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SummaryPOTENTIALITIES AND LIMITS OF ANIMATION RURALE THE EXAMPLE OF SENEGALProgrammes of animation rurale are analyzed as social innovations. As a case‐study the situation of the animation rurale in Senegal is described; the integration of the animation offices in the general framework of the development administration is analyzed as well as the incorporation of the village animateurs into the rural social system. The empirical background is derived from field research by the author in 50 villages of a region of Senegal.The integration of animation into the administration fails due to lack of political support. Thus, organizational deficiencies could not be avoided. The integration of the animateurs in their villages is abortive, since the elementary mechanisms of interaction are ignored whiete the animation holds a weak administrative position. It becomes a tool of traditional local interests and of bureaucratie interests in the region.In the analysis of animation as a social innovation, the adaptation of social innovations to their socio‐cultural context emerges as the central problem, in which power plays a decisive role.RÉSUMÉPOSSIBILITÉS ET LIMITES DE L 'ANIMATION RURALE L' EXEMPLE DU SÉNÉGALL'auteur analyse les programmes d'animation rurale ‐ et plus particulièrement la situation au Sénégal ‐ en tant qu'innovation sociale. L'étude porte aussi bien sur les services chargés de l'animation dans le cadre général de l'administration du développement que sur l'insertion des animateurs de villages dans la structure sociale rurale. L'auteur s'appuie pour cela sur une étude réalisée dans 50 villages d'une région du Sénégal.L'intégration de l'animation dans la structure administrative a échoué; vue l'absence de support politique, les difficultés d'organisation ne pouvaient être évitées. L'intégration des animateurs dans les villages a, de même, échoué dans la mesure, où les mécanismes les plus élémentaires d'interaction sociale ont été ignorés et où l'animation ne jouit que d'une faible position administrative. Elle devient, de ce fait, l'instrument des intérêts locaux traditionnels et ceux de la bureaucratie régionale.Il ressort de cette analyse de l'animation, phéomène social, que l'adaptation des innovations au contexte socio‐culturel constitue le problème essentiel dans lequel le facteur pouvoir politique joue un role décisif.ZUSAMMENFASSUNGWIRKUNGSMÖGLICHKEITEN UND GRENZEN DER ANIZLATION RURALE DAS BEISPIEL DES SENEGALProgramme der Animation Rurale werden als soziale Innovationen analysiert. Als Fallstudie wird die Lage der Animation Rurale in Senegal dargestellt; dabei wird sowohl die Eingliederung der Animationsbehörde in den Gesamtrahmen der Entwicklungsverwaltung wie auch die Eingliederung von Dorfanimateurs in das döfliche Sozialsystem untersucht. Als empirische Grundlage dient eine Unter‐suchung des Autors in 50 Dörfern einer senegalesischen Region.Die Eingliederung der Animation in die Verwaltung scheitert am Mangel an politischer Unterstützung, weswegen Organisationsmängel nicht mehr beseitigt werden konnten. Die Eingliederung der Animateurs in ihre Dörfer scheitert an der Nichtberücksichtigung elementarer Interaktionsmechanismen und an der schwachen administrativen Stellung der Animation. Sie wird zum Werkzeug traditionaler Interessen auf lokaler Ebene und bürokratischer Interessen im über‐lokalen Bereich.In der Analyse dieses Falles stellt sich als Zentralproblem das der Anpassung sozialer Innovationen an den soziokulturellen Kontext heraus, in den sie gestellt werden, wobei der Machtfaktor eine entscheidende Rolle spielt.

