The book "Themes and Portraits of Music in Istria from 16th to 19th Centuries" is a revised collection of essays previously published in Italian, Croatian and Slovenian. It can offer a comprehensive survey on various aspects of music history of Istria between 16th and 19th century. In a wider sense, it considers the role of music in different contexts examining the patronage of churches, academies and noblemen within the frame of a multilingual area, in which Italian and Slavic cultures co-existed, Divided between Venice and Habsburg government, and now between Slovenia, Croatia and Italy (with the small town of Muggia), the peninsula, till today, represents an unsolved issue if the historians watch to Italian music as the unique "national" model of music art. On the contrary, until 19th century Italian music was a supranational/cosmopolitan phenomenon that covered both the coastal towns, namely inhabited by Italians, and the inner cities, where Slovenians and Croats settled. The first chapter is devoted to Gabriello Puliti, a Tuscan friar appointed organist and chapel master in Trieste, Muggia, Koper, Piran, Labin, Pula. Puliti, the most representative composer who increased the 17th-century monody in Istria, worked as a protégé of some local noblemen and the Habsburgs, as Ferdinand archduke of Graz. His three voices "mascherate" ("Ghirlanda odorifera", 1612), composed in honour of Tranquillo Negri, a nobleman and poet of Labin, are compared to the carnival masquerades described by the chorographer Giacomo Filippo Tomasini (cf. the 17th-century manuscript "Commentari storici-geografici della provincia dell'Istria"). The primary poetic source of "Ghirlanda" is Giulio Cesare Croce's "Le ventisette mascherate piacevolissime" (1603), and the theatrical suggestion in these "Ghirlande" is frequently emphasised by the openings of the poems where the characters are represented by the motto "Noi siamo". They represent an imaginary gallery of the Italian comedy based on parodies of several dialects and languages. Puliti's approach to this genre is linked in various ways to musical painting. Almost every piece is marked by some distinctive features, whose purpose is to depict the characters in a very refined manner. To this end Puliti resorts to three different degrees of mimesis: onomatopoeic sounds, the imitation of human voices, and the abstract imitation of words through mensuration and the intensive use of the "coloured" notes ("Augenmusik"). Probably Puliti entered to the Palladia Academy of Capodistria (now Koper) with the nickname "Accademico armonico detto l'Allegro". This academy was an important circle of intellectuals that in seventy years of activity (from 1567 to 1637) promoted some pastoral plays with music (cf, "Filliria" 1585, "Selve incoronate" 1590 and other pastorals) and published an important treatise titled "Dieci de' cento dubbi amorosi" (posthumous, 1621). To demonstrate the extraordinary effect of music in human behaviour, this platonic dialogue contains a series of references drawn from Plato, Horace, Macrobius, Boetius, Ficino and Jewish theologians collected in Francesco Zorzi's "Harmonia mundi" (1525). In choosing different sources from the classic and medieval philosophies, Giambattista Zarotti, one of the authors of the dialogue, exceeds the lavish quotations, which are used as a tool for a new proposal. He aimed at giving a modern commentary on the debate on music and feelings, evaluating the ancient theories on the basis of modern music. Another study focuses on the unknown book "Ghirlande conteste" (1588), a set of intermedi staged in the island of Cres and published by Stefanello de Petris in honour of Sebastiano Quirini. These mythological spectacles, with chorus, consort and singers, exalt the benefits in behalf of the island, given generously by the cleaver count Quirini. The accuracy of description lets us acquire a detailed reconstruction of the sceneries and performances of musicians, even though, as it is custom in theatre, the score was not printed. The following chapters deal with Antonio Tarsia's monodies written for the Koper's cathedral, which are compared with the contemporaneous work of Giovanni Legrenzi, and two treatises written by Gianrinaldo Carli during his stay in Padua (1740/50), on the concepts of genius and "sentimental music" applied to Giuseppe Tartini's instrumental works ("Dell'indole del teatro tragico", "Osservazioni sulla musica antica e moderna"). Influenced by the English Enlightenment, on the example of Richardson's "Pamela", Carli developed a revolutionary idea of "sentimental theatre and music" inspired by nature. He promoted both a simple music and a simple stage upon realistic performances, without any implication with the cultivated tragedies of the conservative Italian writers of his time. Finally, the author analyses the operas "Pittori fiamminghi" (1893) and "Nozze istriane" (1895) of Antonio Smareglia, in which the technique of the Wagnerian leitmotif appears. Smareglia, educated in Milan and Vienna, as an Italian-Croatian-German speaking rejected the national ideas of his time. Involved in the cosmopolitan atmosphere of Central Europe, he did not accept the fall of the Habsburg Monarchy and, as a consequence, he developed a special feeling for a supranational drama based on the Italian librettos translated into German. Alike some artists and writers, after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Smareglia experienced and shared the unhappiness of the so-called "Austrians without Austria".
