global maximum in the 86 GHz light curve becomes less prominent at lower frequencies, while a local maximum, appearing in 2014, strengthens toward decreasing frequencies, becoming pronounced at ∼5 GHz. These tendencies suggest different Doppler boosting of stratified radio-emitting zones in the jet. © 2020 The Author(s). ; We thank the referee for attentive reading and comments that helped to improve presentation of the manuscript. The data collected by the WEBT collaboration are stored in the WEBT archive at the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino -INAF (ht tp://www.oato.inaf.it/blazars/webt/); for questions regarding their availability, please contact the WEBT President Massimo Villata(massimo.villata@inaf.it).TheSt.Petersburg University team acknowledges support from Russian Science Foundation grant 17-12-01029. The research at BU was supported in part by National Science Foundation grant AST-1615796 and NASA Fermi Guest Investigator grants 80NSSC17K0649, 80NSSC19K1504, and 80NSSC19K1505. The PRISM camera at Lowell Observatory was developed by K. Janes et al. at BU and Lowell Observatory, with funding from the NSF, BU, and Lowell Observatory. The emission-line observations made use of the DCT at Lowell Observatory, supported by Discovery Communications, Inc., BU, the University of Maryland, the University of Toledo, and Northern Arizona University. The VLBA is an instrument of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the US NSF, operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research has used data from the UMRAO which was supported by the University of Michigan; research at this facility was supported by NASA under awards NNX09AU16G, NNX10AP16G, NNX11AO13G, and NNX13AP18G, and by the NSF under award AST-0607523. The Steward Observatory spectropolarimetric monitoring project was supported by NASA Fermi Guest Investigator grants NNX08AW56G, NNX09AU10G, NNX12AO93G, and NNX15AU81G. The Torino group acknowledges financial contribution from agreement ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0 and from contract PRIN-SKA-CTA-INAF 2016. I.A. acknowledges support by a Ramon y Cajal grant (RYC-2013-14511) of the 'Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion, y Universidades (MICIU)' of Spain and from MCIU through the 'Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa' award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia-CSIC (SEV-20170709). Acquisition and reduction of the POLAMI and MAPCAT data were supported by MICIU through grant AYA2016-80889-P. The POLAMI observations were carried out at the IRAM 30-m Telescope, supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). The MAPCAT observations were carried out at theGerman-Spanish Calar Alto Observatory, jointly operated by the Max-Plank-Institut fur Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia-CSIC. The study is based partly on data obtained with the STELLA robotic telescopes in Tenerife, an AIP facility jointly operated by AIP and IAC. The OVRO 40-m monitoring program is supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G, and NNX14AQ89G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911. TH was supported by the Academy of Finland projects 317383 and 320085. AZT-24 observations were made within an agreement between Pulkovo, Rome and Teramo observatories. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The Abastumani team acknowledges financial support by the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation under contract FR/217950/16. r This research was partially supported by the Bulgarian National Science Fund of the Ministry of Education and Science under grants DN 081/2016, DN 18-13/2017, KP-06-H28/3 (2018), and KP-06-PN38/1 (2019), Bulgarian National Science Programme 'Young Scientists and Postdoctoral Students 2019', Bulgarian National Science Fund under grant DN18-10/2017 and National RI Roadmap Projects DO1-157/28.08.2018 and DO1-153/28.08.2018 of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria. GD and OV gratefully acknowledge observing grant support from the Institute of Astronomy and Rozhen National Astronomical Observatory via bilateral joint research project `Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects' (head -G. Damljanovic). This work was partly supported by the National Science Fund of the Ministry of Education and Science of Bulgaria under grant DN 08-20/2016, and by project RD-08-37/2019 of the University of Shumen. This work is a part of projects nos 176011, 176004, and 176021, supported by theMinistry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. MGM acknowledges support through the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University. The Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA) is managed by the Fondazione Clement Fillietroz-ONLUS, which is supported by the Regional Government of the Aosta Valley, the Town Municipality of Nus and the 'Unite des Communes vald 'otainesMont-Emilius'. The research at the OAVdA was partially funded by several `Research and Education' annual grants from Fondazione CRT. This article is partly based on observations made with the IAC80 and TCS telescopes operated by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias in the Spanish Observatorio del Teide on the island of Tenerife. A part of the observations were carried out using theRATAN-600 scientific equipment (SAO of the Russian Academy of Sciences).

All authors: Wielgus, Maciek; Akiyama, Kazunori; Blackburn, Lindy; Chan, Chi-kwan; Dexter, Jason; Doeleman, Sheperd S.; Fish, Vincent L.; Issaoun, Sara; Johnson, Michael D.; Krichbaum, Thomas P.; Lu, Ru-Sen; Pesce, Dominic W.; Wong, George N.; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Broderick, Avery E.; Chael, Andrew; Chatterjee, Koushik; Gammie, Charles F.; Georgiev, Boris; Hada, Kazuhiro Loinard, Laurent; Markoff, Sera; Marrone, Daniel P.; Plambeck, Richard; Weintroub, Jonathan; Dexter, Matthew; MacMahon, David H. E.; Wright, Melvyn; Alberdi, Antxon; Alef, Walter; Asada, Keiichi; Azulay, Rebecca; Baczko, Anne-Kathrin; Ball, David; Baloković, Mislav; Barausse, Enrico; Barrett, John; Bintley, Dan; Boland, Wilfred; Bouman, Katherine L.; Bremer, Michael; Brinkerink, Christiaan D.; Brissenden, Roger; Britzen, Silke; Broguiere, Dominique; Bronzwaer, Thomas; Byun, Do-Young; Carlstrom, John E.; Chatterjee, Shami; Chen, Ming-Tang; Chen, Yongjun; Cho, Ilje; Christian, Pierre; Conway, John E.; Cordes, James M.; Crew, Geoffrey B.; Cui, Yuzhu; Davelaar, Jordy; Laurentis, Mariafelicia De; Deane, Roger; Dempsey, Jessica; Desvignes, Gregory; Dzib, Sergio A.; Eatough, Ralph P.; Falcke, Heino; Fomalont, Ed; Fraga-Encinas, Raquel; Friberg, Per; Fromm, Christian M.; Galison, Peter; García, Roberto; Gentaz, Olivier; Goddi, Ciriaco; Gold, Roman; Gómez, José L.; Gómez-Ruiz, Arturo I.; Gu, Minfeng; Gurwell, Mark; Hecht, Michael H.; Hesper, Ronald; Ho, Luis C.; Ho, Paul; Honma, Mareki; Huang, Chih-Wei L.; Huang, Lei; Hughes, David H.; Inoue, Makoto; James, David J.; Jannuzi, Buell T.; Janssen, Michael; Jeter, Britton; Jiang, Wu; Jimenez-Rosales, Alejandra; Jorstad, Svetlana; Jung, Taehyun; Karami, Mansour; Karuppusamy, Ramesh; Kawashima, Tomohisa; Keating, Garrett K.; Kettenis, Mark; Kim, Jae-Young; Kim, Junhan; Kim, Jongsoo; Kino, Motoki; Koay, Jun Yi; Koch, Patrick M.; Koyama, Shoko; Kramer, Michael; Kramer, Carsten; Kuo, Cheng-Yu; Lauer, Tod R.; Lee, Sang-Sung; Li, Yan-Rong; Li, Zhiyuan; Lindqvist, Michael; Lico, Rocco; Liu, Kuo; Liuzzo, Elisabetta; Lo, Wen-Ping; Lobanov, Andrei P.; Lonsdale, Colin; MacDonald, Nicholas R.; Mao, Jirong; Marchili, Nicola; Marscher, Alan P.; Martí-Vidal, Iván; Matsushita, Satoki; Matthews, Lynn D.; Medeiros, Lia; Menten, Karl M.; Mizuno, Yosuke; Mizuno, Izumi; Moran, James M.; Moriyama, Kotaro; Moscibrodzka, Monika; Müller, Cornelia; Musoke, Gibwa; Nagai, Hiroshi; Nagar, Neil M.; Nakamura, Masanori; Narayan, Ramesh; Narayanan, Gopal; Natarajan, Iniyan; Nathanail, Antonios; Neri, Roberto; Ni, Chunchong; Noutsos, Aristeidis; Okino, Hiroki; Olivares, Héctor; Ortiz-León, Gisela N.; Oyama, Tomoaki; Özel, Feryal; Palumbo, Daniel C. M.; Park, Jongho; Patel, Nimesh; Pen, Ue-Li; Piétu, Vincent; PopStefanija, Aleksandar; Porth, Oliver; Prather, Ben; Preciado-López, Jorge A.; Psaltis, Dimitrios; Pu, Hung-Yi; Ramakrishnan, Venkatessh; Rao, Ramprasad; Rawlings, Mark G.; Raymond, Alexander W.; Rezzolla, Luciano; Ripperda, Bart; Roelofs, Freek; Rogers, Alan; Ros, Eduardo; Rose, Mel; Roshanineshat, Arash; Rottmann, Helge; Roy, Alan L.; Ruszczyk, Chet; Ryan, Benjamin R.; Rygl, Kazi L. J.; Sánchez, Salvador; Sánchez-Arguelles, David; Sasada, Mahito; Savolainen, Tuomas; Schloerb, F. Peter; Schuster, Karl-Friedrich; Shao, Lijing; Shen, Zhiqiang; Small, Des; Sohn, Bong Won; SooHoo, Jason; Tazaki, Fumie; Tiede, Paul; Tilanus, Remo P. J.; Titus, Michael; Toma, Kenji; Torne, Pablo; Trent, Tyler; Traianou, Efthalia; Trippe, Sascha; Tsuda, Shuichiro; Bemmel, Ilse van; van Langevelde, Huib Jan; van Rossum, Daniel R.; Wagner, Jan; Wardle, John; Ward-Thompson, Derek; Wex, Norbert; Wharton, Robert; Wu, Qingwen; Yoon, Doosoo; Young, André; Young, Ken; Younsi, Ziri; Yuan, Feng; Yuan, Ye-Fei; Zensus, J. Anton; Zhao, Guangyao; Zhao, Shan-Shan; Zhu, Ziyan.