SummaryAGRICULTURE IN THE WEST OF IRELANDThis article, which is based on a study by the author, examines some of the basic causes of low farm incomes in the West of Ireland. The low income problem in this region has a number of distinct facets. These include difficult physical conditions of production, an adverse situation relating to land tenure and demography, also to economic and other factors, all of which hinder the region's development. Because of an acute lack of alternative employment opportunities roughly 5 j per cent of the active population in the region is engaged in farming.This article has four main sections: 1) a brief examination of the major aspects of the low farm income problem, 2) a description of a pilot area development programme which was initiated in the region in 1964 with a view to identifying the basic causes of low farm incomes in representative pilot farm communities, 3) the outlook for the region's agriculture particularly in the context of the Agricultural Reform Programme of the European Economic Community, and 4) the role which a comprehensive programme for regional development can play in providing a permanent solution to the low income problem.RÉSUMÉL'Agricultwrb Dans L'Ouest de L'IrelandeCet article, fondé sur une étude récente réalisée par l'auteur, propose une explication des causes essentielles des faibles revenus agricoles dans l'Ouest de l'Irlande. Les causes sont multiples, différenciées: Des conditions de production défavorables, une démographic et un mode de tenure néfastes, des facteurs économiques inadaptés constituent autant de facteurs allant à l'encontre du développement de la région. Les possibilités d'emplois non agricoles faisant cruellement défaut, environ 55% de la population active de la zone travaille dans l'agriculture.L'articlc se subdivise en quatre parties: 1d̀) une brève analyse des aspects essentiels du probltme des faibles revenus en agriculture; 2d̀) une description d'un programme de développement d'une zone pilote qui a débuté dans la région en 1964. Il wait pour objet la détcrmination de causes fondamentales de la sous‐rémunération dans des communautés pilotes représentatives; 3d̀) les prospects de l'agriculture de la région dans le contextc du programme de réforme agricole de la C.E.E.; 4d̀) le rôle qu'un programme global de développement régional peut jouer dans la solution du probléme de la sous‐rémunération en agriculture.ZUSAMMENPASSUNGLANDWIRTSCHAFT IM WESTEN IRLANDSDieser Artikel, der auf einer früheren Studie des Autors basiert, untersucht einige der tieferen Ursachen der niedrigen Farmeinkommen im Westen Irlands. Das Problem der niedrigen Einkommen dieser Region hat verschiedene Facetten. Diese umschließen schwierige physikalische Produktionsbedingungen, ungünstige Agrar‐ und Bevölkerungsstruktur aber auch ökonomische und andere Faktoren, die alle msammen die Entwicklung der Region behindern. Wegen eines akuten Mangels alternativer Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten sind rund 55% der enverbstätigen Bevölkerung der Region in der Landwirtschaft tätig.Der Artikel hat 4 Hauptteile: 1. Eine kune Prüfung der Hauptaspekte des Problems dcr niedrigen Farmeinkommen, 2. eine Beschreibung eines Entwicklungsprogramms für ein Mustergcbiet, das 1964 begonnen wurde, mit dem Ziel, die Hauptursachen der niedrigen Farmeinkommen in typischcn ländlichcn Leitgemcinden zu identifizieren; 3. die Aussichten für die Landwirtschaft der Region, insbesondere im Zusammenhang mit dem landwirtschaftlichen Reformprogramm der Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschafi; 4. die Rolle eines umfassenden Programms für regionale Entwicklung bei einer dauernden Lösung des Nicdrig‐Einkommcn‐Problems.

Until recently, American theory and discussion on prisoner behavior in the Nazi concentration camps differed in important ways from most European work. The American peculiarities stem from two main sources. First, there were gross reporting errors which added to the common difficulties in making sense of the camp system and genocide. Second, before the end of World War II and after, there was quick publication of poorly-grounded theories, reflecting concern with narrowly psychodynamic processes, rather than social processes. The present paper reviews study findings on the importance of human groups in the struggle for survival. Particular attention is given to the emergence of a prisoner social system and to the normative aspects of such a system. Along with references to the relevant work of others, the author deals at some length with his own early research, involving intensive interviews with fifty-two camp sur vivors who emigrated to the United States. In that study, data were gathered on changes with time in the camps in (1) patterns of interpersonal relations, (2) sharing with other prisoners and assisting them, and (3) thefts from other prisoners. The paper considers several propositions on human behavior in extreme situations. These include the proposition by Bruno Bettelheim that the longer prisoners were confined, the more they identified with the SS; that a prisoner had reached the final stage of adjustment to the camp situation when he had changed his personality so as to accept as his own the values11 of his captors. The paper summarizes the author's findings on prisoner behavior in especially extreme situations such as prolonged punishment assemblies and winter- time transports of Auschwitz evacuees; on the attitudes of respondents toward "old" prisoners and toward members of prisoner underground organizations; and on the length of imprisonment of members of various national and inter national camp committees. Evidence is offered which suggests that stable pairing was the most common type of interpersonal relationship pattern and that most survivors had a sharing relationship of mutuality with one or more persons; that the pair was the basic unit of survival. Respondents showing decline in sharing behavior were in the camps sub stantially less time than those showing no change. Those respondents who showed greater and more stable general social participation were in the camps con siderably longer than those whose participation declined. Respondents showing decline in thefts (taking from other prisoners only) or consideration of theft, were in the camps longer than those showing increasing theft behavior. The study findings offered conflict at many points with narrowly psycho dynamic interpretations of prisoner behavior. It is concluded that in the camps the human group and social change system emerge as the most fruitful foci for scientific analysis.

