Suchergebnisse

Здійснюється порівняльний аналіз викладених конституціями африканських держав Замбії та Північної Нігерії статусів Палат вождів у законодавчих та адміністративних установах. Особливу увагу автор звертає на висвітлення ступеневих рівнів Палат вождів, форми їх участі у роботі законодавчих й адміністративних установ та в органах місцевого управління, специфіки їх формування і складу установ, їх адміністрації, змісту, обсягів та меж їхніх повноважень, особливостей функціонування. Дослідник доходить висновку про наявність істотних відмінностей у статусі Палат вождів Замбії та Північної Нігерії. Осуществляется сравнительный анализ изложенных конституциями африканских государств Замбии и Северной Нигерии статусов Палат вождей в законодательных и административных учреждениях. Особое внимание автор обращает на освещение степенных уровней Палат вождей, формы их участия в работе законодательных учреждений и в органах местного управления, специфики их формирования и состава учреждений, их администрации, содержания, объемов и границ их полномочий, особенностей функционирования. Исследователь приходит к заключению о наличии существенных отличий в статусе Палат вождей Замбии и Северной Нигерии. ; The author carries out a comparative analysis on status of the Houses of Chiefs in legislative and administrative bodies stated in the Constitutions of African states Zambia and Nigeria. The special attention is focused on the following points: the interpretation of power levels of the Houses of Chiefs, the forms of their participation in the work of the legislative bodies and the local government bodies, specific character of their formation and structure of these institutions, their management, content, the extent and limits of their powers, the peculiarities of their functioning. The researcher draws the conclusion that there are some essential distinctions on status of the Houses of Chiefs of Zambia and Nigeria. The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana contains only 2 short articles which proclaim that the House of Chiefs is established in every part of the country, the chiefs have the functions which are in the sphere of the common law and their status, membership, forming peculiarities and powers are determined in the individual law. More detailed status of the House of Chiefs in legislative and administrative bodies is expounded in the Constitution of Zambia which provides for their participation in activities of national and provincial levels. Twelve members of the Republican Council of Chiefs are appointed by the provincial Councils of Chiefs. The Council has got deliberative powers which consist of consideration and debating bills and other issues, passing resolutions and sending them to the President of the state. The House of Chiefs elects its leaders: the Chairman and the Vice-chairman of the House and regulates proceedings of its activity i.e. it carries the House regulations. The Constitution allows the President of the country to interfere in the work of the Houses of Chiefs and to change their membership and structure. The main law expounds in detail on the procedure of electing the members of the provincial Houses of Chiefs but it doesn't fix their quantitative membership and it resembles the separate electoral law which is peculiar to European states. In conformity with the Constitution of Northern Nigeria the House of Chiefs' status differs from Zambia's one: firstly, in national House of Chiefs and in availability of regional Houses of Chiefs. There is a difference in quantity of the Nigerian House of Chiefs which includes all the chiefs of the first class, 95 ordinary chiefs and 1 chief-expert on Islamiclaw. The Constitution contains the definition of the essence of chiefs of Chairman of the House of Chiefs and determines the House of Chiefs' duties. The status of the Houses of Chiefs in the Constitutions of African states has a rudimentary form. For example, in spite of evident conciseness of two articles of the main law of Ghana, they are of the great information importance exceeding the limits of one country and making a stress on a direct connection between the founding of the Houses of Chiefs and the influence of the common law. It is confirmed by Article 14 of the Order on Independence of Zambia in which the Royal Council retained traditional «administrative» bodies in a new state system. The membership of experts on Islamic law in authoritative structures of Northern Nigeria regions is evidence that not only Traditional law but also Islamic law have influence on the development of public administrative system.

В данной статье рассматривается дипломатическая деятельность крупного государственного и военного деятеля Калмыкии Василия Алексеевича Хомутникова, осуществлявшего важное правительственное задание руководства Советской державы. Разработка данной проблематики вызвана определенными попытками пересмотреть и не предать забвению роль людей, вносивших заметный вклад в укрепление нашего государства на поворотных этапах развития. На современной стадии осмысления этой истории обостряется интерес к ее «человеческому» содержанию, ведь историю творят люди. Одним из них являлся полковник В.А. Хомутников, выполнивший спецзадание Советского правительства в налаживании тесного сотрудничества Советской России с буддийским Тибетом, Монголией, Индией. Экспедиция путешественников на 12 верблюдах 13 сентября 1921 г. выехала из г. Урги (ныне г. Улан-Батор). Под видом богомольцев участники миссии при-соединились к направлявшемуся в Тибет каравану «в сто человек». Из ста человек, входивших в караван, половину составляли тибетцы, а другую ‒ монголы: халхасцы, торгоуты и буряты. Возглавлял караван буддийский священник Гегенлама. В 1920-е гг. в основе восточного направления внешнеполитической деятельности Советского государства активно осуществлялся принцип втягивания Индии, Китая, Монголии и других азиатских стран в революционный процесс, с тем чтобы обеспечить победу социализма на Востоке. Руководители Советского государства В.И. Ленин, Л.Д. Троцкий, И.В. Сталин также считали, что после поражения революции в западных странах нужно повернуть маршрут мировой революции на Восток, так как здесь открываются перспективы революционных сил. Для этого нужно создать, утверждал Л.Д. Троцкий, хорошо вооруженный корпус на Урале и отправить в Индию и Афганистан. Эту же идею активно развивали видные общественно-политические и государственные деятели Калмыкии и Бурятии. По итогам проведенного исследования автор отмечает, что главным достижением экспедиции В.А. Хомутникова явилось установление дипломатических отношений между Советским государством и Тибетом. Миссия В.А. Хомутникова в Тибет была высоко оценена Советским правительством. За успешное выполнение разведывательного и дипломатического задания, связанного с опасностью для жизни, В.А. Хомутников 2 января 1925 г. был награжден орденом Красного Знамени. ; This article highlights the diplomatic activities of the prominent military and statesman of Kalmykia Vasily Alekseevich Khomutnikov, who fulfilled an important task of the Soviet government. The consideration of this problem is reasoned by the attempts to revise and not to forget the role of people who made a significant contribution to the strengthening of our state at the turning points of its development. At the present stage of understanding this story, there is a growing interest to its "human" content, as history is created by peo-ple. One of them was Colonel V. A. Khomutnikov who performed a special task of the Soviet government to develop close cooperation of Soviet Russia with Bud-dhist Tibet, Mongolia and India. On 13 September, 1921 the expedition of travelers on 12 camels departed from the city of Urga (now Ulan Bator). Disguised as pilgrims, the members of the mission joined the cara-van of "a hundred people" en route to Tibet. The half of the 100 people in the caravan were Tibetans and others were Mongols Halaszi, Torghuts and Buryats. The caravan was headed by a Buddhist priest Gaghan-Lama. In the 1920s, the Eastern direction of the foreign policy of the Soviet state was based on the principle of active involvement of India, China, Mongolia and other Asian countries in the revolutionary process in order to ensure the victory of socialism in the East. The leaders of the Soviet state V. I. Lenin, L. D. Trot-sky, I. V. Stalin also believed that after the defeat of the revolution in the Western countries it was neces-sary to turn the route of the world revolution to the East, as there were potential revolutionary forces. According to L. Trotsky, it was necessary to form a well-armed corps in the Urals and send it to India and Af-ghanistan. The same idea was actively developed by prominent political and public figures of Kalmykia and Buryatia. Based on the results of the conducted re-search, the author notes that the main result of the expedition of V. A. Khomutnikov was the establish-ment of diplomatic relations between the Soviet gov-ernment and Tibet. The mission of V. A. Khomutnikov in Tibet was highly appreciated by the Soviet govern-ment. V. A. Khomutnikov was awarded with the Order of the Red Banner on January 2, 1925 for successful implementation of the intelligence and diplomatic tasks connected with risks for life.