-- Original content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 licence. Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI. ; The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) has recently delivered the first resolved images of M87*, the supermassive black hole in the center of the M87 galaxy. These images were produced using 230 GHz observations performed in 2017 April. Additional observations are required to investigate the persistence of the primary image feature- A ring with azimuthal brightness asymmetry- A nd to quantify the image variability on event horizon scales. To address this need, we analyze M87* data collected with prototype EHT arrays in 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2013. While these observations do not contain enough information to produce images, they are sufficient to constrain simple geometric models. We develop a modeling approach based on the framework utilized for the 2017 EHT data analysis and validate our procedures using synthetic data. Applying the same approach to the observational data sets, we find the M87* morphology in 2009-2017 to be consistent with a persistent asymmetric ring of ∼40 μas diameter. The position angle of the peak intensity varies in time. In particular, we find a significant difference between the position angle measured in 2013 and 2017. These variations are in broad agreement with predictions of a subset of general relativistic magnetohydrodynamic simulations. We show that quantifying the variability across multiple observational epochs has the potential to constrain the physical properties of the source, such as the accretion state or the black hole spin. © 2020 The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society. ; The authors of the present paper thank the following organizations and programs: the Academy of Finland (projects 274477, 284495, 312496); the Advanced European Network of E-infrastructures for Astronomy with the SKA (AENEAS) project, supported by the European Commission Framework Programme Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation action under grant agreement 731016; the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung; the Black Hole Initiative at Harvard University, through a grant (60477) from the John Templeton Foundation; the China Scholarship Council; Comision Nacional de Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnologica (CONICYT, Chile, via PIA ACT172033, Fondecyt projects 1171506 and 3190878, BASAL AFB-170002, ALMA-conicyt 31140007); Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT, Mexico, projects 104497, 275201, 279006, 281692); the Delaney Family via the Delaney Family John A. Wheeler Chair at Perimeter Institute; Direccion General de Asuntos del Personal Academico-Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (DGAPA-UNAM, project IN112417); the European Research Council Synergy Grant "BlackHoleCam: Imaging the Event Horizon of Black Holes" (grant 610058); the Generalitat Valenciana postdoctoral grant APOSTD/2018/177 and GenT Program (project CIDEGENT/2018/021); the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation (grants GBMF-3561, GBMF-5278); the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) sezione di Napoli, iniziative specifiche TEONGRAV; the International Max Planck Research School for Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universities of Bonn and Cologne; the Jansky Fellowship program of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO); the Japanese Government (Monbukagakusho: MEXT) Scholarship; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellowship (JP17J08829); the Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS, grants QYZDJ-SSW-SLH057, QYZDJ-SSW-SYS008, ZDBS-LY-SLH011); the Leverhulme Trust Early Career Research Fellowship; the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG); the Max Planck Partner Group of the MPG and the CAS; the MEXT/JSPS KAKENHI (grants 18KK0090, JP18K13594, JP18K03656, JP18H03721, 18K03709, 18H01245, 25120007); the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) Funds; the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of Taiwan (105-2112-M-001-025-MY3, 106-2112-M-001-011, 106-2119-M-001-027, 107-2119-M-001-017, 107-2119-M-001-020, and 107-2119-M-110-005); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, Fermi Guest Investigator grant 80NSSC17K0649 and Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF2-51431.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. , for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555); the National Institute of Natural Sciences (NINS) of Japan; the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant 2016YFA0400704, 2016YFA0400702); the National Science Foundation (NSF, grants AST-0096454, AST-0352953, AST-0521233, AST-0705062, AST-0905844, AST-0922984, AST-1126433, AST-1140030, DGE-1144085, AST-1207704, AST-1207730, AST-1207752, MRI-1228509, OPP-1248097, AST-1310896, AST-1312651, AST-1337663, AST-1440254, AST-1555365, AST-1715061, AST-1615796, AST-1716327, OISE-1743747, AST-1816420); the Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 11573051, 11633006, 11650110427, 10625314, 11721303, 11725312, 11933007); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC, including a Discovery Grant and the NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarships-Doctoral Program); the National Youth Thousand Talents Program of China; the National Research Foundation of Korea (the Global PhD Fellowship Grant: grants NRF-2015H1A2A1033752, 2015-R1D1A1A01056807, the Korea Research Fellowship Program: NRF-2015H1D3A1066561); the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) VICI award (grant 639.043.513) and Spinoza Prize SPI 78-409; the New Scientific Frontiers with Precision Radio Interferometry Fellowship awarded by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory (SARAO), which is a facility of the National Research Foundation (NRF), an agency of the Department of Science and Technology (DST) of South Africa; the Onsala Space Observatory (OSO) national infrastructure, for the provisioning of its facilities/observational support (OSO receives funding through the Swedish Research Council under grant 2017-00648) the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (research at Perimeter Institute is supported by the Government of Canada through the Department of Innovation, Science and Economic Development and by the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Research, Innovation and Science); the Russian Science Foundation (grant 17-12-01029); the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (grants PGC2018-098915-B-C21, AYA2016-80889-P); the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the "Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa" award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (SEV-2017-0709); the Toray Science Foundation; the US Department of Energy (USDOE) through the Los Alamos National Laboratory (operated by Triad National Security, LLC, for the National Nuclear Security Administration of the USDOE (contract 89233218CNA000001)); the Italian Ministero dell'Istruzione Universita e Ricerca through the grant Progetti Premiali 2012-iALMA (CUP C52I13000140001); the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 730562 RadioNet; ALMA North America Development Fund; the Academia Sinica; Chandra TM6-17006X; the GenT Program (Generalitat Valenciana) Project CIDEGENT/2018/021. This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE), supported by NSF grant ACI-1548562, and CyVerse, supported by NSF grants DBI-0735191, DBI-1265383, and DBI-1743442. XSEDE Stampede2 resource at TACC was allocated through TG-AST170024 and TG-AST080026N. XSEDE JetStream resource at PTI and TACC was allocated through AST170028. The simulations were performed in part on the SuperMUC cluster at the LRZ in Garching, on the LOEWE cluster in CSC in Frankfurt, and on the HazelHen cluster at the HLRS in Stuttgart. This research was enabled in part by support provided by Compute Ontario (http://computeontario. ca), Calcul Quebec (http://www.calculquebec.ca), and Compute Canada (http://www.computecanada.ca). We thank the staff at the participating observatories, correlation centers, and institutions for their enthusiastic support. This paper makes use of the following ALMA data: ADS/JAO.ALMA#2016.1.01154.V. ALMA is a partnership of the European Southern Observatory (ESO; Europe, representing its member states), NSF, and National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan, together with the National Research Council (Canada), Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST; Taiwan), Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ASIAA; Taiwan), and Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI; Republic of Korea), in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. The Joint ALMA Observatory is operated by ESO, Associated Universities, Inc. (AUI)/NRAO, and the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The NRAO is a facility of the NSF operated under cooperative agreement by AUI. APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut fur Radioastronomie (Germany), ESO, and the Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden). The SMA is a joint project between the SAO and ASIAA and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The JCMT is operated by the East Asian Observatory on behalf of the NAOJ, ASIAA, and KASI, as well as the Ministry of Finance of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the National Key R&D Program (No. 2017YFA0402700) of China. Additional funding support for the JCMT is provided by the Science and Technologies Facility Council (UK) and participating universities in the UK and Canada. The LMT is a project operated by the Instituto Nacional de Astrofisica, ptica, y Electronica (Mexico), and the University of Massachusetts at Amherst (USA). The IRAM 30 m telescope on Pico Veleta, Spain is operated by IRAM and supported by CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France), MPG (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Germany), and IGN (Instituto Geografico Nacional, Spain). The SMT is operated by the Arizona Radio Observatory, a part of the Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona, with financial support of operations from the State of Arizona and financial support for instrumentation development from the NSF. The SPT is supported by the National Science Foundation through grant PLR- 1248097. Partial support is also provided by the NSF Physics Frontier Center grant PHY-1125897 to the Kavli Institute of Cosmological Physics at the University of Chicago, the Kavli Foundation, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation grant GBMF 947. The SPT hydrogen maser was provided on loan from the GLT, courtesy of ASIAA. The EHTC has received generous donations of FPGA chips from Xilinx Inc., under the Xilinx University Program. The EHTC has benefited from technology shared under an open-source license by the Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER). The EHT project is grateful to T4Science and Microsemi for their assistance with hydrogen masers. This research has made use of NASA's Astrophysics Data System. We gratefully acknowledge the support provided by the extended staff of the ALMA, both from the inception of the ALMA Phasing Project through the observational campaigns of 2017 and 2018. We would like to thank A. Deller and W. Brisken for EHT-specific support with the use of DiFX. We acknowledge the significance that Maunakea, where the SMA and JCMT EHT stations are located, has for the indigenous Hawaiian people.

The study was undertaken by researchers at UNSW Sydney, with the assistance and support of the City of Sydney Council.The aim of this research was to develop a survey tool for on-going assessment of social interactions and social cohesion at a large-scale urban renewal site that could be used to:➢ Measure the nature of social cohesion and social interaction and identify opportunities and barriers residents face in contributing to social cohesion and community development.➢ Understand the wellbeing of residents and workers, including their satisfaction with and attachment to the area, their local area preferences and desires, and their plans for the future.The results of the survey were presented to staff across the City of Sydney Council. It is expected that the survey findings will be used to inform Council's investments and activities across a range of areas, including community development, civic engagement, communications, placemaking, land use planning, open space and public domain planning, and local business development. The implications for practice presented here are preliminary and it is expected that City staff will further analyse and apply the survey findings to inform their work going forward. The City intends for the survey to be undertaken on a recurring basis over coming years, to monitor changes to the social fabric over time as the urban renewal area develops.Implications for community development: Green Square is an area with a large proportion of new residents (72% of survey respondents have lived in the area for 5 years or less), but that majority (70%) plan to remain resident in the area for a number of years. People feel more strongly connected to community at the larger scales of Sydney and Australia than at the local level of the suburb and street, but there is a desire to build more local connections, with the majority (68%) of residents wanting to have more interaction with others who live and work in the area.Private renters and younger people in particular desire more local social connection. Importantly, connection to community at the building scale is higher than at the suburb or street level, and the building scale was the only scale at which sense of community increased between 2017 and 2020. This suggests that community development at the building level is promising, but also that there is room to further develop community connections at the local suburb level. Interventions to encourage social interaction will be needed that engage residents who demonstrated a desire for greater involvement in social interactions but are constrained because of a lack of time and/or knowledge about the opportunities available to them, and a lack of confidence when dealing with strangers.Implications for civic engagement Around a third (32%) of residents felt they understood their rights around planning and urban development in the local area, slightly higher than in 2017 (27%). A smaller percentage (17%) felt they had made a civic contribution by working with others to improve the area. One in five felt that their thoughts about local issuescould be heard by people who make a difference (22%) and that there was strong local leadership in the area (18%), demonstrating a slight improvement from 2017 (when the figures were 20% and 15% respectively). There is potential for improved engagement amongst residents in the area as demonstrated by their willingness to be engaged in political discussions, with more residents having participated in other research (25%) and signed petitions (35%). There was also a substantial increase in the proportion of people who had joined a protest or demonstration from 8% in 2017 to 17% in 2020. The survey also revealed that relationships between language spoken at home and civic engagement are complex. People who speak a language other than English at home are less likely to be involved in communicating with a local politician or participated in the running of a strata or community title scheme. However, participation in research and council planning processes were equal or higher amongst people who speak a language other than English at home. There were also differences between people who speak a Chinese language and other language at home, with participation in online discussions, attendance at community events and sending letters to the media being higher amongst Chinese speaking residents than those speaking another language at home. In comparison, participation in a protest or demonstration was higher for those speaking English and another language at home compared to Chinese-speaking residents. These observed differences are based on small sample sizes and should therefore be treated with caution. However, they suggest that different strategies may be needed to encourage civic engagement of people who speak a language other than English at home and that different strategies may be more effective for different language groups.Implications for communications: Aside from time constraints, difficulty in finding information about social activities (26%) was the second most common limitation given by residents to socialising with others in the area. Barriers to participate in community activities were more pronounced among people speaking languages other than English at home. However, there are some interesting differences when comparing people speaking a Chinese language at home and people speaking another language at home, notably that people speaking a Chinese language are more likely to say that they are not confident with strangers, not interested in getting involved and have difficulty accessing facilities or venues, but are less likely to say that they do not feel welcome than people speaking another language at home.Residents would like to receive information about social activities through social media (63%), e-mails (56%), noticeboards in public places and their buildings (52%) and websites (36%). The City can provide such information through City-specific