AbstractThis paper analyzes a two person zero‐sum game in which the strategies on the two sides are probability distributions. The solutions always turn out to contain jumps. In most cases the distributions are combinations of delta functions and density functions.The problem is as follows: a submarine chooses a range r, within a declared war zone, at which to fire his missile. If he is detected at a larger range he attempts to fire at that larger range with the effectiveness at that range decreased by defense measures such as attempts to kill the submarine, shoot down the missile, or protect the target. If this defense effectiveness is denoted by ω, with ω = 0 referring to perfect defensive reaction measures, and ω = 1 referring to poor defensive reaction measures, the following is true. If ω = 0, the problem is analogous to a problem ("The Two Machine‐gun Duel") solved by L. Gillman and the author in 1949 (Ref. 2) and is not difficult. The defenses in this case are in close to the coast. If ω = 1 the problem is different but not difficult and the defenses are well out towards (and in some cases at) maximum missile range. There are for ω = 1 no defenses near the coast; this is referred to as an "initial gap.".The first problem that arises is to find for what values of ω is there an "initial gap." A necessary and sufficient condition for such gaps was found. For general ω there may be instead an "interior gap," i.e., defense contiguous to the coast and out near or at maximum missile range, but none at intermediate ranges. Necessary and sufficient conditions for such interior gaps were found. In a typical case the solution for the defense follows one function out to a certain target, then is zero, then follows another function to maximum missile range, then has a delta function at maximum missile range.It was necessary to study in detail the behavior of expressions involving discontinuous functions by breaking into continuous parts and discontinuous parts. A great deal of the complexity of the paper arises from this fact. A second cause is that it is essential to admit completely arbitrary distribution functions on the two sides as strategies. There is no a priori reason for instance, why the attacking player could not choose his plays from the Cantor distribution, a function increasing on (0, 1) from 0 to 1, but having almost everywhere a zero derivative. These possibilities emphasize the need for great care in the analysis and for the somewhat tedious existence proof of a later section of this paper.

Proposed Amendments to the Polish Constitution.
The Sixth Congress of the Unified Workers' Party resolved to actively implement Socialist development in the People's Republic of Poland and with this end in view, concluded that the present Constitution, in effect since July 22, 1952, has outlived its usefulness. This decision came about as the result of certain developments in Polish constitutional law.
In pre-communist Poland, both the Constitution of March 1921, and that of April 23, 1935, were conceptually unequalitarian, but in July 1944, the newly created People's Republic recognized de facto the legality of judicial statutes in effect in Poland on September 3, 1939, at the same time declaring illegal all legislative activity carried on by Polish ex-authorities in immigration in the West. Hence, the fundamental democratic principles of the 1921 Constitution remained in effect until July 1952, when replaced by the present Constitution.
The 1952 Constitution has undergone some changes, but only of secondary importance. Today's proposals are more far-reaching and aimed at adapting the text of the Constitution to contemporary economic and social conditions on the premise that it should not only reflect durable changes which have taken place in Poland and in the World at large since 1952, but also Poland's actual position on the ladder of Communist achievement.
Proposed amendments to the Constitution will be submitted to national public debate at the end of 1973, or early in 1974, and will probably be adopted by the Polish Diet on or before July 1974, to coincide with the thirtieth anniversary of the Polish People's Republic. They will be introduced in accordance with procedure stipulated in the present Constitution (article 91).
Together with the amendments, there will be certain additions to existing provisions : for example, that which assigns the role of leader ship to the Unified Workers' Party, underlining its alliance with the Unified Farmers' Party and with the Democratic Party and reinforcing its activity with regard to registration in the Unified National Front ; to that which applies to farmer and worker self-management ; to the role of mass media (the press, publications, radio and television) ; to the role of trade unions ; and to the present defense system.
As indicated by the above, the prescribed amendments concern all parts of the Constitution, the Introduction as well as the principal chapters. The basis for these modifications resides in the resolution of the Sixth Congress of the Polish Unified Workers' Party, already mentioned. In previous decisions made in the Central Committee of the Polish Communist Party and in suggestions presented by the three political parties and by different social organisations. An effort will be made to formulate the aims of State in accordance with the present-day situation and evolution in Poland, taking into account Polish integration in COMECON, the principles of present agricultural policy, actual conceptions with regard to private property and the role of individual consumption.
The chapter concerning citizens' rights, liberties and obligations will be incorporated in the chapters devoted to State organizations. The rights of the citizen will be enumerated in greater detail and certain rights and obligations will be more clearly defined. No important changes in the functioning of the Diet and of the government are expected. The desired enforcement of the role of the Diet depends mainly on the exercise of its functions. However, important alterations may take place in the State Council, and it is even possible that the office of President of the Republic may be introduced.
In local State organisations such as the People's Councils (Rady narodowe), there is a proposal to separate administrative and legislative control functions. In line with the introduction of community presidents (in December 1972), departmental (powiat) and provincial (voievodie) administrative chiefs, will probably be appointed by the central government.
The power of the Supreme Court to emit directives pertaining to jurisprudence will also be reinforced and its duties enlarged ; whereas, the functions of the procurator will not be significantly modified.