In the context of the radical changes that East European countries have recently gone through, it is of general interest to study what institutional and organisational setups for forest management were selected in the individual countries, and why. The purpose of this thesis is to examine what reforms took place in the State forest management of Ukraine, the Russian Federation and Latvia during their first decade of independence and the underlying reasons for these reforms. In order to analyse the underlying reasons for reforms, a number of explanatory models were formulated, mostly based on Public Choice theory and theories on institutional development. By testing these models - Interest Group Struggles, Political Necessity, Historical Experience, Path Dependency and Influence of Clientelism and Black Economy, on the forest sector reforms, the applicability of each model on each reform was evaluated. This way the most likely motives for the reforms could be described. The three countries of the study were selected because of observed divergence in forest sector reforms during the first decade of transition. The results show that all the explanatory models can be used to explain the reform process, but on individual reforms, one or two models usually lead to a more likely explanation of the process observed. Looking on individual models and beginning with Russia, some key reforms in the forest sector were initiated because they were part of the Government's general reform agenda. Such reforms, when they led to reforms in the forest sector, have here been labelled Political Necessities, implying that the major decisions generated outside of the sector. The main such reforms in Russia, originated from the decision to privatise forest industry but to keep forest State-owned. Most of the other reforms of the period were consequences of this general decision but additional understanding of them was shown to be provided by using the other models of the study. Interest group struggles, particularly between forest management and forest industry organisations, but also between different levels of Government, were intensive during the studied period, and many of the reforms studied were resulting compromises. The analyses demonstrate that the most fundamental Russian forest sector reforms during the studied period were mostly formed already in the end of the Soviet period or in the very first years of the Russian Federation. It can be questioned whether this was not premature. In Ukraine, the reform process in society as a whole slowed down considerably after only few years of independence and in many sectors, the transition to market economy was not complete. One can argue that the Ukraine State Forest Committee as an organisation was an example of this, given that it continued to control the majority of Ukraine's forests, enjoyed a close-to monopoly on final fellings and came to control a large part of Ukraine's forest industry. The processes that led to this situation were strongly influenced by Interest Group Struggles and Path Dependency. As for Latvia, most striking is the breech with the Soviet-era institutional set-up and thus also with Path Dependency. In a first phase of reform in 1990-1995, several similarities between Latvian and Russian reforms can be found, although the Latvian reforms went further as a result of massive forest restitution. In a second phase however, Latvia created a new institutional and organisational setup, more similar to the Scandinavian countries. The models that best explain Latvian forest sector reform are Political Necessity and Historic Experience, the latter because Latvian institutions from the period before World War II were frequently used as models for reform. By the end of the studied period, the main forest institutions and organisations demonstrated practically no resemblance to what had existed prior to 1990. In this respect, Latvia differed very clearly from Russia and Ukraine. The differences between Latvia as compared to Ukraine and Russia have many explanations, as demonstrated by application of the different models on the individual reforms. On a larger scale however, the differences appear tied to whether reforms emanated from within or outside the State forest management and State forest industry organisations. Latvian Government decisions in 1988-91 on land restitution to pre-war owners and its 1995 Concept of Public Administration Reform, strongly influenced reforms in the forest sector. Further, Latvian openness to international support in policy and institutional development, and the fact that a young generation took over leadership roles in the sector, were also important factors. Also, after 1997, views of other interested parties were systematically integrated in the Latvian reform process. In neither Russia nor Ukraine did forest privatisation take place. Forest policy, legislation and State forest management questions were during most of the studied period largely determined by the State forest management organisation, but under steady criticism from adjacent interests. This atmosphere fostered a marked conservatism. Such fundamental changes that many transition countries' forest sectors went through during the past two decades are highly unusual events, and it is important that the experiences are collected while still in the active memory of the people that participated. This kind of studies can be of help in future analyses of other countries' forest sectors. Particularly, it is the hope of the author that experience from the East European transition period reforms will be utilised in planning future forest sector reforms in other countries, notably in Western Europe.