social media and through partnering with other social media platforms known to be actively used in the area, as well as collaborating with building managers. These approaches were effective in promoting the survey to residents. However, preferences for information differ greatly by age and language spoken at home. People aged over 50 were much less likely to want to receive information via social media (36%). However, e-mailed community newsletters were a more popular option amongst people over 50 (56%). People speaking a Chinese language at home are more likely to want to receive information via social media, noticeboards in public places or their building, websites, at the local community centre or library and in local newspapers and businesses and less likely to want to receive this information via word of mouth than both people speaking English and those speaking other languages at home. These results indicate that a variety of communication methods will be needed to reach all groups. However social media, e-mailed community newsletters and websites are important sources of information.Implications for placemaking: The majority of residents (90%) agreed that the area is a good place to live. This proportion has changed little since the 2014 and 2017 surveys and did not change before and after the introduction of the Covid-19 restrictions. This suggests that a high level of satisfaction with the area. However, people felt more strongly connected to Australia, Sydney and the inner city and surrounds than to their local area, street or building. Respondents to the 2020 survey were less connected to the communities at different scales than in 2017, with the exception of the building scale. As there is a relationship between length of residence and community attachment, this likely reflects the high proportion of residents who have lived in the area for less than six years, but nevertheless suggests that there is potential for further community development at the local scale.Implications for land use planning: The things people most commonly said they disliked about the area related to the danger of overdevelopment and the impacts of construction on the area and its overall density. Many people were also concerned about heavy traffic (48%) and parking (31%). However, while improvements to traffic management and public transport were the most important improvements residents wanted to see in 2017 (mentioned by 49% and 50% of resident respectively), in 2020 they remained important (mentioned by 43% and 43% of residents respectively) but were no longer the most commonly mentioned improvement. This likely reflects the gradual maturity of Green Square as a neighbourhood, where most hard infrastructure is now in place. More than half (58%) of residents travel to work or study using public transport and almost half (47%) of people said they moved to the area because of the proximity to public transport, demonstrating the important role that public transport plays in the attractiveness of the area.Notably, improvements that residents wanted to see in the area differed between age groups with younger people more likely to desire a greater variety of cafes, restaurants and bars, evening activities and public transport that connects to more parts of the city, while older people were more likely to desire landscaping in streets and parks a greater variety of retail shops and improved traffic management.Implications for open space and public domain planning: Parks and public spaces are significant locations for social interaction in Green Square and heavily used by residents. After cafes and restaurants, local (79%) and regional (66%) parks were the most commonly used local facilities. This could influence local land use planning and infrastructure development in Green Square and in future urban renewal areas, as it indicates that parks are important in facilitating local social interaction. However, there remains an important role for more formal community facilities, especially for particular groups, demonstrated by the higher proportion of unemployed people making use of community centres (19%) compared to the population as a whole (10%).Implications for local business: The most common places where people socialise with others in Green Square is cafes, restaurants and/or pubs (52%) and incidental interaction also commonly occurs in these places (52%). Cafes and restaurants are also the most commonly used services and facilities (94% of residents). Such businesses are therefore playing an important social role in the area, and two-thirds of residents (65%) said that they would like to see a wider variety of cafes, restaurants and bars in the area in the future. This suggests that the ideal of mixed-use development encouraging greater social interaction is supported by the findings in this case and has implications for development application planners who are making decisions about new businesses in the area.

Since autumn 2009 a new subject – «arbeidslivsfag» – has been implemented as an experiment in 133 selected lower secondary schools. The intension has been to develop a practical subject, as an alternative to students who do not want to learn a new foreign language in grade 8–10. One objective of introducing the subject has been to offer a subject where students can work with practical tasks and where they should learn how to make products and develop practical services. Throughout the course, students should be familiar with the practical professions, and they should be involved in activities related to the vocational education programs in secondary schools. The goal is to offer students who want it, opportunities to work practically and try out their interests for vocational training. Another goal is to offer an alternative way to enhance motivation for school, as well as to safeguard the development of basic skills (i.e. to read, write, and calculate). At the end of the course, all students should receive a grade for the course and some of the students are to be tested through an oral exam. The grades in «arbeidslivsfag» count for admission to secondary school. National authorities have developed a national curriculum for the experiment, as well a guidance to it. The experiment started in 16 schools in autumn 2009 and was expanded to 133 schools in 82 municipalities the following year. Later, the government extended the experiment period, and from 2012 it is possible for all school owners to offer «arbeidslivsfag». At these schools students has been given the opportunity to choose this subject as an alternative to learn a second foreign language in addition to English (i.e. German, French, Spanish, etc.). NOVA – Norwegian Social Research – was commissioned by the Directorate of Educational and Training to evaluate this experiment. The reason was the government's desire to have a knowledge base for making a decision whether «arbeidslivsfag» should be obligatory to offer to all lower secondary school students across the country. NOVA has followed the experiment since autumn 2010 until spring 2013. During this period, it has been published two reports on the experiment (Bakken and Dæhlen 2011, Bakken et al. 2012). This is the final report from the evaluation study. The purpose of the report is to provide an overall picture of how «arbeidslivsfag» has worked after the students have completed the scheduled three-year course and to evaluate whether the intentions of the subject has been realized. The empirical basis for the study is a qualitative case study of six schools (including observation of the teaching and interviews with students and teachers), two large-scale surveys of students and teachers (first during the initial year at grade 8 and a follow-up two years later in grade 10) and interviews with school leaders. In addition we have utilized registry data on all 10th grade students' school achievement, making it possible to compare changes in academic achievement both among students who participated and those who did not participate in the experiment. Characteristics of students in «arbeidslivsfag» The evaluation shows that about one in five students have participated in «arbeidslivsfag». The proportion increased from 19 percent in 8th grade to 22 percent in 10th grade. Two out of three students are boys, and students with weak academic skills are clearly overrepresented. Another characteristic of the students of «arbeidslivsfag» is that parents have lower education and income than the parents of students who attend other courses. Students at «arbeidslivsfag» also tend to skip school to a greater degree than other students. Children of immigrants have participated to a lesser degree than other students in «arbeidslivsfag». 