Certain changes in electoral practices may equally be anticipated, in particular with regard to local elections. The tenure of delegates to the Diet may be prolonged from four to five years, in this way changes in the legislature will take place at the same time the new five year plan gets under way. On the other hand, the mandate of the People's Councils (Rady narodowe) may be shortened ; in any event, elections to the Diet and the People's Councils will not take place simultaneously.

AbstractThe procedures for recognition of refugees differ considerably from country to country. In Norway residence is on the whole more important than nationality. As in Denmark, the private international law is based on the principle of domicile. In social welfare legislation and with respect to education, formal status - nationality or recognition as a refugee - is of little if any importance. In fact, it is only within the ambit of aliens police law that the question of refugee status is of some consequence. The Norwegian Aliens Act of 27 July 1956 is strongly influenced by the Swedish Aliens Act of 1954. The Act is supplemented by the Aliens Order. Important provisions are found in the Administrative Procedures Act of 1967. The aliens authorities are the police, the State Aliens Office (which is assisted by a State Aliens Council), the Royal Ministry of Justice and Police, and finally the King in Council. There would be no legal hindrance for the Ministry (or the Aliens Office, given the authority) to issue eligibility certificates to refugees. But it is doubtful what legal effect such certificates would have. Today, such certificates are not issued, and the question of refugee status is therefore only determined prejudicially in connexion with applications for asylum or Convention travel documents. According to § 11 of the Act, an alien shall not be refused entry if he can substantiate his claim to be a political refugee, until his case has been presented to the Aliens Office. Against a refusal of entry, he may file an appeal to the said Office, which may instruct that the entry refusal order shall not be effectuated until the appeal has been decided. In any case it is obvious that in connexion with the question of entry refusal, a full-fledged recognition of refugee status is not possible. According to § 2 (1) of the Aliens Act, a political refugee is entitled to asylum, provided that there are no valid reasons to deny it. Applications for asylum are decided by the Ministry, which prejudicially shall have to determine whether the applicant is a political refugee as defined in § 2 (2) of the Act. Against the Ministry's negative decision, it is possible to appeal to the King in Council. Such appeals are frequently successful. - The alternatives to asylum are either leaving the country or being issued with a residence permit on humanitarian grounds. The latter instance corresponds to the status of so-called "B-refugees" in Sweden. As the quality of refugee is merely prejudicially determined, the grant of asylum is not binding on other authorities which may have to make an eligibility determination, but naturally a grant of asylum will carry considerable weight in such situations. Travel documents are issued upon a decision by the Aliens Office. In this case to, the determination of eligibility is just a prejudicial one. A refused request does not necessarily mean that the person in question is not considered a refugee. Just as the grant of asylum, the issue of a travel document creates a presumption in favour of its holder, even if the underlying eligibility determination is not formally binding on other authorities. A special determination of fear of persecution may take place if a person is threatened with deportation or extradition. All administrative decisions are subject to administrative appeal to higher authority. But a final decision may be challanged in a court of law. The question whether a person is a refugee is a question of law. A plaintiff may request a declaratory judgment to the effect that he is a refugee according to the Aliens Act and/or the Refugee Convention and Protocol. But it seems more practical to ask a court to declare the refusal of asylum or a travel document illegal, and to order the authorities to grant the applicant's request. There have not been many court cases concerning refugee status in Norway. But the fact that such cases may be entertained by the courts, adds an interesting dimension to the aliens law of Norway. The author suggests that the Aliens Act ought to be amended so that whenever an alien claims to be a refugee, his case should be considered by the Aliens Office before he is refused entry. It is also suggested that it should be possible to request an eligibility determination pure and simple, and that this question, and also the questions of grant of asylum and grant of a travel document, as well as the question of non-refoulement, ought to be decided by the State Aliens Office in the first instance. In the event of a negative decision, the administrative appeal should be filed in a court of summary jurisdiction (forhørsrett, cf. the French juge d'instruction), which would give an oral hearing to the applicant, his counsel, and a representative of the State, and also hear witnesses and experts, if any. A representative of a refugee aid society might appear as an amicus curiae. The judge would in due course forward the court records and other ducuments to the State Aliens Office, which might reverse its decision or forward the documents to the Ministry for decision. Should the Ministry's decision, too, be negative, the applicant would have the option of suing the State in the City Court of Oslo. The author makes a strong plea for the creation of a Eupean Refugee or Eligibility Appeals Commission within the framework of the Council of Europe. An appeal to this Commission might become an alternative to court proceedings. It might also be possible for national courts to request the Commission's opinion on points of interpretation, somewhat along the lines of Article 177 of the Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community. One would then get some uniformity in the application of the Refugee Convention and Protocol in the participating countries, notability with respect to eligibility and non-refoulement. If also the so-called refugees in orbit could appeal to the Commission, it might prove possible to find a solution even to this very pressing humanitarian problem. Perhaps the creation of a European Refugee Commission should be considered the next great challange in the development of refugee law.