By analysing the images that the French make of Morocco before the Protectorate, we have hoped to reflect on the specificity of this literary genre from the narrative and discursive schemas that it sets out to make use of. The study of these mental presentations or images in their genesis and typology presupposes a multidisciplinary approach, for, as it appears, it is crucially important to relate literary analysis, and the history of ideas to this study while being, at the same time, aware that cultural images of a country may not truly reflect the political and historical reality of a given time. These images are, however, related to a cultural backdrop which is historically determined. In order to seize the presence of theStranger, the Other, his or her image in a text, it is essential to take into consideration the conditions that contributed to the production of that text. Therefore, an image consists of a group of ideas that are conjured up about the Other or Foreigner evolving in a literacy and socialisation process. It is in the above mentioned perspective that the present paper attempts a chronological, synchronic and an interdisciplinary approach. Thus, by shedding light on the multi images made about Morocco and its inhabitants since the 17th up to the 20th century, we hope to trace whether there or does not exist a filiation of the other in the French perception. Hence,some contextualisation is of the essence in order to encompass the background of thisperception of the Other. Naturally, we have had recourse not only to texts which were produced by travellers across Morocco, but also to historical, ethnological as well as sociological documents addressing this issue. Also, the enlarging of our reflection field to touch on other disciplines, such as human and social sciences, will allow us to come into grips with how the concept and presentation of the Other could reveal the functioning of an ideologicalinstance, be it exotic or racist, which is historically traceable. For exemplification sake, we also wonder if a Christian author is not influenced in his vision of the Muslims and Jews in a way or another. We could also wonder if the outlook of the travellers of the Grand century has not been altered by the contribution of the ideas of the century of light which is based on the dominance of reason as well as a certain scientific and academic rationality. ; En analysant les images françaises du Maroc, avant le Protectorat (XVIIe-XXe siècle), nous avons espéré réfléchir sur la spécificité de ce genre littéraire à partir des schèmes narratifs et discursifs qu'il met en œuvre. L'étude de ces images, dans leur genèse et dans leur typologie, présuppose une approche pluridisciplinaire. Car, nous semble-il, il est indispensable de mettre en relation les analyses littéraires, l'histoire, l'histoire des idées sachant que les images culturelles d'un pays peuvent ne pas être le reflet d'une réalité politique, historique d'un moment, mais elles s'avèrent, en revanche, liées à une situation culturelle historiquement déterminée. Pour saisir la présence de l'étranger, ou son image, dans un texte, il faudrait tenir compte des conditions de production de ce texte. Par conséquent, l'mage se constitue, en fait, d'un ensemble d'idées sur l'étranger évoluant dans un processus de «littérarisation et de socialisation » Dans cette perspective, notre démarche se veut à la fois chronologique, synchronique et interdisciplinaire. Ainsi, en recensant les images constituées sur le Maroc et ses habitants, depuis le XVIIe jusqu'au XXe siècle, nous espérons voir, s'il y a ou non une filiation dans la perception française de l'Autre. Contextualisation exige, pour mieux cerner l'arrière-plan de cette perception, nous aurons recours, naturellement, aux textes produits par les voyageurs, mais aussi aux documents historiques, ethnologiques et sociologiques. L'élargissement du champ de la réflexion à d'autres disciplines, relevant du champ des sciences humaines et sociales, nous permettra, de saisir comment la représentation de l'Autre, pourrait nous révéler les fonctionnements d'une instance idéologique historiquement repérable (exotisme, racisme, par exemple …). Aussi, nous demanderons-nous, à titre d'exemple, si l'appartenance d'un auteur au catholicisme n'infléchit pas dans un sens ou dans un autre sa vision du musulman et du juif. On pourra se demander aussi si le regard des voyageurs du Grand siècle n'a pas changé avec l'apport des idées du siècle des Lumières, fondées sur l'apologie de la raison et d'une certaine rationalité scientifique et académique

In 2013, the Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences began a study of black communities in the USA. By now, the research was conducted in six states (Alabama, Illinois, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York and Pennsylvania); in a number of towns as well as in the cities of Boston, Minneapolis, New York, Philadelphia and Chicago. The study shows that diasporas as network communities have already formed among recent migrants from many African countries in the U.S. These are diasporas of immigrants from individual countries, not a single "African diaspora". On one hand, diasporas as an important phenomenon of globalization should become objects of global governance by means of regulation at the transnational level of both migration streams and foreign-born communities norms of existence. On the other hand, diasporas can be agents of social and political global governance, of essentially transnational impact on particular societies and states sending and accepting migrants, as evidenced by the African diasporas in the USA. Most American Africans believe that diasporas must and can take an active part in the home countries' public life. However, the majority of them concentrates on targeted assistance to certain people – their loved ones back home. The forms of this assistance are diverse, but the main of them is sending remittances. At the same time, the money received from migrants by specific people makes an impact on the whole society and state. For many African states these remittances form a significant part of national income. The migrants' remittances allow the states to lower the level of social tension. Simultaneously, they have to be especially thorough while building relationships with the migrant accepting countries and with diasporas themselves. Africans constitute an absolute minority among recent migrants in the USA. Nevertheless, directly or indirectly, they exert a certain influence on the establishment of the social life principles and state politics (home and foreign), not only of native countries but also of the accepting one, the U.S. This props up the argument that elaboration of norms and setting the rules of global governance is a business of not only political actors, but of the globalizing civil society, its institutions and organizations either. The most recent example are public debates in the American establishment, including President Obama, on the problem of immigration policy and relationships with migrant sending states, provoked by the 2014 U.S.–Africa Leaders Summit. Remarkably, the African diasporas represented by their leaders actively joined the discussion and openly declared that the state pays insufficiently little attention to the migrants' needs and insisted on taking their position into account while planning immigration reform. However, Africans are becoming less and less "invisible" in the American society not only in connection with loud, but infrequent specific events. Many educated Africans who have managed to achieve a decent social status and financial position for themselves, have a desire not just to promote the adaptation of migrants from Africa, but to make their collective voice heard in American society and the state at the local and national levels. Their efforts take different forms, but most often they result in establishing and running of various diaspora organizations. These associations become new cells of the American civil society, and in this capacity affect the society itself and the government institutions best they can. Thus, the evidence on Africans in the USA shows that diasporas are both objects (to date, mainly potential) and real subjects of global governance. They influence public life, home and foreign policy of the migrant sending African countries and of migrant accepting United States, make a modest but undeniable contribution to the global phenomena and processes management principles and mechanisms. Acknowledgements. The research was supported by the grants of the Russian Foundation for Humanities: no. 14-01-00070 "African Americans and Recent African Migrants in the USA: Cultural Mythology and Reality of Intercommunity Relations", no. 13-01-18036 "The Relations between African-Americans and Recent African Migrants: Socio-Cultural Aspects of Intercommunity Perception", and by the grant of the Russian Academy of Sciences as a part of its Fundamental Research Program for 2014. The author is sincerely grateful to Veronika V. Usacheva and Alexandr E. Zhukov who participated in collecting and processing of the evidence, to Martha Aleo, Ken Baskin, Allison Blakely, Igho Natufe, Bella and Kirk Sorbo, Harold Weaver whose assistance in organization and conduction of the research was inestimable, as well as to all the informants who were so kind as to spend their time for frank communication.

International audience ; Um das teleologische Risiko zu vermeiden, das mit jeder Ursprungssuche verbunden ist, schlägt dieser Artikel vor, einen Beitrag zur Untersuchung zweier mittelalterlicher Formen zu leisten, die gewöhnlich mit dem Begriff der "res publica" in Verbindung gebracht werden – allerdings und keinesfalls um irgendeine Verbindung zwischen letzterer und unserer heutigen Vorstellung von der Republik vorwegzunehmen: die Auswahl dieser beiden Formen wird einfach durch die Assoziation bestimmt, die einige deutsche Historiker Ende des 20. oder Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts zwischen beiden und einer demokratischen bzw. zumindest gegenherrschaftlichen Ordnung taten. Bei diesen beiden Formen handelt es sich um den Begriff "gemeiner nutz" als solches und um ein gedrucktes und xylografiertes Plakat aus dem Jahr 1487, wiederum mit dem Titel "Der gmain nutz", dessen detaillierte Studie zeigt, wie wenig dieser Begriff des "gemeinen nutzes" mit unserem heutigen gemeinsamen Verständnis des Gemeinwohls zu tun hat. Der "gemeiner nutz" wird in der Tat in erster Linie als Antonym des "eigen nutz" aufgefasst und somit in zwei spezifischen Argumentationslogiken umgesetzt: Einerseits ermöglicht die Behauptung des "gemeinen nutzes", jede Infragestellung der Tradition zu legitimieren, indem sie deren Urheber von jeder interessierten Motivation reinigt und die Widerstände gegen diese neuen Maßnahmen als Manifestationen des Egoismus erscheinen lässt; andererseits wird die Fähigkeit zum Verzicht zugunsten des "gemeinen nutzes" mobilisiert, um die soziale Ordnung zu legitimieren, wobei das Plakat von 1487 alle Dominanten als solche zum Verzicht Fähigen im Gegensatz zu den Dominierten (Bauern und Handwerker) darstellt. Letztlich öffnet dies den Weg für eine Infragestellung der mittelalterlichen "res publica", die weniger als eine Form der Emanzipation, sondern kollektiver gesellschaftlicher Disziplinierung konzipiert würde. ; In order to avoid the teleological risk inherent in any quest for origins, this article proposes to contribute to the examination of two medieval forms that are usually associated with the notion of "res publica", without intending to link the latter and our own conception of the republic: the choice of these two forms was determined by the association that certain German historians have made of them, at the end of the 20th or the beginning of the 21st century, with the democratic or, at the very least, anti-lordship regime. These two forms are the notion of "gemeiner nutz" (literally "common profit") itself and a printed and xylographic placard from 1487, entitled "Der gmain nutz", whose detailed study shows how little this notion of "common profit" has to do with our current common understanding of the common good. The "gemeiner nutz" is in fact conceived in the first place as the antonym of the "eigen nutz" ("own interest"), and it is thus implemented in two specific argumentative logics: on the one hand, claiming the "gemeiner nutz" makes it possible to legitimize any changing of the tradition by clearing its author of any personally interested motivation and by challenging the oppositions to these new measures as manifestations of selfishness; on the other hand, the ability to renounce the "eigen nutz" is mobilized to legitimize the social order, the 1487 placard presenting all the dominant from this angle (as able to this renunciation), contrary to the dominated (peasants and craftsmen). Ultimately, this opens the way to a questioning of the medieval "res publica", being not so much a form of emancipation than but a form of collective social discipline. ; Afin d'échapper au risque téléologique inhérent à toute quête des origines, cet article se propose de contribuer à l'examen de deux formes médiévales qui sont usuellement associées à la notion de "res publica", sans préjuger le moins du monde du lien entre cette dernière et notre conception de la république – le choix de ces deux formes étant néanmoins aussi déterminé par l'association qui en a été faite par certains historiens allemands, à la fin du XXe ou au début du XXIe siècle, avec le régime démocratique ou, à tout le moins, anti-seigneurial. Ces deux formes sont la notion même de "gemeiner nutz" (littéralement « commun profit ») et un placard imprimé et xylographié de 1487, intitulé là aussi "Der gmain nutz", dont l'étude détaillée fait apparaître combien cette notion de « commun profit » n'a que peu de chose à voir avec notre conception actuelle courante du bien commun. Le "gemeiner nutz" est en effet conçu en premier lieu comme l'antonyme de l'"eigen nutz" (l'intérêt particulier), et il est de ce fait mis en œuvre dans deux logiques argumentatives spécifique : d'une part, se réclamer du "gemeiner nutz" permet de légitimer toute remise en cause de la tradition en dédouanant son auteur de toute motivation intéressée et en faisant passer les oppositions à ces nouvelles mesures comme des manifestations d'égoïsme ; par ailleurs, la capacité au renoncement à l'"eigen nutz" est mobilisée pour légitimer l'ordre social, le placard de 1487 présentant tous les dominants sous cet angle (comme capables de ce renoncement)) par opposition aux dominés (paysans et artisans). En définitive, cela ouvre la voie à une interrogation de la "res publica" médiévale non pas comme une forme d'émancipation mais de discipline sociale collective.