Das Menschenbild ist die Gesamtheit der Annahmen und Überzeugungen, was der Mensch von Natur aus ist, wie er in seinem sozialen und materiellen Umfeld lebt und welche Werte und Ziele sein Leben haben sollte. Diese Annahmen über den Menschen sind das Thema der Philosophischen Anthropologie und als empirische Fragestellung bilden sie eine Aufgabe der Psychologie. In neuerer Zeit werden die traditionell religiös oder philosophisch bestimmten Menschenbilder zunehmend durch die Ergebnisse der Humanwissenschaften beeinflusst. Statt der üblichen Abgrenzung von Philosophischer Anthropologie und Biologischer Anthropologie zu folgen, muss heute auf eine Interdisziplinäre Anthropologie hingearbeitet werden. Zu dieser Aufgabe kann die Psychologie wegen ihrer Grenzstellung zwischen Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften, Biologie und Medizin wesentlich beitragen. Das Buch enthält fünf Themenbereiche: (1) Menschenbilder der Psychotherapie und Psychologie: u.a. Sigmund Freud, Erich Fromm, Viktor Frankl, Burrhus F. Skinner, außerdem Beiträge der Persönlichkeits- und Sozialpsychologie zu subjektiven Theorien, Selbsttheorien und Einstellungen. (2) Menschenbilder der Biologie und Neurobiologie: Genetik, Abstammung, Primatenforschung und Hirnforschung. (3) Menschenbilder in sozialer und interkultureller Sicht. (4) Menschenbilder und Religion: Christentum, Buddhismus, Islam, Chinesischer Universalismus; repräsentative Umfragen zu Religion, Religiosität und Spiritualität. (5) Wege der Aufklärung: Menschenwürde und Menschenrechte, Menschenbilder und religiös motivierte Wertkonflikte, Glauben und Vernunft, Pluralismus und Toleranz, Überzeugungen und ihre Konsequenzen. — In 25 Kapiteln werden wichtige Aspekte von Menschenbildern geschildert. Zum Thema der religiösen Überzeugungen werden bevölkerungsrepräsentative Umfrageergebnisse in Deutschland einbezogen. Eine eigens durchgeführte Untersuchung bei 800 Studierenden verschiedener Fächer befasste sich u.a. mit der Evolution und Sonderstellung des Menschen, geistiger Existenz nach dem Tod, Gottesglauben und Theodizee-Problem, Atheismus, Interesse an Religion und Sinnfragen, dualistischer bzw. monistischer Auffassung des Gehirn-Bewusstsein-Problems sowie der Willensfreiheit. Die Annahmen über den Menschen sind so verschieden, dass eine einheitliche Bestimmung unmöglich ist. Dieser Pluralismus der Überzeugungen ist eine Folge der philosophischen Aufklärung, der Säkularisierung und der Glaubensfreiheit; er wird durch das zunehmende Wissen über andere Kulturen und andere Religionen gefördert. Deswegen bildet der fortschreitende Prozess der Aufklärung ein zentrales Thema: der Umgang mit diesem Pluralismus, Toleranz und Intoleranz, Vernunft und Glauben, Fundamentalismus und Aberglauben. Aus psychologischer Sicht sind die Fähigkeit zur Perspektiven-Übernahme, die Duldung der Mehrdeutigkeit und eine geringe Ausprägung autoritärer und ethnozentrischer Persönlichkeitszüge als toleranzfördernde Denkstile hervorzuheben. Der Pluralismus der Menschenbilder führt häufig zu religiös motivierten Wertkonflikten, muss aber nicht zwingend auf eine Relativierung grundlegender ethischer Normen hinauslaufen. An die Stelle der religiösen oder metaphysischen Begründungen der Ethik treten die universalen Prinzipien der Menschenwürde und Menschenrechte sowie die Idee des Weltethos, insbesondere die in sehr vielen Kulturen verbreitete Goldene Regel. Die Absichten des Buchs werden in zwei Themen zusammengefasst: Die differentielle Psychologie der Menschenbilder erfordert mehr empirische Untersuchungen und die Reflexion der möglichen Konsequenzen philosophischer Vorentscheidungen für die Forschung und die Praxis der Psychologen, Psychotherapeuten, Ärzte und anderer Berufe. — Die Kontroversen über das Gehirn-Bewusstsein-Problem (Leib-Seele-Problem) und die Willensfreiheit lehren, dass geisteswissenschaftlich-idealistische und naturalistische Auffassungen einander ausschließen. Demgegenüber bedeutet Komplementarität, dass jedes der beiden Bezugssysteme auf seine Weise vollständig ist, aber dennoch nur einen Teil bildet in der umfassenden Beschreibung von Geistigkeit und Natur des Menschen. ; Concepts of man ("Menschenbilder', assumptions about human nature). Psychological, biological, cross-cultural & religious perspectives. Psychological and interdisciplinary anthropology. A concept of man ("Menschenbild') is the comprehensive representation of assumptions and belief systems about human nature, about how man lives in his social and material context, and about which values and goals he should have in life. Assumptions about human nature are a matter of Philosophical Anthropology and of empirical investigation in Differential Psychology. In more recent times, the traditional concepts of man as formed by religion and philosophy have become increasingly influenced by findings of the advancing biological and social sciences. The conventional distinction between Philosophical Anthropology and Biological Anthropology should be superseded by an explicit interdisciplinary approach. Psychology can make a considerable contribution to this by virtue of its well-placed position as a field of