SUMMARY:
Sohpie Coeurié in her article reconstructs the "stolen memory" of French archives, i.e., the story of the documents that became Soviet and Nazi "loot" in the course of the WWII. Nazi archival extrusions as well as inter-war period regulations of archival policies and rules (national as well as international) provide context and comparative cases for the major case of the Soviet Union's dealing with French archival documents. In 1945, the Russian term "trophies," as applied to the conquered archives and other cultural products, had no equivalent in the language of the Soviet Union's war allies. As the article shows, this term indeed expressed the essence of Soviet archival policy in defeated Germany and in other European countries. On the one hand, the documents were needed to disclose Nazi crimes, and to this degree Russia went along with its war allies. Yet, on the other hand, the documents were viewed as a compensation for war loses, and as something that could be used strategically in ideological purposes.

Sohpie Coeurié explains that the logic behind the Soviet collection of "archival trophies" was not national – Soviet leaders did not support conscious projects whose aim was to assemble in the Soviet Union documents pertaining to Russian history and culture. Confiscations were governed by political and police pragmatism, and later by the logic of the Cold war. Therefore Coeurié suggests that the Soviet "managing of the past" assumed a more complicated form compared to Nazi Germany: the Soviet Union rejected nationalism in favor of the "empire of the revolution" ideal. Moscow became the center for historical archives of the world revolutionary movement (e.g., socialist, communist), and the "trophy archives" became a part of the "empire of the revolution" memory. Coeurié illustrates this statement by analyzing the history of the Central State Special Archive; principles of classification and usage of the "trophy archives" in the 1950s–1960s; implications of the rejection by Soviet archivists of the principle of respect toward a "collection's origin"; and the most frequently consulted French collections from the Special archive. While doing this, she notices the moment of nationalization of Soviet ideology and archival policy during the later Soviet period – the trend that became dominant in post-Perestroika Russia. To explain this trend, the author turns to Russian debates about restitution, and specifically to a complicated story of returning French archival "trophies" to France. Partial success of French efforts to get back their archives are explained in the article by the absence in Russian society of a consensus regarding the history of WWII and the nature of the Soviet period, as well as by the nationalization of Russian state ideology. The choice of documents to be restituted was based not on the fact of their French origin, but on their "French" character. Materials that were confiscated by the Soviet Army and officials at the end of the War but recognized by contemporary Russian archivists as a part of "Russian cultural heritage" remained in Russia.

Considerando o contexto dos anos 90, marcado pela precarização no mercado de trabalho brasileiro, o artigo examina, com base nos dados da Pesquisa de Emprego e Desemprego na Região Metropolitana de Porto Alegre (PED-RMPA), a evolução das formas de inserção ocupacional das mulheres no mercado de trabalho dessa Região metropolitana, analisando os impactos diferenciados sobre os gêneros. Os resultados evidenciam impactos diferenciados e contraditórios quanto às desigualdades de gênero, com situações geralmente desvantajosas para as mulheres. Assim, apesar de ter havido redução dos diferenciais entre os sexos, com o aumento da participação das mulheres no mercado de trabalho e nas inserções mais protegidas, e diminuição dos diferenciais de rendimentos, a precariedade ainda prevalece entre as mulheres, dado o aumento expressivo do desemprego, dos serviços domésticos e do assalariamento sem carteira. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: gênero e trabalho, trabalho e diferenciais de gênero, mercado de trabalho, precarização do trabalho. WORK AND PRECARIOUSNESS IN RMPA: differentiated evolution attenuates gender inequalities Considering the context of the nineties, marked by precariousness in the Brazilian labor market, the author examines, using data from the Pesquisa de Emprego e Desemprego na Região Metropolitana de Porto Alegre – PEDRMPA (Research of Employment and Unemployment in the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre – PED-RMPA), the evolution of occupational insertion of women in the labor market of this metropolitan region, analyzing the differentiated impacts on gender composition. Data show differentiated and contradictory impacts in the gender inequalities, with generally disadvantaged situations for women. Therefore, despite a differential reduction between genders, with an increase of women participation