In der Disparitätenforschung ist der italienische Mezzogiorno seit jeher Sinnbild für eine ökonomische und soziale Rückständigkeit und steht als immerwährendes Moment im Fokus zentraler Regionalentwicklungsdebatten. Eine zunehmend kontextgeleitete sowie handlungsorientierte wirtschaftsgeographische Forschung ermöglicht in den letzten drei Jahrzehnten, den Mezzogiorno auf zunehmend vielschichtige Art und Weise zu untersuchen, verharrt jedoch in der Regel bei der Analyse auf dem Aggregationsniveau des Unternehmens. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wird dafür plädiert, die Ebene des Unternehmens zu verlassen und einen auf den handelnden Unternehmer fokussierten Forschungsansatz zu verfolgen. Auf der Grundlage einer relationalen Wirtschaftsgeographie von Bathelt und Glückler (2012) geht es um die Formulierung einer relationalen Wirtschaftsgeographie des Unternehmers, wobei der embedded entrepreneur in den Fokus der Betrachtungen rückt. Die Notwendigkeit einer solchen Perspektive resultiert zum einen aus subjektiven Beobachtungen des Verfassers, der im unternehmerischen Handeln, Führen und Entscheiden italienischer Unternehmer einen handlungstheoretischen Nord-Süd-Dualismus zu erkennen glaubt, der in seiner Substanz auf einen im Laufe der Historie entstandenen gesellschaftlichen, kulturellen und ethnischen Bruch zurückzuführen ist. Einer mittel-europäisch-modernen Wirtschaftskultur in Norditalien steht eine traditionelle Kultur des Mittelmeerraums im Mezzogiorno gegenüber, wobei zwei heterogene Kulturräume diversitäre Lebensweisen und damit Formen und Ansichten des ökonomischen Handelns und Wirtschaftens implizieren. Zum anderen erfordert eine Wirtschaftsstruktur – geprägt und dominiert von Kleinstunternehmen sowie kleinen und mittelständischen Betrieben, in denen häufig die Entscheidung des Unternehmens mit der Entscheidung des Unternehmers korreliert – den Einbezug eines kontextbezogenen methodologischen Individualismus, der unternehmerisches Handeln in einem Dreiklang aus Individuum, Kultur und Ökonomie untersucht und gezielt nach individuellen Handlungsdisparitäten forscht. Denn ökonomisches Handeln erklärt sich nicht ohne Kultur und der Mezzogiorno als Kulturraum ist das Ergebnis seiner handelnden Menschen. Der Unternehmer ist dann erstens von seiner eigenen sozialen, kognitiv-mentalen, psychologischen sowie physischen Beschaffenheit beeinflusst. Zweitens wird er von Faktoren seiner kulturellen, politischen, historischen, institutionellen, ökonomischen, infrastrukturellen, gesellschaftlichen, religiösen und nicht zuletzt physisch-geographischen Raumkontexte gelenkt. Drittens ist er als sozial handelndes Individuum eingebettet in die relationalen Beziehungsgefüge seiner Alltagswelt. Der Einbezug des physisch-geographischen Raumkontextes ist nicht als eine Rückkehr zum Raumfetischismus zu verstehen und erhebt das Territorium keineswegs zu einem "Akteur", teilt ihm aber sehr wohl die Funktion eines konditionierenden Moments zu. Eine bi-modulare Argumentation, bestehend aus einer theoretischen Diskussion und einer landeskundlichen Abhandlung der Mezzogiorno-Debatte, führt im Zuge einer abschließenden Überlegung zu dem Ergebnis, dass die Existenz zweier Kulturräume ein Umdenken in der bisherigen italienischen Disparitätenforschung nach sich zieht. Denn auf der einen Seite erfordert der Dualismus zwischen einer mitteleuropäischen und meridionalen Gesinnung nicht nur ein Überdenken der Vorstellungen von Entwicklung, Fortschritt und Rückständigkeit per se, sondern stellt auf der anderen Seite ebenso den Terminus und das Konzept "Mezzogiorno" im Kontext einer "künstlichen" Perspektive der italienischen Nationalstaatlichkeit in Frage. ; The Italian Mezzogiorno has always symbolized economic and social backwardness in Europe and, as a perpetual phenomena, is still one of the main topics of contemporary debates regarding regional development. The increasing context-specific, institutional and action-oriented research in Economic Geography carried out over the last three decades enables scientists to examine the Mezzogiorno in a more pluralistic way. Unfortunately, the studies are generally focused on the analysis of firm behavior. The approach presented in this work attempts to abandon the level of the firm unequivocally. Drawing on the concept of a relational economic geography composed by Bathelt and Glückler (2012) this study proposes a relational economic geography of the entrepreneur by defining the action and interaction of the embedded entrepreneur as the central object of investigation. The presumed need for a scientific direction of this kind derives from the subjective observations of the author who indicates an Italian North-South-Dualism concerning entrepreneurial action, leadership and decision-making. On one hand, this perception can be traced back to the genesis of a societal, cultural and ethnic rupture during history. A modern central-European economic culture contrasts a traditional culture of the Mediterranean area in the Mezzogiorno. These two heterogeneous and opposite cultural areas implicate different lifestyles and habits and therefore different ideas, views and forms of economic action and economy itself. On the other hand, an Italian economic structure based on very small, small and medium-sized firms, in which the decision of a firm often means the decision of the entrepreneur, requires the conceptual integration of a contextual methodological individualist research program in order to examine economic action by means of a triadic paradigm composed of individual, culture and economy. Economic action cannot be explained without culture, and as a cultural area the Mezzogiorno is the result of its individuals. Therefore, the entrepreneur as one of these actors is firstly influenced by his individual social, cognitive, psychological and physical constitution. Secondly, cultural, political, historical, institutional, economical, infrastructural, societal, religious and also physical-geographical factors in spatial context affect his train of thought, behavior and actions. Thirdly, he is embedded in the ongoing social relations of everyday life. The consideration of a territorial dimension does not imply returning to spatial fetishism nor does it nominate the territory as an "actor", but it surely assigns it the function of a conditioning moment. A bimodular argumentation consisting in a theoretical discussion and a pluralistic illustration of the prior and contemporary debate of the Mezzogiorno leads to the final conclusion that the existence of two cultural areas requires a reconsideration of regional studies in Italy and in particular of the Southern Italian question. The dualism between a central-European and a meridional cultural disposition calls for a redefinition of conceptions such as development, progress and backwardness as well as questioning the notion and the concept of "Mezzogiorno" from an "artificial" construct perspective of an Italian national state.