science between those of the Humanities, Social Sciences, Biology and Medicine. The book has five main topics: (1) Concepts of man in Psychotherapy and Psychology, for example, Sigmund Freud, Erich Fromm, Viktor Frankl, Burrhus F. Skinner, and concepts from personality research and social psychology such as subject models, self theories, and attitudes. (2) Concepts of man in Biology and Neurobiology: genetics, descent of man, primatology, and brain research. (3) Concepts of man in Social and Intercultural Perspectives. (4) Concepts of man and Religion: Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Chinese Religion; social surveys on religious beliefs, religious attitudes, and spirituality. (5) Ways of Enlightenment: Concepts of human dignity and human rights, assumptions on human nature and religiously motivated conflicts of value, religious belief and reason, pluralism and tolerance, covert anthropological assumptions and their consequences. — Concepts of man and their important aspects are outlined in 25 chapters. With respect to religious beliefs, findings from representative surveys in Germany are reported. A particular study by the author was conducted in 800 students to assess their attitudes toward such topics as evolution or creation of mankind, belief in forms of post-mortal existence, belief in god, theodicy, atheism, interest in religion and questions of life's purpose and meaning, supernatural (parapsychic) relationships, a dualistic or monistic conception of brain and consciousness (mind-body), and free will or determinism. The diversity of belief systems about human nature is such that a unified theory of man with which to accommodate the inherent contradictions of these systems appears impossible to achieve. This pluralism may be attributed to the continuing process of enlightenment and secularization and to freedom of religion. This development is being fostered by the growth in knowledge about inter-cultural and inter-religious diversity. The process of enlightenment is therefore a central theme with a number of key aspects: coping with pluralism, definitions of tolerance and intolerance, reason and belief, fundamentalism and superstition. Psychologically, the ability to take different perspectives and to tolerate ambiguity as well as having a low trait level of authoritarianism and ethnocentricity appear conducive to higher tolerance in thinking style. Pluralism may often lead to religiously-motivated value conflicts, but it does not necessarily result in a relativism of basic ethical norms. The religious foundation of morality is being replaced by secular and universal principles such as dignity of man, human rights, and the concept of World Ethos ("Weltethos'), especially the Golden Rule which is acknowledged as a valid principle in many cultures. The aims of this book may be summarised in two points: The differential psychology of concepts of mind ("Menschenbilder') requires more empirical investigation and reflection on the practical implications of philosophical preconceptions about mind-body and free will on the way in which psychotherapists, psychologists, and doctors exercise their respective professions. — The controversies on mind-body and free will show that idealistic and naturalistic concepts are mutually exclusive. The principle of complementarity acknowledges however that each of these two approaches constitutes in itself a frame of reference (or paradigm) which in its way is "complete' but captures only one aspect of the very broad notion of human spirituality and biological nature. Keywords: Anthropology, Philosophical & Psychological & Cultural; Personality & Personality Theories; Mind-Body; Free Will; Human Nature; Meaning of Life; Religion; World View
Umweltprobleme sind oft durch eine Vielzahl von Beteiligten gekennzeichnet, die sich in ihrem Verhalten gegenseitig beeinflussen. Beispielhaft kann hier die Situation des Straßenverkehrs in einer Großstadt benannt werden. Wenn ganz viele Akteure betrachtet werden, verringert sich aber wieder die Relevanz des strategischen Aspekts, denn dann genügt häufig die Kenntnis des durchschnittlichen Verhaltens. Am interessantesten sind also Fälle, bei denen viele, aber nicht ganz viele, betroffen sind – und (damit komplex genug) mehr als zwei Beteiligte vorhanden sind. Deshalb wird als einleitendes Beispiel eine Situation mit drei Fischzüchtern vorgestellt, die sich zu ihrem gemeinsamen Vorteil auf die Errichtung einer Kläranlage verständigen könnten. Das Konzept des strategischen Verhaltens wird dann eingeführt, um zu zeigen, dass die Finanzierung häufig scheitern wird, weil die Akteure private Information strategisch motiviert zurückhalten. Ein solches Verhalten ist individuell rational, führt aber kollektiv betrachtet zu ineffizienten Resultaten. Solche Situationen werden allgemein als "social dilemmas" bezeichnet, und viele Umweltprobleme haben eine solche Struktur. Zweck der Arbeit ist es, ein Simulationstool zu entwickeln, das zur Untersuchung von Sozialen Dilemmata geeignet ist. Zwei Grundlagenkapitel (zu Spieltheorie und Umweltökonomie) beschreiben zunächst die benötigten Begriffe und Konzepte. Das Kapitel zur Spieltheorie beschreibt kritisch die Rationalitätsanforderungen der traditionellen Spieltheorie. Außerdem werden die Grundzüge der evolutionären Spieltheorie beschrieben. Das Kapitel zur Umweltökonomie definiert verwendete Begriffe, etwa öffentliche Güter, externe Effekte, Pareto-Effizienz und Coase