on the labor market and on the most protected insertions, and a decrease on income differentials, precariousness still prevails among women, considering the expressive increase of unemployment, of household services and precarious employment. KEY WORDS: gender and work, work and gender differentials, labor market, work precariousness. TRAVAIL ET PRECARISATION DANS LA RMPA: l'evolution diferenciee attenue les inegalites de genre Prenant en considération le contexte des années 90, marqué par la précarisation du marché du travail brésilien, cet article observe, à partir des données de la Recherche sur l'Emploi et le Chômage de la Région Métropolitaine de Porto Alegre (PED-RMPA), l'évolution des formules d'insertion occupationnelle des femmes, sur le marché du travail de cette région métropolitaine, et analyse les impacts différenciés sur les genres. Les résultats mettent en évidence les impacts différenciés et contradictoires concernant les inégalités de genre, avec des situations souvent désavantageuses pour les femmes. C'est ainsi que, malgré la diminution des différentiels entre sexes, étant donné l'augmentation de la participation des femmes sur le marché du travail et dans des insertions plus protégées, vu également la diminution des différentiels de revenus, la précarité domine encore parmi les femmes à cause de l'augmentation expressive du chômage, des travaux domestiques et du travail salarié sans contrat. MOTS-CLÉS: genre et travail, travail et différentiels de genre, marché du travail, précarité du travail. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br

Straipsnyje analizuojami ir interpretuojami Platono dialoge "Faidonas" pateikti sielos nemirtingumo įrodymai. Platonas šiame dialoge siekia rekonstruoti sokratiškojo imperatyvo "Pasirūpink savo siela, kad ji taptų kuo geresnė" prielaidas. Kadangi rūpestis siela kasdieniame gyvenime nepasiteisina, tai tenka ieškoti atpildo už tą rūpestį garantijų anapus šio gyvenimo, o tai ir numato sielos nemirtingumo prielaidą. Dialoge išskiriami keturi sielos nemirtingumo įrodymai – dialektinis, gnoseologinis, ontologinis bei aksiologinis. Rekonstruojama kiekvieno jū loginė struktūra ir prielaidos, kurias tematizuojant antikos mąstymo kontekstu atskleidžiamos kiekvieno įrodymo tiesioginės ir netiesioginės intencijos. Nagrinėjama ir antikoje populiarus požiūris, kad siela yra kūno daliū harmonija. Nurodoma, kad Platonas šį požiūrį aptaria ne tiek dėl savų konceptualinių sumetimų, kiek atiduodamas duoklę tokios sampratos populiarumui antikoje. Tačiau bene daugiausia dėmesio straipsnyje skiriama aiškintis platoniškajai pažinimo sampratai. Parodoma, kad esminius pažinimo kaip atsiminimo sampratos ypatumus lemia graikiškojo mąstymo sinkretiškumas, savo ruožtu anonimizuojantis pažinimo subjektą. Straipsnis pradedamas ir baigiamas etiniais akcentais. Konstatuojama, kad Platono "Faidonas" yra bene pirmasis mėginimas teoriškai pagrįsti etinę žmogaus elgseną ir kad jame jau nurodyti tik gerokai vėliau I. Kanto suformuluoti praktinio proto postulatai.Reikšminiai žodžiai: pažinimas, atsiminimas, kasdienis mąstymas, etinis mąstymas, prasmė.

PHAIDON": STRUCTURE AND MEANING OF THE PROOFS OF IMMORTALITY OF SOULSkirmantas Jankauskas
Summary The paper deals with the proofs of immortality of soul in Plato's 'Phaidon'. It is demonstrated here that in the dialogue, Plato attempts to reconstruct theoretical premises of the Socratic imperative 'first and chiefly care about the greatest improvement of the soul'. The concern with the quality of soul has no warrants of reward in everyday life, therefore, it is necessary to search for such warrants beyond this life, which implies the prerequisite of the immortality of soul. Four proofs of the immortality of soul are distinguished in the dialogue: dialectical, gnoseological, ontological ant axiological. The logical structure and the premises of every proof are reconstructed. The premises are thematized in the context of Greek thinking, and in this way the direct and indirect intentions of every proof are revealed. The popular Antique concept of the soul as a harmony of the parts of body is analyzed as well. It is pointed out that Plato deals with the concept not because of his own conceptual preoccupations but just paying a debt to the popularity of this concept in the Antique world. However, the focus of the paper centers upon the Platonic concept of knowledge. The author maintains that the essential features of the concept of knowledge as anamnesis are predetermined by the sincretic character of the Greek thinking that in its turn anonimizes the subject of knowledge. The paper begins and ends with ethical accents. It is stated here that 'Phaidon' could be treated as the first attempt to produce a theoretical foundation of ethical behavior and that therein the postulates of practical reason, as formulated much more later by I. Kant, are already distinguished. Keywords: knowledge, anamnesis, everyday thinking, ethical thinking, sense.