This study aims to analyze the concepts of French foreign policy that is focused on multi-vector policy of the country and are intended to clarify the main objectives: 1) Description of foreign policy concepts of France; 2) determination of the role of French schools and public fiures in creation and evaluation of national interests.The author examines the most famous French foreign policy concepts, their interpretation by scientifi schools and political circles which continues to its implementation. It allowed to form a strong theoretical base from which made it possible to single out a number of concepts and policy models.Expansionary concept is appropriate for the French policy of Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIV, Napoleon Bonaparte, George Clemenceau, Charles de Gaulle, and after the independence of the French colonies it has continued into the concept of neo-colonialism and policy of planetary responsibility for the newly formed states. The concept of political geography was introduced by the French geographer E. Reclus and W. de la Blanche and continued by K. Haushofer, F. Moreau-Defarzh, who turned it into political sphere and laid the foundation for the French school of geopolitics. Historiographical concept has been initiated by the representatives of «Annals» school - M. Block, J. Le Fevre, L. Hoff, who returned interest into politics and raised debate among scientists about the place of France in international relations. Based on the analysis of politicians, political scientists and experts evaluation, there wereconsidered external policy models of France. The policy of European architect gets its practical start from statement of French Foreign Minister A. Briand in 1929. However thinking of creating a single European space as a separate course in it's foreign policy, France was able only after the collapse of the colonial empire. Its masterminds and implementers may be considered Charles de Gaulle, Jean Monnet, V. Giscard d'Estaing, Jacques Chirac. The national security policy includes nuclear umbrella and nuclear deterrence policies. The strategy of national interests protection is reflcted in the «White Book», which was published in four editions of French presidents – J. Pompidou (1972), J. Chirac (1994) N. Sarkozy (2008), F. Hollande (2013) and was consistent with the ambitions of France and the state of international relations. The «global responsibility» policy lies in the active participation of France in the Arab region, military operations and humanitarian intervention in Afghanistan, Côte d'Ivoire, Libya, Mali and is typical for French Presidents N. Sarkozy and F. Hollande.The architecture of French foreign policy illustrates the dependence of national and historical traditions and its inherent features that used to appear regardless of conditions. Firstly, France is concerned of its national interests. This principle can be traced in all concepts of its foreign policy. Secondly, France is always defending its right to a major role. It could never accept any defeat, and therefore was creating its relationships with other countries from a position of dominion, regardless the conditions in which it actually was. Thirdly, France defends its right to conquer. It managed to give up its colonial possessions just at a time when they questioned the internal security and order in France. Fourthly, France is typically known by charismatic rulers. Analyzing the stages of the French foreign policy, one can draw parallels between its successful implementation and bright personalities who headed it. In the XXI century, France will have to not just review its policy but it needs to change the perception and understanding of the fact that the world has changed ; Франция является одной из основательниц международных организаций, участница миротворческих операций и международных переговоров, активная защитница Европейского союза, она не имеет устойчивого вектора движения. Ее внешняя политика отличается многовекторностью и ориентирована на укрепление территориальных границ, ослабление государств-соседей, получение контроля в арабском регионе. Стремление Франции быть в первом ряду политических лидеров и занимать доминирующее положение в Европе создает главные причины неудачи внешних концепций. Существует значительный разрыв между видением Францией своей миссии и восприятием Франции в мире ; Франція є одним із фундаторів міжнародних організацій, учасник миротворчих операцій та міжнародних переговорів, активний захисник Європейського союзу, вона не має сталого вектору руху. Її зовнішня політика вирізняється багатовекторністю і орієнтована на укріплення територіальних меж, послаблення держав-сусідів, здобуття контролю в арабському регіоні. Прагнення Франції, бути в першому ряді політичних лідерів та займати домінуюче становище у Європі, створює головні причини невдачі зовнішніх концепцій. Існує суттєвий розрив між баченням Францією своєї місії і сприйняттямФранції у світі

Актуальность и цели. Одним из наиболее спорных вопросов в арендных правоотношениях является возмещение арендатору стоимости улучшений арендованного имущества. В нормах Гражданского кодекса Российской Федерации законодателем проведены различия между отделимыми и неотделимыми улучшениями, между улучшениями, произведенными с согласия арендодателя и без его согласия, между улучшениями, произведенными за счет арендатора, иных лиц либо за счет амортизационных отчислений. Вопрос о правовой природе произведенных улучшений арендованного имущества и об их отнесении к тому или иному виду улучшений нередко порождает споры между сторонами договора аренды. Материалы и методы. В статье проведен анализ постановлений Федерального арбитражного суда Северо-Кавказского округа от 30.10.2001 № Ф08-3550/2001, от 06.03.2006 № Ф08-426/2006 по делу № А32-2833/2003-17/79, от 15.11.2005 № Ф08-5364/2005 по делу № А32-42517/2004-2-696; Северо-Западного округа от 20.03.2002 № А56-28425/01, Центрального округа от 08.11.2012 по делу № А23-422/2012; Дальневосточного округа от 18.01.2005 № Ф03-А51/04-1/4028; Уральского округа от 18.06.2013 № Ф09-4511/13 по делу № А60-38604/2012. Рассмотрено постановление Двадцатого арбитражного апелляционного суда от 16.07.2012 по делу № А23-422/2012, определение ВАС РФ от 04.03.2013 № ВАС-1985/13 по делу № А23-422/2012, информационное письмо Президиума ВАС РФ от 29.12.2001 № 65 «Обзор практики разрешения споров, связанных с прекращением обязательств зачетом встречных однородных требований», а также определение ВАС РФ от 20.08.2013 № ВАС-10593/13 по делу № А60-38604/2012. Результаты. Как можно увидеть, институт возмещения стоимости улучшений арендованного имущества имеет довольно скупую нормативно-право­вую базу. На практике возникает большое количество вопросов, связанных с возмещением стоимости улучшений арендованного имущества по договорам аренды, ответов на которые нет в действующем законодательстве. Выводы. Как мы видим, в итоге суды всех уровней вынуждены фактически заниматься нормотворчеством. В связи с этим представляется необходимым внести соответствующие изменения в Гражданский кодекс РФ, дополнить ст. 623 ГК РФ положениями о характеристиках отделимых и неотделимых улучшений. ; Background. One of the most arguable questions in leasing legal relations is leased property improvement cost compensation to a leaseholder. The regulation of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation provide differences between separable and inseparable improvements, between improvements sanctioned by a lessor and non-sanctioned ones, between improvements made at the expense of a leaseholder, third party, or at the expense of amortized deductions. The problem of the legal nature of the executed improvements of leased property and of rating them as one or another type of improvements often leads to arguments between lease contract parties. Materials and methods. The article analyzes the decisions of the Federal Arbitrage of the North-Caucasus district from 30.10.2001 № F 08-3550/2001, from 06.03.2006 № F 08-426/2006 referring the case № А32-2833/2003-17/79, from 15.11.2005 № F 08-5364/2005 referring the case № А32-42517/2004-2-696; of the North-Western district from 20.03.2002 № А56-28425/01, the Central district from 08.11.2012 referring the case № А23-422/2012; the Far Eastern district from 18.01.2005 № F 03-А51/04-1/4028; the Ural district from 18.06.2013 № F 09-4511/13 referring the case № А60-38604/2012. The author considered the decision of the 20 th arbitrage of appeal from 16.07.2012 referrning the case № А23-422/2012, the decision of SA of RF from 04.03.2013 № ВАС-1985/13 referring the case № А23-422/2012, the circular of the Presidium of SA of RF from 29.12.2001 № 65 «Review of practice of settlement of disputes, concerning termination of obligations by a setoff of similar counterclaims», and the decision of SA of RF from 20.08.2013 № ВАС-10593/13 referring the case № А60-38604/2012. Results. As one may see, the institution of leased property improvements cost compensation has a quite poor legal regulatory environment. In practice there occurs a large number of questions concerning leased property improvements cost compensation by lease contracts, having no answers in the active legislation. Conclusions. As a result, the courts of all levels are obliged virtually to create regulatory acts. Thereby, it is necessary to introduce the corresponding amendments into the Civil Code of RF, to supplemet article 623 of CC of RF with items on separable and inseparable improvements.

Pasar modal merupakan tempat yang mewadahi berbagai macam investasi, salah satu investasi tersebut adalah saham. Saham merupakan bukti penyertaan modal seseorang ke suatu perusahaan yang telah dibeli sahamnya. Saham merupakan salah satu bentuk investasi yang cukup menjanjikan, namun di Indonesia investasi saham ini masih banyak orang yang ragu mengenai fungsi keuntungan saham tersebut. Investor semakin ragu setelah banyak muncul di berita mengenai masalah delisting yang seakan-akan sama sekali tidak memberikan perlindungan bagi investor publik (pemilik saham minoritas.) Delisting merupakan proses yang terjadi saat suatu perusahaan seperti PT Dayaindo Resources, sudah tidak lagi memperdagangkan sahamnya di pasar modal karena perusahaan tersebut telah pailit. Dalam undang-undang pasar modal disebutkan bahwa saat suatu perusahaan terkena delisting, salah satu persyaratannya adalah membeli semua saham publik yang dimiliki oleh para investor publik. Banyak sekali investor publik yang dibiarkan saja rugi setelah terjadi delisting pada perusahaan yang dimiliki sahamnya oleh investor tadi. Hal ini yang menjadi alasan bagi penulis untuk mengkaji masalah ini, diharapkan agar dapat mengetahui bagaimana perlindungan bagi para investor dan upaya yang dapat dilakukan oleh investor tersebut. Metode penelitian ini adalah normatif. Penelitian ini memiliki dua jenis bahan hukum, yaitu bahan hukum primer yang terdiri dari berbagai peraturan perundang-undangan dan bahan hukum sekunder yang terdiri atas buku-buku dan informasi dari website yang berkaitan dengan topik permasalahan. Dalam menganalisis hasil penelitian, peneliti menggunakan dua pendekatan yakni pendekatan perundang-undangan dan pendekatan konseptual. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa delisting saham yang terjadi adalah kurang memperhatikan nasib para investor publik setelah suatu perusahaan dikeluarkan dari pasar modal, baik secara sukarela atau dipaksa keluar oleh Bapepam (selaku regulator). Bagi Bapepam hal utama yang diperhatikan dalam melakukan delisting adalah perlindungan terhadap pemegang saham publik, dimana pemegang saham publik dianggap sebagai pemegang saham independen kecuali yang bersangkutan mengatakan lain yaitu para anggota lain saat RUPS. Saran mengenai permasalahan ini dari penulis adalah bagi Bapepam diharapkan dapat memberikan bantuan kepada para investor saat terjadi delisting dan memberikan kebijakan yang tidak terlalu memberatkan kepada emiten sehingga tidak memicu terjadinya delisting. Kata Kunci : Saham, Penanam Modal, Penghapusan Pencatatan Abstract The stock market is a place that can accommodate a wide variety of investment, one of that is a stock investment. Stock is prove of individual shares ownership to a company that shares has been purchased. Stock is one of investment form that is promising, but stock investment in Indonesia still have many people doubt about it function and also benefit from these shares. Investor more uncertain after a lot of news about the delisting issue, as if did not provide protection for public investors (shareholders minority). Delisting is a process that occurs when a company such as PT Dayaindo Resources, is no longer trades on the stock market because the company had been bankrupt. In the capital market regulation that when a company exposed to delisting, one of the requirements is to buy all the public shares owned by public investors. Many of public investors are left alone after the loss occurred in the company delisting of its shares owned by investors earlier. This is the reason for the author to examine this issue, expected to know how the protection of investors and the efforts that can be done by the investor. Study method is normative. Study have two types of legal materials, which are the primary legal materials, consisting of various regulation and secondary legal materials which consist of books and information from the internet relating to issues. In analyzing the results of the study, researchers used two approaches namely legislative approaches and conceptual approaches. The result showed that delisting of the shares that occur are less concerned about public investors after the company issued from the capital market, either voluntarily or forced out by Bapepam (as regulator). For Bapepam main thing is to concerned in doing delisting is the protection of public shareholders, where the public shareholders are consider as independent shareholders unless the concerned said another which is RUPS. Suggestion about this matter from writer is for Bapepam is expected to provide assistance to investor when delisting occur and give policies that not overly burdening the issuers, so it doesn't trigger delisting. Keywords : Stock, Investor, Delisting