Theorem. Kapitel 4 beschreibt die Konzipierung des Simulationstools. Ausgehend von den Grundlagenkapiteln wird zunächst ein Anforderungskatalog abgeleitet. Dann findet die Modellierung der Problemstrukturen statt, wobei öffentliche Güter mit ihren Zustandsvariablen im Mittelpunkt stehen. Eine Modellierung der Prozessgesichtspunkte sowie das generelle Ablaufschema der Simulation schliessen dieses Kapitel ab. Der Hauptteil der Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit zwei Anwendungsbeispielen (Kapitel 5 und 6). Der erste Anwendungsfall (Optimale Kontrollfrequenz in einem Inspektionsspiel) ist ein einfaches Zwei-Personenspiel, das sich daher gut eignet, um die Vorgehensweise beim Einsatz des Simulationstools zu demonstrieren. Das Inspektionsspiel besitzt nur ein gemischtes Nash-Gleichgewicht, das leicht berechnet werden kann. Die Simulationsergebnisse zeigen aber, dass eine solche statische Betrachtung nicht ausreicht. Der dynamische Prozess weist starke Fluktuationen auf, was bedeutet, dass die Verschmutzungswerte phasenweise erheblich über dem berechneten Wert liegen. Des Weiteren wird eine mögliche Intervention des Gesetzgebers in die Spielstruktur untersucht. Dabei kommt es zu scheinbar paradoxen Effekten, weil ein dauerhaftes Absenken der Umweltverschmutzung so nicht erreicht wird. Mit Hilfe einer analytischen Nachbetrachtung werden die Simulationsergebnisse plausibel gemacht. Dabei kann auch die Analogie zur Lotka-Volterra-Gleichung aus der Populationsökologie gezeigt werden. Die eigentliche Herausforderung besteht beim zweiten Anwendungsfall (Strategisches Verhalten bei der Finanzierung einer Kläranlage). Hierzu wird das Beispiel aus der Einleitung wieder aufgegriffen und so verallgemeinert, dass eine beliebig große Anzahl von Fischzüchtern modelliert werden kann. Außerdem wird der Bezug zum Coase Theorem hergestellt. Mit der Simulation werden Größeneffekte (Anzahl der Spieler) sowie die Effekte heterogener Nutzenverteilung untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung mit den theoretischen Überlegungen von Olson in seinem Buch "The Logic of Collective Action". Das Hauptproblem besteht darin, dass private Information strategisch eingesetzt werden kann und es deshalb zu verfälschten Nutzenangaben kommt. Dieses Problem wurde seit den 1970er Jahren erkannt und führte zu einem eigenen Theoriezweig "Mechanism Design". Das Problem strategischer Falschangaben kann mit den dabei entwickelten Methoden zwar theoretisch vollständig gelöst werden, aber es bleibt unklar, wie stark die Funktionsweise der Mechanismen beeinträchtigt wird, wenn Abstriche von der Annahme vollständiger Rationalität gemacht werden. Zwei der aus der Literatur bekannten Mechanismen werden dazu mit Hilfe des Simulationsansatzes untersucht: Der Clarke-Groves-Mechanismus und der Mechanismus von Rob. In beiden Fällen kommt man zum Ergebnis, dass auch unter der Annahme begrenzter Rationalität die prinzipielle Funktionsweise erhalten bleibt. Je mehr Beteiligte aber involviert sind, umso schwieriger wird es zu lernen, dass sich Abweichungen von der wahren Nutzenangabe nicht lohnen. Auch experimentelle Untersuchungen stimmen recht gut mit den vorgestellten Simulationsergebnissen überein. Zusammenfassend kann aus den Anwendungsbeispielen gefolgert werden, dass mit Veränderungen der Spielstrukturen Eingriffe in dynamische Systeme verbunden sind und dass Situationen mit strategischer Interdependenz ihre besonderen Eigenarten haben. Spieltheorie und Kybernetik sollten zusammen zu einem Verständnis solcher Systeme beitragen. ; The thesis begins by illustrating what is meant by strategic behaviour. Three fish farmers living by a lake have to decide whether to go ahead with jointly investing in a wastewater treatment plant. If the fish farmers benefits are private knowledge it is quite likely that the participants will try to keep this information private for strategic reasons. This is just one instance where the provision of so-called public goods is uncertain. There is a vast literature on voluntary public goods provision in similar situations (often labelled social dilemma situations). The main lesson is that strategic behaviour in such situations has a high probability of causing inefficient solutions. Methods from cybernetics and game theory are used to develop an agent based simulation approach which can contribute to further investigation of such dilemma situations. Two foundational chapters introduce some concepts from game theory and environmental economics. Chapter 2 contains a critical review of the rationality assumptions, typically used in standard game theory, and discusses evolutionary game theory as an alternative. Chapter 3 summarises definitions on public goods, external effects, Pareto efficiency and relates the work to the Coase Theorem. Chapter 4 deals with the conception of an agent based simulation tool. Game theoretic models are translated into models which focus explicitly on public goods and describe these goods by state variables. Moreover several models for the adjustment of agent behaviour are provided. Predominantly this concerns imitation models but in addition an adaptation procedure based on the sampling dynamics is implemented. Main part of the thesis are two applications of the simulation tool. Chapter 5 demonstrates on a simple two-player example how the simulation tool can be deployed. The so-called inspection game has no equilibrium in pure strategies but it has a unique Nash equilibrium