1) «Arbeidslivsfag» has been conducted as a practical subject An important intention of «arbeidslivsfag» has been to develop a practical subject. The evaluation shows that this intention has been fulfilled throughout the experimental period. Even though not all students agree, the vast majority of students believe that after three years of «arbeidslivsfag» they have gotten better to work with practical things, and the list of practical skills that students have been doing, is long and varied. Teachers almost unanimously agreed that the subject has mainly been practical, and students report that they have worked practically in most or half of the tutorials. 2) Both students and teachers are satisfied Another key finding of the evaluation is that the vast majority of both teachers and students are very satisfied. For most students, participation in «arbeidslivsfag» have had positive experiences. A large majority believe that they have learned much useful, and seven out of ten think «arbeidslivsfag» is the best of all subjects in school. The main reason that students enjoy the course is that the subject is perceived as a different school subjects in which teaching takes place under other conditions than the traditional school subjects. They describe a practical subject where they can work on different tasks, and where they can use their hands and body to a greater extent than in other subjects. The fact that «arbeidslivsfag» fills such functions is in line with what was formulated as an important objective when the experiment was introduced. The course was intended to help the school life of the students to become more diverse, and that working methods should be more adapted to the students' way of thinking and working. For the majority of students, «arbeidslivsfag» have worked this way. In general, most teachers believe that the subject has worked very well. Many think that «arbeidslivsfag» has given students a respite from an otherwise theoretically dominated school life, and that the subject has given many students new experiences of mastery in school. The working method of «arbeidslivsfag» is different and provides more time and more opportunities for conversation between teachers and students than many other subjects. Most teachers report that they are satisfied with most practical circumstances surrounding the implementation of the subject, but there are some practical assumptions that limit the quality of education if they are not present. The availability of suitable premises is one such condition. It is therefore worrying that almost half of the teachers consider that the access to and quality of facilities are not satisfactory. Some teachers also report that pupil composition makes it difficult to complete the course in a good way – either because the spread of the student group is very large, or because of the very many students with behavioral problems in one place can be challenging. How to assess students is another area perceived as challenging by the teachers. Even though most pupils are well satisfied, this does not apply to all. For example, almost one in five regrets that they have participated in «arbeidslivsfag». By far the most common reason for this is that the expectations many had that «arbeidslivsfag» should represent something other than what they otherwise experience in school, have not been met. The evaluation has also seen a tendency that more girls than boys are less satisfied with the course. 3) Motivation for school One of the intentions of introducing «arbeidslivsfag» has been to strengthen students' motivation for school. In this area we are more questioning of whether the experiment has had the desired effects. Even though a large proportion of the teachers believe that «arbeidslivsfag» has helped to increase students' overall school motivation, asking the pupils tells another story. Many students find it difficult to assess what kind of impact «arbeidslivsfag» has had on their overall school motivation, but there are also many who believe that the subject has not worked that way. Almost half disagree that they have greater desire to learn other subjects as a result of attending «arbeidslivsfag». This finding is a distinct contrast to the other expressions of «arbeidslivsfag» made by the students. If teachers are right that many students has been more motivated for school by attending «arbeidslivsfag», we believe that it would be reasonable to expect to observe a more positive development in school achievement among students of «arbeidslivsfag» than among comparable groups of students who have not participated in the subject. When we compare the students of «arbeidslivsfag» with such students we found no differences in the development of academic achievement. This suggests that «arbeidslivsfag» in general has not helped to influence the motivation for school neither more nor less than comparable students who have participated in the course. Main conclusion The findings from the evaluation show that we are dealing with a subject that is strongly desired by school leaders, teachers and students. In most schools, «Arbeidslivsfag» has been practiced as a training program where students are given practical work – with a diverse set of tasks and learning goals, which for most of the students are perceived as more relevant, interesting and useful than the tasks and goals they are faced with in most other subjects. A large majority of students are very satisfied and seven out of ten state that this is the best course they have at school. The teachers express a strong enthusiasm for the subject and many are happy with how it worked for the students. Although the main story in the evaluation of «arbeidslivsfag» is a success story, we are still cautious about whether the subject has proven to make students in general more motivated for school. Still, we recommend «arbeidslivsfag» to be an obligatory subject to be offered in lower secondary school as an alternative for students who do not want to learn a second foreign language. ; Dette er sluttrapporten fra en evaluering av et treårig forsøkmed et praktisk fag i ungdomstrinnet - arbeidslivsfaget. Fagetskal være et alternativ til fremmedspråk og har vært innført som ettav flere tiltak for å gjøre ungdomstrinnet mer variert. En av intensjonene med forsøket er å styrke elevenes faglige motivasjon. På forsøksskolene har en av fem elever deltatt i arbeidslivsfaget. Evalueringen viser at arbeidslivsfaget har vært gjennomført som et praktisk fag og med stor grad av lokal variasjon. Forskerne stiller seg imidlertid spørrende til hvorvidt intensjonen om å styrke elevenes skolemotivasjon har blitt oppfylt. Elever og lærere er likevel svært tilfredse med hvordan faget har fungert, og nøkkelen til suksess er at faget representerer en alternativ læringsarena i skolen som gir mestringsopplevelser for flere elever. Rapporten anbefaler at forsøket innføres som en permanent ordning på ungdomstrinnet.

Horizon Environmental Services, Inc. (Horizon) was selected by the City of Dripping Springs to conduct an intensive cultural resources inventory survey and assessment of the proposed Dripping Springs Wastewater System Improvements Project (EID 1) in Dripping Springs, Hays County, Texas (USACE Project No. SWF-2020-00075). This survey represents the first phase of a larger project involving the proposed construction of wastewater system improvements in Dripping Springs. The current phase of the project would involve three separate components—the West Interceptor segment, which extends approximately 3.7 kilometers (2.3 miles) in length along Onion Creek west of Farm-to-Market Road (FM) 12; the Reclaimed Water Line segment, which extends approximately 1.3 kilometers (0.8 mile) in length between Needham Road and the intersection of FM 12 and FM 150; an approximately 2.3-hectare (5.7-acre) effluent pond located south of an existing water reclamation facility south of FM 150; and the proposed expansion of the existing water reclamation facility adjacent to the proposed effluent pond, which together cover 3.3 hectares (8.0 acres). The linear rights-of-way (ROW) of proposed pipeline segments would measure a maximum of 30.5 meters (100.0 feet) in width, and the proposed project components would cover a combined area of approximately 18.5 hectares (45.6 acres). The proposed undertaking would be sponsored by the City of Dripping Springs, a public subdivision of the state of Texas. As a political subdivision of the state of Texas, the project would fall under the jurisdiction of the Antiquities Code of Texas (Natural Resources Code, Title 9, Chapter 191). In addition, the project would utilize funding provided by the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF) program, which is a federal-state partnership between the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the state of Texas. As the US EPA is a federal agency, the project would also fall under the jurisdiction of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended. As the proposed project represents a publicly sponsored undertaking, the project sponsor is required to provide the Texas Historical Commission (THC), which serves as the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) for