ABSTRAKPenelitian tesis dengan judul: "Analisis Yuridis Penegakan Hukum Terhadap Penggunaan Barang Yang Memakai Merek Tiruan (Tinjauan Dari Aspek Budaya Hukum Masyarakat Pengguna)" bertujuan untuk mengetahui Budaya Hukum Masyarakat Yang Menggunakan Barang Merek Tiruan Ditinjau Dari Undang-Undang Merek Nomor 15 Tahun 2001,Untuk mengetahui Pengaturan Terhadap Masyarakat Yang Menggunakan Barang Yang Memakai Merek Tiruan dan Untuk menggambarkan bagaimana Seharusnya Pengaturan Terkait Dengan Fenomena Penggunaan Barang Yang Memakai Merek Tiruan Oleh Masyarakat Guna Menunjang Penegakan Hukum Terhadap Pelanggaran Merek.Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode pendekatan Yuridis Sosiologis (Sosio Legal Approach). Pendekatan sosiologi digunakan untuk mendeskripsikan data yang ditemukan dilapangan tentang fenomena budaya hukum masyarakat dalam menggunakan barang merek tiruan. Pendekatan Yuridis Normatif yaitu dengan cara meneliti bahan pustaka atau data sekunder Pelaksanaan analisis data yang dilakukan penulis lebih menitikberatkan penggunaan metode induksi. Metode induksi adalah proses penalaran dimana temuan-temuan dalam bentuk data dan informasi dari alam inderawi yang kongkrit dipakai untuk membangun teori sehingga teori yang dibangun tersebut dapat dikualifikasikan sebagai teori yang membumi.Bahwa budaya hukum masyarakat yang menggunakan merek-merek palsu yang diproduksi oleh pelaku usaha selama ini telah menjadi suatu trend, namun kenyataan menunjukkan budaya tersebut sangat bertentangan dengan budaya hukum yang baik, sebab budaya hukum yang baik meliputi sikap, nilai dan prilaku masyarakat untuk taat dan patuh terhadap hukum yang berlaku. Bahwa Undang-Undang Nomor 15 Tahun 2001 tentang Merek tidak pernah mengatur atau memberikan sanksi kepada masyarakat yang menggunakan produk-produk hasil dari pemalsuan merek-merek terkenal, hal ini menyebabkan budaya hukum masyarakat menjadi tidak baik karena tidak adanya aturan yang tegas, dianggap oleh masyarakat perbuatan menggunakan merek-merek palsu bukanlah suatu24kesalahan. Bahwa pengaturan berkaitan dengan merek tidak saja diatur dalam undang-undang nasional Indonesia melainkan juga diatur dalam suatu aturan Internasional, hal ini menunjukkan betapa berharganya sebuah kekayaan intelektual untuk dihargai dan dilindungi, namun pengaturan yang ada selama ini belum memberikan perlindungan secara maksimal karena tidak terdapat aturan tentang sanksi bagi pengguna merek-merek palsu, sehingga dimungkinkan perbaikan terhadap peraturan yang telah ada selama ini.Kata Kunci : Penegakan Hukum, Merek Barang, Budaya HukumABSTRACTThesis with the title: "Analysis of Judicial Law Enforcement Against Use of goods whose Using Artificial Brand (Overview Of Legal Culture Society Aspects Users)" aims to determine Culture Law Society That Uses Counterfeit Trademark Goods Seen From Trademark Law No. 15 of 2001, To Settings know Communities Against Using Counterfeit goods whose Wear Brand and To illustrate how Supposedly Related Settings With the phenomenon of goods subject to the Use of Artificial Wear Brand To Support for Community Law Enforcement Against Trademark Infringement.Is done by using sociological juridical approach (Socio-Legal Approach). Sociological approach used to describe the data that is found in the field of public law cultural phenomenon in the use of vehicles on the highway. Normative juridical approach that is by researching library materials or secondary data Implementation of data analysis by the author is more focused use of the method of induction. Induction method is a process of reasoning in which the findings in the form of data and information from the natural sensory concrete used to build the theory that the theory is built can be qualified as grounded theory.Legal culture of society who use counterfeit brands are produced by businesses during this time has become a trend, but reality shows that culture is contrary to good legal culture, for good legal culture includes attitudes, values and behavior of the people to obey and compliance with applicable law. That Law No. 15 of 2001 on Marks never regulate or impose sanctions on people who use the products result from counterfeit famous brands, this causes legal culture of society are not good because of the absence of strict rules, considered by society actions using fake brands is not an error. That the arrangements relating to the brand not only regulated in national legislation Indonesia but also regulated in an international protocol, this shows how valuable an intellectual property to be respected and protected, but the existing arrangement has not provide maximum25protection because there are no rules about sanctions for users of counterfeit brands, so it is possible improvements to the existing regulations for this.Keywords: Law Enforcement, Brand Goods, Culture Law

В статье исследуются экономические связи СССР и Китая в сфере железнодорожного транспорта в период 30-40-х гг., обусловленные значительным влиянием внешних факторов. Рассматриваются международная обстановка на Дальнем Востоке в этот период, агрессия Японии в Китае и образование марионеточного государства Маньчжоу-го, вызвавшее изменения в функционировании совместного российско-китайского акционерного общества Китайско-Восточной железной дороги (КВЖД). В целях предотвращения войны в Северо-Восточном Китае СССР в 1935 г. был вынужден переуступить свои права на КВЖД Маньчжоу-го за минимальную цену по сравнению с первоначальной стоимостью дороги. После этих событий экономические связи Советского Союза и Китая на Дальнем Востоке практически прекратились. КВЖД была присоединена к государственным дорогам Маньчжоу-го, а 1 октября 1936 г. объединена с Южно-Маньчжурской железной дорогой (ЮМЖД) в одну дорогу с главным управлением в Мукдене. Учитывая важность транспортных коммуникаций в экономической жизни и военных операциях, на Крымской конференции и советско-китайских переговорах в 1945 г. обсуждались различные аспекты функционирования КВЖД и ЮМЖД, названных после их объединения Китайско-Чанчуньской железной дорогой (КЧЖД). Обговаривались вопросы собственности дорог, организации правления, характера перевозок. В статье даётся оценка советско-китайского Договора о дружбе и союзе от 14 августа 1945 г., в период Сопротивления японской агрессии сыгравшего большую роль в экономических связях СССР и Китая, в том числе и в сфере железнодорожного транспорта. Делается вывод, что Советский Союз оказал существенную помощь в восстановлении железнодорожных коммуникаций Северо-Востока, разрушенных в период отступления японских войск, в управлении КЧЖД, подготовке квалифицированных железнодорожников на специально организованных курсах в Харбине, а также на различных факультетах Харбинского политехнического института КЧЖД, в снабжении рабочих и служащих железной дороги продовольствием и промтоварами. На заводах Сибири и Дальнего Востока ремонтировались повреждённые паровозы и вагоны КЧЖД. Всё это способствовало победе китайского народа в национально-освободительной борьбе против японской агрессии, которая стала частью Второй мировой войны. Для Китая это были заимствование передовых технологий, подготовка собственных административных и технических кадров, модернизация региона. Для России сохранение материальных ценностей путём организации сферы обращения, защита интересов страны в межгосударственных отношениях. Деятельность смешанного Советско-Китайского общества КЧЖД опыт создания нового типа производственной структуры, свойственной рыночной экономике. ; The paper analyzes economic ties of USSR and China in the railway industry in 1930's 1940's conditioned by significant influence of external factors. The international situation in the Far East, Japanese aggression in China and creation of marionette state Manchukuo resulting in operation changes of Russian-Chinese joint-stock company Chinese Eastern Railway are reviewed. To prevent the war in North-East China, USSR had to assign its title for the Chinese Eastern Railway in 1935 to Manchukuo for a minimum price compared with the railway's initial cost. After the said events, economic ties of USSR and China in the Far East virtually discontinued. Chinese Eastern Railway was attached to state Manchukuo railways and united with South Manchuria Railway on October 1, 1936 into a single railway with headquarters in Mukden. Taking into consideration the importance of transportation services in the economic life and military operations in China, diverse aspects of Chinese Eastern Railway's and South Manchuria Railway's (called Chinese Changchun Railway after their unification) operation were discussed at Yalta conference and Soviet-Chinese negotiations in 1945. Such issues as ownership for the railways, management organization, and shipments nature were discussed. The paper gives an assessment of Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance dated August 14, 1945, playing an important role during the Anti-Japanese Aggression War in economic ties between USSR and China including the field of railway transportation. The author draws a conclusion that Soviet Union rendered significant assistance in reconstruction of railway infrastructure of the North-East destroyed during the Japanese troops' stepback, in management of Chinese Changchun Railway, training qualified railway specialists at specially organized courses in Harbin and at diverse departments of Harbin Polytechnic Institute of Chinese Changchun Railway, in providing food and manufactured goods for the railways' workers and employees. Damaged locomotives and railway cars of Chinese Changchun Railway were repaired at plants of Siberia and Russian Far East. All the above-mentioned promoted to the victory of the Chinese people in their national liberation fight against Japanese aggression becoming a part of World War II. For China, it meant borrowing advanced technologies, training their own administrative and technical personnel, the region's modernization. For Russia, it was an experience of material value augmentation by organizing the distribution chain, protection of the country's interests in state-to-state relationships. Activity of incorporate Soviet-Chinese Association of Chinese Changchun Railway was an experience of creating a new type of production structure characteristic for market economy.