in mixed strategies. But this equilibrium has almost no predictive power. No convergence is observed in the simulations but significant fluctuations. Potential interventions by the legislator are also discussed, establishing that such interventions may have counterintuitive effects. Some of these findings can be explained also analytically by which is shown that Lotka-Volterra equations may be derived for specific parameter settings. This reconfirms the close connection between imitation models and the replicator dynamics of evolutionary game theory. Chapter 6 refers back to the introductory example. So far the problem has involved just three fish farmers. Since it is of specific interest to investigate size effects (increasing player numbers) a more general problem description is formalized. This formal model is related to the Coase Theorem. First investigations concern the ability of the fish farmers to solve the problem on a voluntary basis. In other words: the question is if a spontaneous organisation of agents might result in a more or less efficient solution. The simulation results accord pretty well with suggestions made by Olson (1965). With a larger number of fish farmers, it is almost inevitable that the project will fail. In which case, the potential surplus will completely dissipate. On the other hand, some relief is found with increasing heterogeneity, an issue which was also discussed by the author at a WEHIA conference in Essex in 2005. However, the overall findings for large and medium player numbers remain discouraging. As long as there is no way to curtail the tendency towards understatement, no improvement can be expected. Therefore the final part of the thesis concentrates on "mechanism design" and the simulation of suchlike mechanisms. Simulations are made for the Clarke-Groves mechanism as well as for a mechanism suggested by Rob. The latter mechanism also satisfies the individual rationality condition. One common problem of the Groves schemes, as well as the Rob mechanism and indeed most other mechanisms, is that they induce a truth-telling equilibrium only in theory. Moreover, the compensation (or tax) schemes are often quite complicated. Thus it does not surprise to find that in experiments subjects often fail to find these equilibria. Kawagoe & Mori (1999) demonstrate this "understanding problem" for the pivotal mechanism. When mechanisms or other procedures taken from game theory are found to "work", one must not forget that the idea of a fully rational individual is usually an underlying assumption. To what extent will a mechanism "work" under conditions of bounded rationality? That is the question to be answered by means of simulation. The concluding Chapter 7 refers back to the notion of strategic behaviour, and the need for correct evaluations of public goods is emphasised. Two striking thought experiments show that decision-making in the context of strategic interdependence is quite different to individual decision-making. The first experiment highlights the ambiguity of additional information, whereas the second demonstrates how additional options can be harmful. Again it turns out that these problems are ever-present in social dilemma situations.
Zrna za praćku iz rimskog perioda, otkrivena na teritoriji Srbije, potvrda su prisustva praćkaša (funditores) angažovanih u rimskoj vojsci, kako odreda plaćenika regrutovanih u oblastima poznatim po upotrebi ovog bacačkog oružja (Sirija, Judeja, Ahaja, Rodos, Baleari), tako i vojnika obučenih u toku redovne obuke regruta. Za projektile od olova, kamena i keramike u najvećem broju slučajeva ne postoje precizniji podaci o mestu i uslovima nalaza. Za nekoliko olovnih primeraka, međutim, potvrđeno je da potiču iz rimskog kastela u Stojniku na Kosmaju, gde su najverovatnije i izrađivani u sklopu intenzivne metalurške delatnosti na eksploataciji srebrne i olovne rude. Otkriće velike ostave keramičkih projektila u rimskom utvrđenju Novae kod Čezave najsigurnija je potvrda prisustva rimskih praćkaša na đerdapskom limesu u periodu I-III v. ; The slingshots from Serbia are exceptional proof of the employment of slingers in this part of the Roman empire. Unfortunately, the provenance of the lead slingshots from the National Museum in Belgrade is mostly unknown but all are of the same type: with circular cross-section and pointed ends. The provenance of a few slingshots (for instance: fig. 2/6) have, however been traced to archaeological explorations of the 2nd century Roman fortress at Stojnik on the Kosmaj mountain (fig. 1). The fortress was built for the control and protection of nearby Roman silver and lead mines. The dimensions and weight of the lead slingshots from the Stojnik fortress, as well as other specimens of the same type from the National Museum in Belgrade, are almost identical. Their weight range varies between 126-138 g which could correspond to five Roman uncia (1 quincunx = 136.44 g) or 30-32 Atic drachmas (1 drachma = 4.336 g). Besides several lead examples from the National Museum in Belgrade (fig. 2), the largest find of clay slingshots originates from Čezava, i.e. the Roman fort Novae (fig. 1). The clay slingshots from Čezava (fig. 3/1-18) were discovered during archaeological excavations of the Roman military fort Novae in the Iron Gates. The castellan was one on the first large fortifications in the gorge, situated at a strategically important site, 100 m away from the river bank, where a port was