the state of Texas, with an opportunity to review and comment on the project's potential to adversely affect historic properties listed on or considered eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) under the NHPA and for designation as State Antiquities Landmarks (SAL) under the Antiquities Code of Texas. From October 1 to 3, on November 4, and on November 22, 2019, Horizon archeologists Jesse Dalton, McKinzie Froese, Amy Goldstein, Elizabeth Sefton, and Jared Wiersema conducted an intensive cultural resources survey of the project area, including pedestrian walkover with shovel testing and backhoe trenching. The survey was performed under the supervision of Jeffrey D. Owens, who served as Principal Investigator, under Texas Antiquities Permit No. 9114. The purpose of the survey was to locate any significant cultural resources that potentially would be impacted by the proposed undertaking. Horizon's archeologists traversed the project area on foot and thoroughly inspected the modern ground surface for aboriginal and historic-age cultural resources. Overall, vegetation across the entire project area generally consisted of short- to medium-length grasses interspersed with mature live oak and cedar trees, which afforded fair to good ground surface visibility (30 to 60%). Within the riparian zone of Onion Creek, vegetation consisted of tall, dense grass and mature honey mesquite, cedar, live oak, and hackberry trees, which provided poor ground surface visibility (<30%). The West Interceptor segment runs along the gravelly terraces of Onion Creek. Topographically, this segment of the project area consists of steep limestone steps and rocky outcrops that give way to flat, open fields. The proposed interceptor crosses Onion Creek at three locations, and the lower stream terraces of the creek have extensive gravel bars and debris associated with high-energy flooding. Soil profiles typically consist of a shallow A horizon of hard, calcareous clay loam underlain by dense gravelly deposits; however, in the southeastern portion of the West Interceptor, deeper clayey loam alluvium underlain by limestone bedrock was encountered. The Reclaimed Water Line segment traverses the west-facing hillslopes of upland ridges east of Onion Creek. Approximately the southeastern half of this segment of the project area would be constructed within the existing ROW of FM 12 west of the roadway, and construction, use, and ongoing maintenance of the roadway and associated facilities has resulted in extensive prior disturbances. Evidence of ground disturbance resulting from land clearing for housing developments and a transmission line were also noted within the northwestern portion of the proposed Reclaimed Water Line segment. The far northwestern end of the proposed Reclaimed Water Line segment skims the edge of the floodplain associated with a tributary of Onion Creek. Sediments on the terraces of this stream channel consist of calcareous loamy alluvial deposits, while soils across the upland portions of the segment consist of shallow deposits of gravelly clay and clay loam underlain by naturally degrading limestone bedrock. The water reclamation facility expansion and effluent pond segment are located on the upper terraces northeast of Onion Creek. The water reclamation facility is an existing industrial facility surrounded by septic fields, and prior disturbances from construction, use, and ongoing maintenance of the facility are extensive. The proposed expansion area to the north of the existing facility is currently utilized as a septic field. Sediments within this segment of the project area consist of shallow, gravelly, calcareous loamy to clayey loam alluvium underlain by naturally degrading limestone bedrock. In addition to a pedestrian walkover, the Texas State Minimum Archeological Survey Standards (TSMASS) require a minimum of 16 subsurface shovel tests per 1.6 kilometers (1.0 mile) for each 30.5-meter- (100.0-foot-) wide transect (or fraction thereof) for linear surveys unless field conditions warrant more shovel tests (e.g., in cultural high-probability areas) or fewer shovel tests (e.g., on steep slopes, in areas with excellent ground surface visibility). For block-area surveys, the TSMASS require two shovel tests per 0.4 hectare (1.0 acre) for project areas between 1.2 and 4.0 hectares (3.0 and 10.0 acres) in size. As such, a minimum of 37 shovel tests would be required within the West Interceptor segment, 13 shovel tests would be required within the Reclaimed Water Line segment, and 16 shovel tests would be required within the proposed water reclamation facility expansion and effluent pond area, for a total of 66 shovel tests for the project area as a whole. Horizon excavated a total of 106 shovel tests during the survey, including 82 shovel tests within the West Interceptor segment, 13 shovel tests within the Reclaimed Water Line segment, and 11 shovel tests within the facility expansion and effluent pond area. The shovel tests within the proposed facility expansion and effluent pond area were not all excavated directly within the final proposed construction footprint as the boundaries of this portion of the project area had not been firmly determined at the time of the survey, and no shovel tests were excavated within the existing water reclamation facility due to the extent of observable prior disturbances within this area. Overall, Horizon exceeded the minimum number of shovel tests required for the project area as a whole, and it is Horizon's opinion that shovel testing was capable of fully penetrating sediments with the potential to contain subsurface archeological deposits (with the exception noted below where backhoe trenches were excavated along a portion of the West Interceptor segment). In addition to shovel testing, Horizon excavated four backhoe trenches within the southeastern portion of the proposed West Interceptor segment. The trenches were excavated at roughly 100.0-meter (328.0-foot) intervals along the proposed centerline to depths ranging from 105.0 to 350.0 centimeters (41.3 to 137.8 inches) below surface. Sediments observed within trench profiles typically consisted of moderately deep deposits of grayish-brown fine clay loam over yellowish-brown fine sandy loam. Dense deposits of river cobbles and/or naturally degrading limestone bedrock were observed at the base of three of the four trenches, and it is Horizon's opinion that backhoe trenching was capable of fully penetrating sediments with the potential to contain archeological deposits. One chert flake was recorded in a shovel test (ST AG30) at a depth of 0.0 to 30.0 centimeters (0.0 to 11.8 inches) below surface at the far northwestern end of the West Interceptor project segment. Supplemental delineation shovel tests excavated around this initial discovery failed to produce any additional evidence of prehistoric cultural activity at this location, so the chert flake was recorded as an isolated artifact occurrence but was not documented as an archeological site. No other cultural resources of prehistoric or historic age were recorded within the project area during the pedestrian survey, shovel testing, or backhoe trenching. Based on the results of the survey-level investigations documented in this report, no cultural resources would be affected by the proposed undertaking. In accordance with 36 CFR 800.4, Horizon has made a reasonable and good-faith effort to identify historic properties within the project area. No cultural resources were identified within the project area that meet the criteria for designation as SALs according to 13 TAC 26 or for inclusion in the NRHP according to 36 CFR 60.4. Horizon recommends a finding of "no historic properties affected," and no further archeological work is recommended in connection with the proposed undertaking. However, human burials, both prehistoric and historic, are protected under the Texas Health and Safety Code. In the event that any human remains or burial objects are inadvertently discovered at any point during construction, use, or ongoing maintenance in the project area, even in previously surveyed areas, all work should cease immediately in the vicinity of the inadvertent discovery, and the THC should be notified immediately. Following completion of the project, all project records will be prepared for permanent curation at the Texas Archeological Research Laboratory (TARL).