[spa] Esta tesis doctoral trata sobre la relación entre política y pasiones. En general, la tradición filosófica suele hablar de las pasiones como perturbaciones que deben ser desechadas. La filosofía de la naturaleza spinozista, que tiene como premisa intrínseca la unidad de la realidad, retoma todo el poder explicativo de los afectos y los afirma. Las pasiones son constitutivas del plano político y contienen la promesa que nos eleva paulatinamente hacia el conocimiento de las cosas: deben analizarse y comprenderse. Para conocer la filosofía spinozista nos adentramos en los escritos maduros del autor: la Ética, el TTP y el TP. La Ética, como el tratado principal de Spinoza, contiene los lineamientos principales de su pensamiento. El TTP y el TP siguen su huella, pero se adentran con mayor espesor en un tema que es esbozado solo brevemente en la Ética: la política. Si hay un elemento que puede dar unidad y correcta comprensión al contenido de estos tres libros es la idea de inmanencia. La inmanencia expresa una causa interior de producción y evita la cualquier explicación trascendente de la Naturaleza. La inmanencia borra cualquier jerarquía que divida el mundo improductivamente en dos y así reposiciona el carácter explicativo del cuerpo. La insistencia en considerar a la razón o el alma como la parte más pura del hombre, ha ocultado la pregunta relativa a la potencia del cuerpo. Estas ideas de la Ética son fundamentales para entender la política spinozista, en especial el TP, donde Spinoza saca todas las consecuencias de guiarse por una noción estrictamente inmanente. Lo fundamental de la política serán dos tendencias constituyentes que siguen sentidos opuestos: la "ampliación de poder" y la "concentración de poder". A partir de la comprensión del sentido de la filosofía spinozista, forjamos algunos criterios de análisis para probar la fecundidad de la inmanencia como herramienta de análisis político-afectiva. Nuestro primer objeto de análisis es del orden del discurso: las teorías políticas de Thomas Hobbes y John Locke. El segundo es del orden de los hechos: la República de Chile comprendida entre el periodo de 1973 hasta la actualidad. ; [eng] This PhD thesis draws on the relationship between politics and passions. In general, the philosophical tradition often presents passions as anguishes that should be rejected. Spinoza's philosophy of nature, which takes the unity of reality as its intrinsic premise, affirms and goes back on the explanatory power of emotions. Passions are constitutive of the political sphere and contain the promise that elevates us gradually to reach the knowledge of things: all things must be analyzed and understood. In order to fathom Spinoza's philosophy we delve into the mature writings of the author: Ethics, TTP and TP. Ethics, as well as the main treaty of Spinoza, contains his main trains of thought. The TTP and TP follow their track, but with a deeper view into a subject that is only briefly outlined in the Ethics: politics. The element that provides unity and allows a correct understanding of these three books content is the idea of immanence. Immanence expresses an inner cause of production and prevents any transcendent explanation of Nature. Immanence ends up with any hierarchy that divides the world unproductively into two parts and thus reinstates the explanatory nature of the body. The insistence on considering reason or soul as the purest parts of man has hidden the question about the power of the body. These ideas of ethics are fundamental to understand Spinoza's Politics, especially the TP, where Spinoza extracts all the consequences of being guided by a strictly immanent notion. The essence of politics will feature two constituent trends heading opposite directions: "expansion of power" and "concentration of power". Based on the understanding of Spinoza's philosophy meaning, we shape some criteria to test the fruitfulness of immanence as a tool for political and emotional analysis. Our first object of analysis belongs to the scope of discourse: the political theories of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. The second one is enclosed in the field of events: the Republic of Chile between the period 1973 to the present.