established. The site was a convenient crossing point of the Danube in the gorge. The clay slingshots from Čezava were found either individually, or in larger numbers. The greatest number of slingshots were found around the southeast rampart, in a tower dated to the 2nd-3rd century, situated between porta principalis dextra and Tower IV (fig. 4). Here a store of 90 examples were discovered. A smaller number of identical shots were uncovered during excavation of Tower V and Tower III (fig. 4). A total of 147 slingshots were found. These concentrations of slingshots are not random. Considering that the effective range of slingshots could have been between 65-200 m, slingers placed on the ramparts and towers could control the road and the river bank, including the port and the river itself. This could have been of great significance had an enemy attempted to cross the Danube. Most slingshots were found in the layers dated on the basis of other finds to the 2nd and the 3rd century. Slingshots were made of refined clay modelled in aerodynamic form, most frequently biconical (pl. I/1a; fig. 3/1-6), oval (pl. I/1b; fig. 3/7-12) or olive (pl. I/1v; fig. 3/13-19) shaped and hard baked. The dimensions and weight of the Čezava shots differ considerably. Their length varies between 5.5-10 cm while the weight fluctuates from 42-259 g. The weight range indicates that clay slingshots were produced in several calibres, that could have been used for different purposes or range. With regard to the ancient metric system the weight range of Čezava projectiles fluctuates from 1S to 9S uncia (43.36-256.6 g), or between 10-60 drachmae (43.36-260.1 g), that is, at a ratio of 1:6. It seems that the coincidence is not accidental, especially in view of the weight of the drachma, the more so if we take into consideration the fact that the most skilful slingshot units in the Roman army were recruited in Greece and in the East. Although seemingly a simple weapon, the sling and its use are described in great detail in classical written sources. Ancient authors emphasize that slingers were utilized in preparations and support of infantry attacks in order to thin the ranks of the enemy and cause disorder. Mercenaries from Syria, Rhodes and the Balearic Islands engaged in the Roman army were commended as the most efficient in the ancient world. However, drilling recruits to use slingshots was part of regular service. For Vegetius, slingshot units belonged to the fifth combat line, together with archers and artillery crews. Moreover, they played a special role in sieges and the defense of fortifications. The same author recommends the deployment of these troops in naval battles, in which they could either support or hinder the landing of troops. Mention is also made of red-hot clay slingshots being used in order to set fire in the enemy camp. The engagement of slingers in the Danube Basin is not confirmed in historical or epigraphic sources. In addition to the finds of slingshots, perhaps the best illustration of their engagement in this territory is the scene from Trajan's column in Rome depicting Roman slingers fighting against the Dacians (pl. I/2). A connection between the finds of slingshots from Stojnik and Čezava and the units settled in the existing military forts is uncertain but not impossible. The fact that there is no direct epigraphic or written proof that a specialized unit of Roman slingers (fundatores) were garrisoned in Moesia Superior, does not seem to be relevant, since such a mentions are rare and late in date. Besides the size of the forts (Stojnik - 5 ha; Čezava - 1.6 ha) and their strategic importance, the Roman units garrisoned in Stojnik and Čezava were confirmed as mixed units - cohortes equitatae. Epigraphic data confirms the presence of such units, both in Kosmaj (Cohors II Aurelia nova milliaria equitata civium Romanorum, Cohors I Aurelia milliaria nova Pasinatum civium Romanorum, Cohors V Callaecorum et Lucensium, Cohors I Ulpia Pannoniorum milliaria equitata) and at Čezava (Cohors I Montanorum civium Romanorum and probably Cohors I Antiochensium). Owing to their mixed composition and numbers, cavalry cohorts were used as universal troops trained for different kinds of combat. They were frequently utilized in war, along with infantry and cavalry in legions. In times of peace they were also used on the borders of the Empire for the defense and control of the limes. As for the interior of the provinces, they were employed for the protection of important strategic points such as mines land and river communication lines, customs stations and larger urban centres. Finally, the presence of lead and clay slingshots in the Roman forts in Stojnik and Čezava can perhaps be explained by the presence of military units whose members were trained to use not only swords and spears, but also this ancient but effective weapon.