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 협동과정 기술경영·경제·정책전공,2020. 2. 황준석. ; 기술 변화와 혁신이 국가 경제 성장의 주요 원천으로 강조되는 한편, 혁신활동에 있어 지리적 공간의 중요성을 인식함에 따라 지역적 차원에서의 혁신과 성장에 대한 논의가 심화되고 있다. 이러한 지역 수준 관점의 상대적 이점에 따라 지역 혁신과 성장에 관한 이론이 발전해왔으며, 그에 상응하는 지역 혁신 및 성장정책이 설계 및 이행되어왔다. 하지만 지역 고유의 개별적인 특성과 혁신역량이 다양하고 이질적임에도 불구하고 이에 대한 깊은 논의는 부재한 채 동질적인(one-size-fits-all) 지역혁신 및 성장 정책이 적용되어 왔다. 따라서 본 연구는 진화적 및 시스템적 관점을 채택하여 서로 다른 수준의 혁신 잠재력을 지닌 지역들을 대상으로 각 지역의 학습 프로세스에 중점을 둔 지역 혁신 및 성장 패턴에 관하여 분석하고자 한다. 이러한 목적 하에서 본 논문은 기술변화 진화이론에서 제시하는 지식에 대한 접근과 효율적 사용을 가능케 하는 세가지 핵심 기능 영역인 새로운 지식의 흡수, 혁신의 확산, 그리고 새로운 지식의 창출, 이 세가지 단계에 주목하고자 한다. 이 주요 세 가지 기능에 초점을 맞춰, 세 가지의 세부 연구내용이 학위논문에 포함되었으며, 개별 세부 연구들은 서로 다른 지식 축적 수준과 다양성을 가진 지역들의 지역혁신체제의 형성과 발전과정에 대한 연구를 담고 있다. 우선 첫 번째 세부 연구에서는 기술력이 거의 없거나 전혀 없는 개발도상국의 지역에서 외부의 지식을 흡수하고 지역사회 차원에서 혁신을 촉발시키기 위해 적용할 수 있는 개념적 틀을 제안하였다. 이를 위해 개발도상국의 적정기술 사례에 풀뿌리 혁신(grassroots innovation) 이론의 개념을 적용하여 질적 사례연구를 수행하였다. 풀뿌리 혁신은 선진국에서만 논의되어온 개념으로, 지속가능성을 위한 사회적 또는 포용적 혁신을 추구하는 커뮤니티 수준의 상향식(bottom-up) 혁신이다. 본 연구는 이러한 풀뿌리 혁신과 개발도상국을 대상으로 하는 적정기술의 유사성 및 연결성을 체계적으로 제시하고, 그를 바탕으로 다섯 가지의 핵심 구성 요소들을 포함한 개념적 틀을 재정의 및 제시하였다. 사례 연구에 따르면 사회적 니치는 로컬 지식 전달 메커니즘이 발현될 수 있도록 하며 이는 지역사회가 더 효율적으로 기술을 사용하는 데에 중요한 역할을 하는 것으로 나타났다. 두 번째 세부 연구의 경우에는 한국의 시군 지역들의 혁신 및 성장 패턴을 규명하고자 하였다. 클러스터들의 경우 집적효과를 통해 더욱 높은 수준의 혁신과 성장을 촉진한다는 측면에서 지역혁신체제 내에서 큰 잠재적 역할을 지닌다. 그에 따라 많은 지역에서 클러스터 정책을 지역 혁신 및 성장정책 수단으로 활용해왔으며, 우리나라의 지방정부들 역시 클러스터 기반 정책을 활발히 추진 중에 있다. 그러나 우리나라의 클러스터 정책은 지역의 상황과 수요에 대한 객관적인 분석이 미비한 채 과잉 공급되어 실효성 없는 정책으로 평가 받고 있다. 따라서 두 번째 세부 연구에서는 사회경제적 요소들과 지식 역량 관련 요소들을 함께 포함하여 시스템적 관점에서 클러스터에 따른 지역 경제성장 효과를 파악하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 클러스터가 존재하는 한국의 모든 시군 지역을 대상으로 PCA 분석과 패널 분석을 시행하였다. 분석 결과 클러스터를 통해 지역 내 혁신과 성장을 촉진하기 위해서는 사회경제적 환경이 선행되어야 함을 확인하였다. 그리고 우리나라 지역에서는 R&D 역량 제고에 따른 성장효과가 클러스터 효과보다 더 크고 장기적으로 영향을 미침에 따라, 클러스터 기반 정책이 당초 예상했던 것보다 낮은 성과를 가져올 수 있음을 제시하였다. 더불어, 지역 내 활용 가능한 인적자원, 교육 시스템, 연구개발 활동의 질, 클러스터의 집약도 등의 요소들이 한국의 지역 성장을 위해 필수적으로 고려되어야 할 제도적 부문인 것으로 확인하였다. 세 번째 세부 연구는 지식을 새로 재조합하는 능력이 지속가능하고 장기적인 성장을 위한 동인으로 평가됨에 따라, 유럽의 지역들을 대상으로 지역의 지식 재조합 역량이 지역 생산성에 미치는 영향을 파악하고자 하였다. 더 구체적으로, 본 연구는 지식 혹은 기술 재조합의 유형을 탐색(exploration) 유형과 활용(exploitation) 유형으로 나누어 두 가지 유형이 생산성에 미치는 영향을 비교분석 하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 EU NUTS 2 레벨 지역들을 대상으로 특허 데이터를 활용한 기술 구분간 결합 매트릭스의 생성으로 지식 축적 패턴을 분석하고, 확률적 프론티어 모델을 통해 기술 효율성을 계산하였다. 그리고 경제 규모, 지식 축적 정도, 시기 효과 등을 조절하여 지역의 지식 재조합 유형과 기술 효율성간의 관계를 회귀하였다. 분석 결과 활용적 재조합은 별다른 영향을 주지 않는 반면, 탐색적 재조합은 지역의 생산성 향상에 긍정적이고 유의미한 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 위의 논의를 바탕으로 본 학위논문은 서로 다른 지역 수준에 따른 정책적 시사점을 제공할 것으로 기대한다. 첫째, 기술력이 낮은 후발 지역에서는 풀뿌리 혁신의 개념적 틀을 적용하여 외부 지식, 기술 또는 혁신을 흡수하여 지역의 요구에 대응할 수 있는 기반을 형성하여야 한다. 둘째, 지역 내 지식확산이 효과적으로 이루어지기 위해서는 바람직한 사회경제적 환경이 선행되어야 하고, R&D 역량에 대한 투자가 지속적으로 함께 이루어져야 한다. 셋째, 지식 축적 정도와 지식의 다양성 수준이 높은 지역에서는 새로운 지식의 탐색적 비용과 불확실성이 높음에도 불구하고 새로운 지식 재조합의 역량을 키워야 할 것이다. ; While technological change and innovation have been treated as key to national economic growth, attention to innovation and development at a regional level has grown from the recognition of the importance of geographical space in the innovation process. Theories on regional innovation and growth have been developed under the advantages of regional examination, and regional innovation policies were designed and implemented accordingly. However, the one-size-fits-all approach to regional policies remains troublesome as regions differ widely in terms of their intrinsic characteristics and innovation capabilities. Based on these concerns, this thesis adopts an evolutionary and systematic integrated view to investigate regional innovation and growth patterns focusing on learning processes in regions with different levels of innovation potential. This thesis adopts three main functional dimensions of access to and efficient use of knowledge in evolutionary theories; that is, absorption of new knowledge, diffusion of innovations, and generation of new knowledge. In accordance with the three dimensions, three studies are included with analyses of regional innovation and development strategies for regions with different levels of knowledge accumulation and diversity. The first study proposes a framework for the initiation of community-level innovation in a developing country where technological capabilities are few or non-existent, causing mere adaption to external innovations. With a qualitative analysis of an appropriate technology case, the study adopts concepts from grassroots innovation. Grassroots innovation is a community-level bottom-up innovation that has been discussed only in developed countries as a means of socially inclusive innovation for sustainability. However, this study identifies the links between appropriate technology and grassroots innovation and redefines a framework with core constructs: context, driving force, niche, organizational form, and resource base. The case study shows that a social niche plays a significant role in improving the use of technology by creating a local knowledge transfer mechanism through social learning. The second study investigates regional innovation and growth patterns of regions with clusters in Korea. Clusters have been popular among regional policy makers for promoting greater innovation and growth. In this regard, Korean local governments have also pursued a cluster-based policy for regional development. However, the problem is that clusters are oversupplied without an objective examination of regional conditions and demands, and the existence of clusters does not necessarily secure regional networks or economic growth. Therefore, the study aims to examine the effects of clustering on regional economic performance along with socioeconomic factors and knowledge capacity factors from a systematic perspective. Principal component analysis and panel regression methods are used to analyze Korean regions with clusters. The results indicate that favorable socioeconomic contexts are prerequisites to foster innovation and growth by clusters. In addition, a cluster-based policy may have a smaller effect than expected because R&D capacity has a stronger and longer effect on economic performance. Lastly, specific factors such as a pool of labor, education systems, quality of R&D activities, and agglomeration density of clusters are found to be critical to regional growth in regions in Korea. The last study focuses on regional capacity for knowledge recombination and its impact on regional productivity in European regions, as novel recombination is assessed to be a new driver for sustainable and long-term regional growth. Consequently, the study specifies regional capacity in technological recombination into exploration and exploitation and compare their effects on regional productivity. For the analysis, a knowledge space is constructed using technology class co-occurrence matrices with patent data, and technical efficiencies are calculated using a stochastic frontier model from socioeconomic data of EU NUTS 2 level regions. The relationship of regional recombination types and technical efficiencies is then regressed, controlling for economy scale, knowledge stock, and periodic effects. The results demonstrate that explorative recombination has a positive and significant influence on productivity gains while exploitative activity has no influence. Overall, the thesis provides several policy implications for regions from the evolutionary and systematic perspectives. First, in lagging regions with low technological capabilities, the five-construct framework drawn from grassroots innovation can form a basis for absorption of external knowledge, technology, or innovation to adapt to local needs. Second, for intra-regional knowledge spillovers to be effective in intermediate regions, creating a favorable socioeconomic environment should take precedence. Moreover, consistent attention to investment in R&D capacity is required. Third, explorative new knowledge recombination is recommended in regions with a high level of knowledge accumulation and diversity despite its high cost and attendant uncertainties. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.2 Research objectives 6 1.3 Research outline 7 Chapter 2. Literature Review 10 2.1 Regional innovation and development 10 2.1.1 The need for regional analysis 10 2.1.2 Regional economic development theories 14 2.2 Evolutionary economic geography 17 2.3 Regional innovation systems 22 2.4 Contribution of the study 26 Chapter 3. Grassroots innovation for regional development in developing countries: A qualitative study on appropriate technology 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Literature review 32 3.2.1 Appropriate technology 32 3.2.2 Grassroots innovation 34 3.2.3 Bridging appropriate technology and grassroots innovation 37 3.3 Methodology and data 41 3.3.1 Framework: Common constructs 41 3.3.2 Methodology and data 46 3.4 Case study 49 3.5 Discussion 57 3.6 Conclusion 61 Chapter 4. Illusions of clustering: Investigating regional innovation and growth patterns in Korea from a systematic perspective 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Literature review 65 4.2.1 Regions, innovation, and growth 65 4.2.2 Clusters and regional growth 67 4.3 Methodology 72 4.4 Data 82 4.5 Results 87 4.6 Discussion 92 4.6.1 Summary of results and policy implications 92 4.6.2 Other variables 94 4.7 Conclusion 98 Chapter 5. The effects of regional capacity in knowledge recombination on productivity gains in Europe 101 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Literature review 102 5.3 Methodology and data 106 5.3.1 Methods 106 5.3.2 Data 111 5.4 Results 112 5.4.1 Regional recombination capacity 112 5.4.2 Regional productivity 114 5.4.3 Regional recombination and productivity 115 5.5 Discussion and conclusion 118 Chapter 6. Conclusion 121 6.1 Overall summary 121 6.2 Policy implications and contributions 125 6.3 Limitations and future research 127 Bibliography 130 Appendix 1: Sources for case study 154 Appendix 2: Model test statistics 157 Appendix 3: Additional analysis with patent variable 159 Appendix 4: Random-effects parameters in random coefficient models 161 Abstract (Korean) 163 ; Doctor