Introduction -- 1. William Petty (1623-1687) -- Tony Aspromourgos -- 2. Pierre Le Pesant de Boisguilbert (1646-1714) -- Gilbert Faccarello -- 3. John Law (1671-1729) -- Antoin E. Murphy -- 4. Richard Cantillon (1680/90-1734) -- Antoin E. Murphy -- 5. Charles-Louis de Secondat de Montesquieu (1689-1755) -- Arnaud Orain -- 6. François Quesnay (1694-1774) and Physiocracy -- Arnaud Orain and Philippe Steiner -- 7. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) -- Gilbert Faccarello -- 8. David Hume (1711-1776) -- Daniel Diatkine -- 9. James Steuart [James Denham-Steuart] (1712-1780) -- Anthony Brewer -- Antonio Genovesi (1713-1769): see Italian Enlightenment, Volume II -- 10. Adam Smith (1723-1790) -- Tony Aspromourgos -- Jean-Joseph-Louis Graslin (1727-1790): see French Enlightenment, Volume II -- 11. Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot (1727-1781) -- Gilbert Faccarello -- Ferdinando Galiani (1728-1787): see French & Italian Enlightenment, Volume II -- Pietro Verri (1728-1797): see Italian Enlightenment, Volume II -- Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (1738-1794): see Italian Enlightenment, Volume II -- 12. Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet (1743-1794) -- Gilbert Faccarello -- 13. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) -- Marco E. L. Guidi -- 14. Achille-Nicolas Isnard (1749-1803) -- Richard van den Berg -- 15. Henry Thornton (1760-1815) -- Jérôme de Boyer des Roches -- 16. Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) -- Catherine Martin -- 17. Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832) -- Alain Béraud -- 18. David Ricardo (1772-1823) -- Heinz D. Kurz -- 19. Jean-Charles-Léonard Simonde de Sismondi (1773-1842) -- Francesca Dal Degan and Nicolas Eyguesier -- 20. Thomas Tooke (1774-1858) -- Neil Skaggs -- 21. Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1780-1850) -- Ludwig Nellinger -- 22. Robert Torrens (c.1780-1864) -- Christian Gehrke -- 23. Barthélémy-Charles Dunoyer de Segonzac -- Alain Béraud -- 24. Friedrich List (1789-1846) -- Stefan Kolev and Joachim Zweynert -- 25. Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) -- Alain Béraud -- 26. Antoine-Augustin Cournot (1801-1877) -- Alain Béraud -- 27. Jules Dupuit (1804-1866) -- Alain Béraud -- 28. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) -- Arrigo Opocher -- 29. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) -- Alain Béraud -- 30. Hermann Heinrich Gossen (1810-1858) -- Heinz D. Kurz -- 31. Bruno Hildebrand (1812-1878) -- Bertram Schefold -- 32. Wilhelm George Friedrich Roscher (1817-1894) -- Heinz D. Kurz -- 33. Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) -- Gilbert Faccarello, Christian Gehrke and Heinz D. Kurz -- 34. Clément Juglar (1819-1905) -- Muriel Dal Pont-Legrande -- 35. Gustave de Molinari (1819-1912) -- Alain Béraud -- 36. Walter Bagehot (1826-1877) -- Jérôme de Boyer des Roches -- 37. Adolph Heinrich Gotthilf Wagner (1834-1917) -- Rudolf Dujmovits and Richard Sturn -- 38. Marie Esprit Léon Walras (1834-1910) -- Roberto Baranzini -- 39. William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) -- John Creedy -- 40. Gustav Friedrich von Schmoller (1838-1917) -- Johannes Glaeser -- 41. Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900) -- Keith Tribe -- 42. Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) -- Tiziano Raffaelli -- 43. Carl Menger (1840-1921) -- Gilles Campagnolo -- 44. Philip Henry Wicksteed (1844-1927) -- John Creedy -- 45. Francis Ysidro Edgeworth (1845-1926) -- John Creedy -- 46. John Bates Clark (1847-1938) -- Marlies Hanna Schütz -- 47. Vilfedo Pareto (1848-1923) -- Michael McLure -- 48. Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk (1851-1914) -- Carl Christian von Weizsäcker -- 49. Knut Wicksell (1851-1926) -- Hans-Michael Trautwein -- 50. Friedrich von Wieser (1851-1926) -- Richard Sturn -- 51. Maffeo Pantaleoni (1857-1924) -- Marco Dardi -- 52. Thorstein Bunde Veblen (1857-1929) -- Alfonso Giuliani -- 53. Antonio De Viti de Marco (1858-1943) -- Amedeo Fossati -- 54. John Atkinson Hobson (1858-1940) -- Michael Schneider -- 55. Georg Simmel (1858-1918) -- Dieter Bögenhold -- 56. Enrico Barone (1859-1924) -- Marco Dardi -- 57. Max Weber (1864-1920) -- Keith Tribe -- 58. Mikhail Ivanovich Tugan-Baranovsky (1865-1919) -- Vladimir Avtonomov and Natalia Makasheva -- 59. Gustav Cassel (1866-1945) -- Hans-Michael Trautwein -- 60. Irving Fisher (1867-1947) -- Harald Hagemann -- 61. Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz (1868-1931) -- Christian Gehrke and Heinz D. Kurz -- 62. Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev (1868-1913) -- Christian Gehrke -- 63. Louis Bachelier (1870-1946) -- Alain Béraud -- 64. Arthur Spiethoff (1873-1957) -- David Haas -- 65. Albert Aftalion (1874-1956) -- Muriel Dal Pont-Legrand -- 66. Wesley Clair Mitchell (1874-1948) -- Malcolm Rutherford -- 67. Edwin Walter Kemmerer (1875-1945) -- Rebeca Gómez Betancourt -- 68. Arthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) -- Hansjörg Klausinger -- 69. Ralph George Hawtrey (1879-1975) -- Jérôme de Boyer des Roches -- 70. Evgeni Evgenievich Slutsky (1880-1948) -- Irina Eliseeva -- 71. Ludwig Heinrich von Mises (1881-1973) -- Richard Sturn -- 72. John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) -- Victoria Chick and Jesper Jespersen -- 73. Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883-1950) -- Richard Sturn -- 74. Frank H. Knight (1885-1972) -- Ross B. Emmett -- 75. Karl Polanyi (1886-1964) -- Peter Kalmbach -- 76. Walter Eucken (1891-1950) -- Hauke Janssen -- 77. Erik Lindahl (1891-1960) -- Christian Gehrke -- 78. Adolph Lowe (1893-1995) -- Harald Hagemann -- 79. Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch (1895-1973) -- Olav Bjerkholt -- 80. Jacob Marschak (1898-1977) -- Harald Hagemann -- 81. Gunnar Myrdal (1898-1987) -- Hans-Michael Trautwein -- 82. Lionel Charles Robbins (1898-1984) -- Andreas Rainer -- 83. Piero Sraffa (1898-1983) -- Heinz D. Kurz and Neri Salvadori -- 84. Edward H. Chamberlin (1899-1967) -- Rodolfo Signorino -- 85. Friedrich August von Hayek (1899-1992) -- Peter Boettke -- 86. Michał Kalecki (1899-1970) -- Michaël Assous -- 87. Roy Forbes Harrod (1900-1978) -- Michaël Assous -- 88. Abba Ptachya Lerner (1903-1982) -- Volker Caspari -- 89. John von Neumann (1903-1957) -- Manfred J. Holler -- 90. Frank Plumpton Ramsey (1903-1930) -- K. Vela Velupillai and Ragupathy Venkatachalam -- 91. Joan Violet Robinson (1903-1983) -- Harvey Gram -- 92. George Lennox Sharman Shackle (1903-1992) -- Brian J. Loasby -- 93. Jan Tinbergen (1903-1994) -- Mark Knell -- 94. John Richard Hicks (1904-1989) -- Harald Hagemann -- 95. Oskar Ryszard Lange (1904-1965) -- Michaël Assous -- 96. Richard Ferdinand Kahn (1905-1989) -- Geoffrey C. Harcourt -- 97. Wassily W. Leontief (1905-1999) -- Olav Bjerkholt -- 98. Heinrich von Stackelberg (1905-1946) -- Ulrich Schwalbe -- 99. James Edward Meade (1907-1995) -- Volker Caspari -- 100. Nicholas Kaldor (1908-1986) -- John E. King -- 101. Ronald Harry Coase (1910-2013) -- Élodie Bertrand -- 102. Richard Abel Musgrave (1910-2007) -- Richard Sturn -- 103. Tibor Scitovsky (1910-2002) -- Viviana Di Giovinazzo -- 104. Maurice Allais (1911-2010) -- Alain Béraud -- 105. Milton Friedman (1912-2006) -- Christian Philipp Schröder and Peter Spahn -- 106. Abram Bergson [Abram Burk] (1914-2003) -- Antoinette Baujard -- 107. Paul Anthony Samuelson (1915-2009) -- Carl Christian von Weizsäcker -- 108. Herbert Alexander Simon (1916-2001) -- K. Vela Velupillai and Ying-Fang Kao -- 109. James Tobin (1918-2002) -- Robert W. Dimand -- 110. James M. Buchanan (1919-2013) -- Viktor Vanberg -- 111. Hyman Philip Minsky (1919-1996) -- L. Randall Wray -- 112. Kenneth Joseph Arrow (1921) -- Maurice Salles -- 113. Gérard Debreu (1921-2004) -- Alan Kirman -- 114. Don Patinkin (1922-1995) -- Goulven Rubin -- 115. Michio Morishima (1923-2004) -- Toichiro Asada -- 116. Robert Merton Solow (1924) -- Peter Kalmbach -- 117. John Forbes Nash (1928-2015) -- Robert W. Diamand and Khalid Yahia -- 118. Robert Alexander Mundell (1932) -- Oliver Sauter and Peter Spahn -- 119. Takashi Negishi (1933) -- Toichiro Asada -- 120. Amartya Kumar Sen (1933) -- Wulf Gaertner -- 121. Robert E. Lucas (1937) -- Arash Molavi Vasséi snd Peter Spahn -- 122. George Akerlof (1940) -- Olivier Favereau -- 123. Joseph Eugene Stiglitz (1943) -- Max Gödl -- 124. Paul Robin Krugman (1953) -- Max Gödl.

The European Red List is a review of the conservation status of European species according to IUCN regional Red Listing guidelines. It identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the regional level, so that appropriate conservation action can be taken to improve their status. This Red List publication summarises results for all hitherto described native European Orthoptera species (grasshoppers, crickets and bush-crickets). All Orthoptera species (grasshoppers, crickets and bushcrickets) native to or naturalised in Europe before AD 1500 (a total of 1,082 species), have been assessed in this Red List. The geographical scope is continent-wide, extending from Iceland in the west to the Urals in the east, and from Franz Josef Land in the north to the Canary Islands in the south. The Caucasus region is not included. Red List assessments were made at two regional levels: for geographical Europe, and for the 28 Member States of the European Union in 2016. The status of all species was assessed using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN 2012a), which is the world's most widely accepted system for measuring extinction risk. All assessments followed the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional and National Levels (IUCN 2012b). The assessments were compiled based on the data and knowledge from a network of leading European experts on Orthoptera. The assessments were then completed and reviewed at six workshops held in Italy, Greece, France, Bulgaria, Spain and Germany as well as through email correspondence with relevant experts. More than 145 experts participated in the assessment and review process for European Orthoptera species. Assessments are available on the European Red List website and data portal: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ conservation/species/redlist and http://www.iucnredlist. org/initiatives/europe. Overall, 25.7% and 28% of Orthoptera species are assessed as threatened at the European and EU 28 levels, respectively. However, the exact proportion of threatened species is uncertain, as there are 107 (10%) Data Deficient (DD) species in Europe and 84 DD species (8.5%) in the EU 28. Estimating that a similar relative proportion of the DD assessments are likely to be threatened (IUCN 2011), the best estimate of the threatened share of Orthoptera species is thus 28.5% in Europe and 30.6% in the EU 28. Further research on DD species to clarify their status is therefore critical. A further 13.9% (149 species) and 13% (128 species) are considered Near Threatened in Europe and in the EU 28, respectively. By comparison, the best estimate of threatened species of those other groups that have been assessed comprehensively in Europe is 58% of freshwater molluscs, 40% of freshwater fishes, 23% of amphibians, 20% of reptiles, 17% of mammals, 16% of dragonflies, 13% of birds, 9% of butterflies and bees, 8% of aquatic plants and marine fishes and 2% of medicinal plants (IUCN 2015). Additional European Red Lists assessing a selection of species showed that 22% of terrestrial molluscs, 16% of crop wild relatives and 15% of saproxylic beetles are also threatened (IUCN 2015). No other groups have yet been assessed at the European level. Looking at the population trends of European Orthoptera species, 30.2% (325 species) have declining populations, 7.6% (82 species) are believed to be more or less stable and 3.2% (34 species) are increasing. However, the population trends for the majority of species (59%, 634 species) remain unknown. Out of the 739 species that are endemic to Europe (i.e., they are found nowhere else in the world), 231 (31.3%) are threatened, highlighting the responsibility that European countries have to protect the global populations of these species. Overall, the European areas with the highest diversity of species are found in southern Europe, especially in the Mediterranean region and the Balkans. Hotspots of endemic species are found in the Iberian, the Italian and the Balkan Peninsulas, and in some large mountain areas (the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians and Appenines). The greatest concentration of threatened species is found along some Mediterranean coasts and Mediterranean mountain blocks. Finally, the number of Data Deficient species reflects the general distribution of Orthoptera species, being highest in the Mediterranean and the Lower Volga region in southern European Russia. The main threat to European Orthoptera is the loss, degradation and fragmentation of their habitats as a consequence of agricultural land use intensification. This includes direct destruction by transformation of permanent grassland or shrubland habitats into cropland, degradation of habitat quality caused by overgrazing, abandonment, use of fertilisers or heavy machinery and direct mortality from frequent mowing or the use of pesticides. Other important threats to Orthoptera are the increasing frequency of wildfires, touristic development and urbanisation, climate change, afforestation and intensive forest management, drainage and river regulations, recreational activities, deforestation, limestone quarrying and sand excavations and invasive species.Orthoptera are a diverse group of insects with more than 1,000 species known to occur in Europe and play important roles in the ecosystem such as being part of the food chain and prey to many vertebrate species. They are also good indicators of land use intensity, which makes them one of the most important invertebrate groups for environmental monitoring and assessment. Conservation strategies for the European Orthoptera species with the highest extinction risk should be developed and implemented. The European Red List should be used to inform nature and biodiversity policies to improve the status of threatened species. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) should be enhanced by promoting traditional low-intensity agricultural land use systems, particularly pastoralism in Europe, and committing to a long-term reduction in the use of pesticides and fertilisers, encouraging the uptake of alternative pest management. Orthoptera species should be made a standard group for inclusion in Environmental Impact Assessments to avoid negative impacts of new development projects on threatened species.Degraded habitats of threatened Orthoptera species throughout Europe should be restored and guidelines for the optimal management of Orthoptera habitats should be developed. The protection of Orthoptera habitats throughout Europe should be improved, so that each threatened and endemic European species is present in at least one protected area with an adequate adaptive management scheme and monitoring for threatened Orthoptera species. Orthoptera inventories in protected areas should be made mandatory to identify priority species for the respective area and develop strategies for their protection. A pan-European monitoring programme for Orthoptera species should be developed, by merging all existing recording schemes. Specific research on those species that have not been recently recorded in Europe to clarify if they may be Extinct or Regionally Extinct, or have been assessed as Data Deficient should be conducted and funding mechanisms should be put in place to support this research. The effects of the lesser understood threats (e.g., wildfires, pesticides, climate change) on Orthoptera should be studied. The European Red List of Grasshoppers, Crickets and Bush-crickets should be revised at regular intervals of ten years, and whenever new data becomes available.