Marc Blecher's magisterial text on China's political economy was first published in 1996. The tale of China's unfolding political economy after the 1949 Revolution has often been told, but Blecher did full justice to the subject, telling his story with aplomb, verve and no little eloquence. By focusing on politics and economics, he sensibly restricted the scope of his book, and by combining three narrative chapters with more analytical chapters on the state, inequality, as well as economics and politics, Blecher's reach extended well beyond that of any mere descriptive account.This book, the second edition, retains the essential structure of its predecessor, but updates the story to 2002. In addition, a significant body of new material has been included. For example, the Society chapter includes an up-to-date and apposite discussion of gender inequality, whilst that on political economy discusses the implications of WTO entry. And, in recognition of the increased blurring of the distinction between rural and urban China, the separate chapters on the rural and urban economics of the first edition have been amalgamated. A little more up-dating would have improved the text still further; for example, the chapter on pre-1949 China takes into account little by way of recent scholarship. That, however, is only a minor quibble.In its essentials, this is a textbook, and that is reflected in the balanced and judicious tone that permeates its pages. Nevertheless, Blecher's stands as a text apart. For one thing, it does proper justice to the complexities of Chinese political economy and (in a truly excellent discussion) its administrative system. Doubtless, some will complain that it is too sophisticated for its audience, but it is hard to condemn an author for refusing to pander to the mediocre. Secondly, this book is richly informed by Blecher's own research on the local Chinese state and economy, particularly that on Shulu county (Xinji city) in Hebei, conducted with Vivienne Shue. It is, therefore, the work of a practitioner, not an onlooker. Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, it focuses on the fundamentals of development, class, inequality and growth, and in so doing avoids fashionable ephemera. In a sense, its flavour is rather traditional. For example, the term "social formation" is used without either apology or irony, and the 1949 Revolution retains its (rightful) place as the fundamental climacteric in 20th-century Chinese history. Not all will share Blecher's approach to these matters. However, it is hard to see how one can understand an explicitly Marxist state armed only with a knowledge of missionaries and modernization theory, or a messianic faith in the capability of the multinational to render harmonious a fractured social landscape. If we are to comprehend post-1949 China, we need to understand its political and economic structures, as well as the forces and ideals which animated its leaders. Marc Blecher's book is the place to start.

Climate change is now well recognized as a potentially significant factor in the human future, affecting ecological systems, agriculture, health, and settlement patterns. The scientific consensus, periodically assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, foresees a long‐term atmospheric warming of a few degrees over a century. The accumulating knowledge of the world's climate history, however, suggests that any implied stability of trend may be illusory. The evidence comes from ice and seabed cores and tree rings, which can yield year‐by‐year information on atmospheric conditions and time‐series of mean temperatures extending back for millennia. These data show many episodes of a sudden rise or fall in temperature in particular regions, sometimes of 10°C or more in ten years, with the new mean lasting for decades or centuries. There is thus the likelihood—even the inevitability—of comparably large and abrupt changes occurring in coming years, a very different prospect from the "greenhouse warming" scenario projected by current large‐scale climate models. Moreover, the two phenomena may be connected: a continued slow temperature rise may at some point trigger an abrupt shift in climate regime through mechanisms such as the effect on ocean circulation. In 2002 a committee set up by the US National Research Council reviewed what is known about this subject in a report, Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises (Washington, DC: National Academy Press). The Council is the operating arm of the US National Academy of Sciences; the Committee on Abrupt Climate Change comprised mostly oceanographers and climate experts and was chaired by Richard B. Alley, Professor of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University, a glaciologist and author of The Two‐Mile Time Machine: Ice Cores, Abrupt Climate Change, and Our Future (Princeton, 2000).A recent spate of media attention to the subject has been occasioned less by the NRC report itself than by a dramatic scenario exercise derived from it, prepared under US Defense Department auspices, and by release of a disaster film with an instant‐ice‐age theme. The Pentagon study, An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security, authored by Peter Schwartz and Doug Randall, was issued in October 2003. It explores the hypothetical geopolitical consequences of a repetition in the near future of an event experienced 8,200 years ago (as recorded in an ice core from central Greenland): a sudden cooling of some 2–3° C, lasting for a century, punctuating climatic conditions broadly similar to those of the present day. In the scenario, the collapse of ocean heat‐conveying currents causes rapid cooling in the northern hemisphere and warming in the southern hemisphere. Outcomes include resource wars, large population movements, and "a significant drop in the human carrying capacity of the Earth's environment."In February 2004 the NRC reasserted the more measured voices of its committee by issuing a four‐page summary of the 2002 report, under the same title as the full document. This "report in brief" is reproduced below.