ABSTRACTObjective of this study is to determine the impact of intellectual capital disclosure on cost of equity capital in financial reporting of banking sector companies registered on the Indonesia Stock Exchange. This study used intellectual capital disclosure as independent variable, cost of equity capital as dependent variable, and firm size as moderation variable. This method used is quantitative approach. Data of research is secondary data, using annual report of companies listed in the Indonesia Stock Exchange gained through www.idx.co.id. Samples research were selected by using purposive sampling method. The analysis technique used in this research is multiple linear regression analysis. 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In Ecuador, the adoption and consolidation of international architectural styles has been historically executed within a late period, it has even started to exist, when in the places of their origin these approaches have stopped being active. Particularly in the capital city of Quito, the brutalist movement developed with a ten-year delay. In this period of time it was possible to visualize small or sporadic hints that started to announce its appearance. This tendency, however, became clear in the mid-sixties when monumental structures of concrete started to occupy the city. Within the two-decade work of architects Oswaldo de la Torre, Milton Barragán and Ovidio Wappenstein it's possible to see the presence of this architectonic movement represented in the execution of public and private buildings of diverse scales. This work recognizes the existence of representative edifications within the brutalist architectural movement in Quito during a twenty-year period, and tries to assemble a speech about its acceptance in community, its development and end. This work also illustrates, through graphic analysis, the characteristics that give value to such structures and make them part of this expressive category. To develop this investigation, the next series of hypothesis are proposed: •The origin of the brutalist movement in the city of Quito, is exposed through a selected group of buildings designed by architects Oswaldo de la Torre Villacreces, Milton Barragán Dumet and Ovidio Wappenstein. •The adoption, development and ending of the brutalist movement in Quito is explained in five key moments that are related to historic, economic and political conditions of the city. • The formal and functional characteristics of the selected works, determine three ways of approximation to brutalism. • The production of Quito can be faced to the global environment of brutalism; this is because it is conceived upon universal architectonic principles. The work integrates eleven works of multiple scales, programs and representations within the city. The document is based on the analysis of the recompilation or the original blue prints as the primordial way to do its bi dimensional and tri dimensional reconstruction. This selection doesn't look for the equilibrium in the number of works of each author, it rather evaluates the selection because of their formal, special and material relevance. To structure the development of this movement in the city, this work proposes the aggrupation of the buildings in five temporal moments where they can be associated by the historical situation in Quito and the factors that contribute to their particularity and representation in the media. The study pretends to situate the three characters as the initial exponents of this movement and to recognize that their work promoted posterior interventions in the same line by other professionals. The descriptive reading of the projects its accompanied by the graphic dissection of the buildings. This action combined, locates the qualities that sustain the edifications within the movement and at the same time it determines the particular way in which each architect intervenes. The unveiled information determines the existence of multiple classes or subcategories inside brutalism in Quito. Therefore, this work illustrates the ways this current is approximated as replicable architectonic principles. Once the specific qualities of the projects are interpreted as logics for design, they are assumed as useful tools for the orientations in essays of the studious in the subject as for the works of designer architects. ; La adopción y consolidación de estilos arquitectónicos internacionales en Ecuador, históricamente se ha llevado a cabo dentro desplazamientos tardíos, llegando inclusive a existir en momentos en los que, en sus lugares de origen, han dejado de ser vigentes. Particularmente en la ciudad capital, Quito, la corriente brutalista se desarrolló con un retraso aproximado de diez años, tiempo en el cual fue posible visualizar pequeños o esporádicos indicios que anunciaban su aparición. No obstante, la tendencia fue rotundamente clara, a mediados de los años sesenta, cuando estructuras monumentales de hormigón armado, empezaron a poblar la ciudad. Dentro de la obra realizada durante dos décadas, por los arquitectos Oswaldo de la Torre, Milton Barragán y Ovidio Wappenstein, es posible evidenciar la presencia de este movimiento arquitectónico, representado en la ejecución de edificaciones de carácter público y privado. Este trabajo, reconoce la existencia de obras representativas del movimiento arquitectónico brutalista en Quito en un periodo de veinte años e intenta ensamblar un discurso acerca de su adopción en el medio, su desarrollo y término. Ilustra a partir del análisis gráfico, las características que dan valor a estas obras y que explican su clasificación dentro de esta categoría expresiva. La investigación plantea las siguientes hipótesis: El origen del movimiento brutalista en la ciudad de Quito, se expone a través de obras seleccionadas del trabajo de los arquitectos Oswaldo de la Torre Villacreces, Milton Barragán Dumet y Ovidio Wappenstein. La adopción, el florecimiento y el cierre de la corriente arquitectónica brutalista en Quito, se explica en cinco momentos, relativos a condiciones históricas, económicas y políticas de la ciudad. Las características formales y funcionales de las obras seleccionadas, determinan tres modos de aproximación hacia el brutalismo. La producción quiteña puede ser enfrentada al entorno brutalista global, gracias a que se concibe sobre principios arquitectónicos universales. Respecto a la primera hipótesis, el trabajo integra once proyectos de múltiples escalas, programas y representatividad dentro de la ciudad. Para su análisis, el documento se basa en la recopilación de la planimetría original como medio primordial para realizar la reconstrucción bidimensional y tridimensional. La selección no busca el equilibrio en el número de obras de cada autor, sino que evalúa la selección a partir de su pertinencia formal, espacial y material. Para estructurar el desarrollo de este movimiento en la ciudad, se propone la agrupación de las obras en cinco momentos temporales, en los que se pretende asociar la situación histórica de Quito, con la gestación de las obras, así como atar los factores que contribuyen a su particularidad y representatividad en el medio. El trabajo pretende situar a los tres personajes como exponentes iniciales de esta corriente, reconociendo simultáneamente que su trabajo promueve posteriores intervenciones en esa misma línea, de parte de otros profesionales. La lectura descriptiva de los proyectos, se acompaña de la disección gráfica de las obras. Esta acción combinada, ubica las cualidades que sustentan a las edificaciones, dentro de la corriente en estudio y al mismo tiempo, determina el modo particular, al que cada uno de los creadores recurre en su gestión. La información develada, determina la existencia de múltiples clases o subcategorías en el brutalismo quiteño, por lo tanto, el trabajo ilustra los modos de aproximación a esta corriente, como principios arquitectónicos replicables. Una vez que las cualidades específicas de los proyectos se interpretan como lógicas de diseño, se asumen como herramientas útiles, para la orientación de las faenas de estudiosos del tema, así como el trabajo de proyectistas arquitectónicos. ; Postprint (published version)

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