Peculiarities of the metallurgical industry development in the Dnieper region of Ukraine at the beginning of the 20 th century are regarded in the article. The beginning of the 20th century was characterized by the difficult social-economic and political situation. Different aspects of the industrial development of the Dnieper region in the beginning of the 20th century were regarded in the works of the well-known researchers D. I. Shpoliansky, P. O. Khromov, A. L. Tsukernik, O. O. Nesterenko, F. G. Turchenko, I. V. Dovzhuk, O. B. Shliahov. But the materials of the branch press have not been studied enough in their works. The purpose of the article is to analyze the process of the metallurgical industry development in the Dnieper region at the beginning of the 20th century and the influence of the difficult economic and political situation in the country and in the world upon this process. To achieve the purpose of the article we have to regard the influence of the following economic and political events of the world economic crisis, the Russian-Japanese war, revolutionary events of 1905–1907, the First World War and the revolutionary events of 1917. Difficult economic and social situation in the Russian empire and in the world at the beginning of the 20th century, undoubtedly influenced upon the development of the metallurgical industry in the Dnieper region of Ukraine. The world industrial-economic crisis hampered the development of the metallurgical branch. At the same time the process of industry concentration was occurred, syndicates were created, industrial and bank capitals were united. After the world economic crisis the Russian-Japanese war, revolutionary events of 1905–1907, there was the rise in the development of the metallurgical industry: new plants were built and the production was increased. The First World War and revolutionary events of 1917 were occurred and new problems in the metallurgical branch were appeared. Despite the difficult economic and political situation in the region at the beginning of the 20th century the metallurgical industry of the Dnieper region of Ukraine developed more rapidly and left the Urals metallurgical branch behind. ; Постановка проблемы. Особенности развития металлургической промышленности Надднепрянской Украины а начале ХХ в. (1900–1917 гг.) характеризовались сложной социально-экономической и политической ситуацией. Эта ситуация в Российской империи и в мире в начале ХХ в., безусловно., повлияла на развитие металлургической промышленности Надднепрянской Украины. Всемирный экономический кризис (1900–1903 гг.) затормозил развитие металлургической отрасли. В то же время происходил процесс концентрации промышленности, создавались синдикаты, объединялся промышленный и банковский капитал. После всемирного экономического кризиса, Российско-японской войны и революционных событий 1905–1907 гг. наблюдается подъём в металлургической отрасли: создавались новые предприятия, увеличивалось производство. Начало Первой мировой войны, а потом революционные события 1917 г. вызвали новые проблемы в отрасли. Невзирая на сложную экономическую и политическую ситуацию в начале ХХ в., металлургическая промышленность Надднепрянской Украины развивалась быстрее и обогнала металлургическую отрасль Урала. Анализ публикаций. В работах известных исследователей Д. И. Шполянского, П. О. Хромова, А. Л. Цукерника, А. А. Нестеренко, Ф. Г. Турченко, И. В. Довжука, А. Б. Шляхова рассматривались разные аспекты промышленного развития в начале ХХ ст. в Надднепрянской Украине, но отраслевая пресса как исторический источник недостаточно использовалась в их работах. Цель статьи – проанализировать процесс развития металлургической отрасли промышленности в Надднепрянской Украине в начале ХХ в. и влияние на этот процесс сложной зкономической и политической ситуации в стране и мире. Чтобы достичь этой цели, надо проанализировать влияние следующих экономических и политических событий на развитие металлургической промышленности: всемирного экономического кризиса, Русско-японской войны, революционных событий 1905–1907 гг., Первой мировой войны и революционных событий 1917 года. ; Постановка проблеми. На початку ХХ ст. металургійна промисловість у Наддніпрянській Україні розвивалась більш швидкими темпами, ніж в інших районах царської Росії. На цей час Україна стала одним із найбільш розвинених промислово-економічних районів імперії з важливими промисловими центрами − Донецьким вугільно-металургійним, Криворізьким залізорудним, Нікопольським марганцевим басейнами. Україна стала головною паливно-металургійною базою імперії. У 1900 році вона виробляла 51 % чавуну, 52 % сталі, 65 % кам'яного вугілля загальноросійського виробництва. Початок ХХ ст. характеризується складною економічною і політичною ситуацією в країні і cвіті: світова економічна криза 1900–1903 рр., Російсько-Японська війна, революційні події 1905–1907 рр., Перша світова війна, революція 1917 року. Всі ці події вплинули на розвиток металургійної галузі промисловості Наддніпрянської України. Аналіз публікацій. Серед наукових досліджень з проблематики даної статті заслуговують на увагу роботи Д. І. Шполянського, П. О. Хромова, А. Л. Цукерника, О. О. Нестеренка, Ф. Г. Турченка, І. В. Довжука, О. Б. Шляхова [23; 20; 21; 17; 19; 15; 22], у яких вивчалися проблеми розвитку металургійної галузі промисловості у Наддніпрянській Україні. В радянській Україні у 1980 р. вийшла монографія, присвячена розвитку металургійної галузі в Українській РСР, один із розділів якої висвітлює розвиток металургійної галузі на початку ХХ століття. Але галузева преса як історичне джерело недостатньо використовувалася в працях дослідників. Мета статті – проаналізувати процес розвитку металургійної галузі промисловості в Наддніпрянській Україні на початку ХХ ст. та вплив на цей процес складної економічної та політичної ситуації в країні та світі. Висновки. Початок ХХ ст. характеризувався складною економічною та політичною ситуацією, яка, безперечно, вплинула на динаміку розвитку металургійної промисловості в Наддніпрянській Україні. Під час промислово-економічної кризи головним питанням було подолання її негативних наслідків, які виявилися особливо гостро в 1903 році. Знизилися показники виплавки чавуну (в 3,3 раза) та сталі (в 10,8 раза), скоротилася кількість доменних печей. На сторінках галузевої преси друкувались аналітичні матеріали, в яких провідні фахівці галузі, підприємці, урядовці аналізували причини та наслідки кризового становища і, головне, надавали практичні рекомендації щодо їх ліквідації або пом'якшення. Під час світової економічної кризи (1900–1903 рр.) інтенсивно відбувався процес концентрації промисловості, створювалися синдикати і акціонерні товариства. Наприклад, з'явилися синдикати «Продамет», «Трубопродаж», «Цвях». Синдикату «Продамет» належало 4/5 всієї металургійної промисловості Російської імперії. П'ять найбільших заводів Наддніпрянської України виробляли майже половину всього чавуну регіону. Одночасно відбувалася концентрація банківського капіталу та його об'єднання з промисловим. Банки перетворювалися на монополістів, які володіли капіталами, виробництвом і сировиною. У складний політичний і соціально-економічний період, який тривав із 1904 до 1917 р., промисловий розвиток Наддніпрянщини відчув прояви як піднесення, так і депресії, які були викликані Російсько-Японською війною, революційними подіями 1905–1907 рр., Першою світовою війною та революційними подіями 1917 р. Галузева преса приділяла увагу проблемам, пов'язаним зі створенням та діяльністю синдикатів. З'їзд гірничопромисловців Півдня Росії взяв під свій захист синдикат «Продвугілля», незважаючи на судовий процес із приводу його монопольної діяльності, в той час, коли самодержавний уряд звинувачував синдикат у створенні вугільного голоду та підвищенні цін на пальне. У такий непростий період змінилося співвідношення виробництва металургійної продукції Півдня Росії та Уралу. Промислові показники металургії Півдня Росії та Уралу в міжкризовий період коливалися в бік збільшення незначно, але детальний аналіз показав, що виплавка чавуну на Уралі зменшилася, а на Півдні Росії зросла. З 1915 року вперше в історії Наддніпрянської України гостро постала проблема залежності виробництва від політичних і соціальних аспектів.