AbstractThis paper explores the basic responsibilities of those who "govern" any kind of organization, whether these be non‐profits, widely held or closely held firms, cooperatives, or voluntary agencies. It adopts a perspective that is largely philosophical and sociological rather than legal or economic, and explores the basic functions of governors in relation to their organizations. It begins its inquiry by contrasting managing and governing. It argues that the practice of governing consists fundamentally in the exercise of reflective and authoritative judgment. The paper then reflects on the basic character of organizations, using what the author refers to as a revised stakeholder model. It argues that organizations are constituted and reconstituted by their ongoing, negotiated, asset‐creating interactions with diverse constituencies. With this enlarged view of organizations as a frame of reference, the paper then spells out in order of importance the fundamental responsibilities of governors. These consist of overviewing their organizations to promote the good of their organizations as a whole, reviewing and authorizing organizational strategies, monitoring organizational performances, supervising chief administrators, as well as other tasks. In order to assume these responsibilities effectively, governing boards need to be constituted so that they can deliberate well. While recognizing merit in the view that regards governors primarily as agents of stakeholders with proprietary claims, the paper argues instead that boards should be constituted to represent the interests of their organizations as whole.RésuméCet article examine les responsabilités fondamentales de ceux qui "gouvernent" les différent types d'organisa‐tions, qu'elles soient organisations sans but lucratif, à capital privé ou cotées en bourse, coopératives, ou organisations volontaires. Il adopte une perspective essentiellement philosophique et sociologique plutôt que légate ou économique, et explore les fonctions fondamentales des gouverneurs par rapport à leurs organisations. II commence par une discussion sur la différence entre gestion et gouvernance. Nous proposons que la gouver‐nance est avant tout un exercice de réflexion et implique un jugement d'autorité. Ensuite, nous réfléchissons sur le caractère fondamental des organisations en utilisant ce que nous appelons un modèle réSvisé des parties prenantes ("stakeholders"). Notre argument est que les organisations sont constituées et reconstituées par les interactions permanentes et négociées entre différent groupes, et que ce sont ces interactions qui créent les ac‐tifs de l'organisation. Avec comme cadre de référence cette vue élargie de l'organisation, cet article énonce par ordre d'importance les responsabilités fondamentales des gouverneurs. Celles‐ci consistent à exercer une vue générate sur Vorganisation pour le bien de leur organisation dans son ensemble, de revoir et d'autoriser les stratégies organisationnelles, de suivre les performances organisationnelles, de superviser les responsables, ainsi que d'autres tâches. Les comités de gouvernance doivent être constitués de telle sorte qu 'ils assument leurs responsabilités et puissent bien délibérer. Tout en reconnaissant le mérite du modèle des gouverneurs comme agents des parties prenantes, cet article met en avant que les comités de gouvemance devraient représenter les intérêts des organisations dans leur ensemble.

Humans are dependent on others for their livelihood for many years before they become economically productive and self‐supporting. In modern industrial societies productivity and the capacity to be self‐supporting also require costly investments in human capital. What is the proper division of responsibilities between parents and other members of society for rearing children and thus, collectively, reproducing the population? And how equitable is the sharing between husband and wife of the burdens that fall on the immediate family? To what extent should social responsibilities for childrearing be formalized in explicit institutional arrangements? While certainly long‐standing, these questions acquired a special urgency in industrial countries beginning with the second decade of the twentieth century as a result of the convulsive experience of the world war. (In subsequent decades, below‐replacement‐level fertility amplified such concerns.) Total mobilization for war resulted in the massive influx of female workers into industry, thus undercutting prevailing assumptions about the logic and equity of an industrial system characterized by sharp divisions of labor by sex, discrimination in hiring and remuneration in the job market, and routine reliance on unpaid female labor in childrearing.In the March 1917 issue of The Economic Journal, Eleanor F. Rathbone addressed these issues in an article titled "The remuneration of women's services." This article is reproduced below in full. "Perhaps the most important function which any State has to perform—more important even than guarding against its enemies—is to secure its own periodic renewal by providing for the rearing of fresh generations," asserted Rathbone. How is this burden paid for? She saw the existing system as iniquitous and haphazard—requiring a disproportionate and unremunerated contribution from the adult female population, a contribution supplemented only in a "hesitating and half‐hearted way" by the state. The modern state gradually accepted responsibilities to cover some of the costs of formal education and started to make minor provisions for child nurture and medical expenses. Still, she noted, "the great bulk of the main cost of [population] renewal [the state] still pays for… by the indirect and extraordinarily clumsy method of financing the male parent"—thus accomplishing the task "in a very defective and blundering way." Rathbone argued for a radical rethinking and revision of the existing system. She further elaborated her proposals in a book, The Disinherited Family, published in 1924. This book was republished posthumously in 1949 under the title Family Allowances. Lord Beveridge, father of the post–World War II British welfare state, in an Epilogue written for that book, attributes the intellectual preparation of the 1945 Family Allowances Act "first and foremost" to the author of The Disinherited Family.Eleanor Rathbone was born in 1872 to a prominent Liverpool family. Educated at Oxford in classics and philosophy, she played an active public role as a suffragist, feminist, and advocate of social reforms. She was a member of the British Parliament, as an Independent, from 1929 to her death in 1946.