Transport activity, a key component of economic development and human welfare, is increasing around the world as economies grow. For most policymakers, the most pressing problems associated with this increasing transport activity are traffic fatalities and injuries, congestion, air pollution and petroleum dependence. These problems are especially acute in the most rapidly growing economies of the developing world. Mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can take its place among these other transport priorities by emphasizing synergies and co-benefits (high agreement, much evidence). Transport predominantly relies on a single fossil resource, petroleum that supplies 95% of the total energy used by world transport. In 2004, transport was responsible for 23% of world energy-related GHG emissions with about three quarters coming from road vehicles. Over the past decade, transport's GHG emissions have increased at a faster rate than any other energy using sector (high agreement, much evidence). Transport activity will continue to increase in the future as economic growth fuels transport demand and the availability of transport drives development, by facilitating specialization and trade. The majority of the world's population still does not have access to personal vehicles and many do not have access to any form of motorized transport. However, this situation is rapidly changing. Freight transport has been growing even more rapidly than passenger transport and is expected to continue to do so in the future. Urban freight movements are predominantly by truck, while international freight is dominated by ocean shipping. The modal distribution of intercity freight varies greatly across regions. For example, in the United States, all modes participate substantially, while in Europe, trucking has a higher market share (in tkm1), compared to rail (high agreement, much evidence). Transport activity is expected to grow robustly over the next several decades. Unless there is a major shift away from current patterns of energy use, world transport energy use is projected to increase at the rate of about 2% per year, with the highest rates of growth in the emerging economies, and total transport energy use and carbon emissions is projected to be about 80% higher than current levels by 2030 (medium agreement, medium evidence). There is an ongoing debate about whether the world is nearing a peak in conventional oil production that will require a significant and rapid transition to alternative energy resources. There is no shortage of alternative energy sources, including oil sands, shale oil, coal-to-liquids, biofuels, electricity and hydrogen. Among these alternatives, unconventional fossil carbon resources would produce less expensive fuels mostcompatible with the existing transport infrastructure, but lead to increased carbon emissions (medium agreement, medium evidence). In 2004, the transport sector produced 6.3 GtCO2 emissions (23% of world energy-related CO2 emissions) and its growth rate is highest among the end-user sectors. Road transport currently accounts for 74% of total transport CO2 emissions. The share of non-OECD countries is 36% now and will increase rapidly to 46% by 2030 if current trends continue (high agreement, much evidence). The transport sector also contributes small amounts of CH4 and N2O emissions from fuel combustion and F-gases (fluorinated gases) from vehicle air conditioning. CH4 emissions are between 0.1–0.3% of total transport GHG emissions, N2O between 2.0 and 2.8% (based on US, Japan and EU data only). Worldwide emissions of F-gases (CFC-12+HFC- 134a+HCFC-22) in 2003 were 0.3–0.6 GtCO2-eq, about 5–10% of total transport CO2 emissions (medium agreement, limited evidence). When assessing mitigation options it is important to consider their lifecycle GHG impacts. This is especially true for choices among alternative fuels but also applies to a lesser degree to the manufacturing processes and materials composition of advanced technologies. Electricity and hydrogen can offer the opportunity to 'de-carbonise' the transport energy system although the actual full cycle carbon reduction depends upon the way electricity and hydrogen are produced. Assessment of mitigation potential in the transport sector through the year 2030 is uncertain because the potential depends on: • World oil supply and its impact on fuel prices and the economic viability of alternative transport fuels; • R&D outcomes in several areas, especially biomass fuel production technology and its sustainability in massive scale, as well as battery longevity, cost and specific energy. Another problem for a credible assessment is the limited number and scope of available studies of mitigation potential and cost. Improving energy efficiency offers an excellent opportunity for transport GHG mitigation through 2030. Carbon emissions from 'new' light-duty road vehicles could be reduced by up to 50% by 2030 compared to currently produced models, assuming continued technological advances and strong policies to ensure that technologies are applied to increasing fuel economy rather than spent on increased horsepower and vehicle mass. Material substitution and advanced design could reduce the weight of light-duty vehicles by 20–30%. Since the TAR (Third Assessment Report), energy efficiency of road vehicles has improved by the market success of cleaner directinjection turbocharged (TDI) diesels and the continued market penetration of numerous incremental efficiency technologies. Hybrid vehicles have also played a role, though their market penetration is currently small. Reductions in drag coefficients of 20–50% seem achievable for heavy intercity trucks, with consequent reductions in fuel use of 10–20%. Hybrid technology is applicable to trucks and buses that operate in urban environments, and the diesel engine's efficiency may be improved by 10% or more. Prospects for mitigation are strongly dependent on the advancement of transport technologies. There are also important opportunities to increase the operating efficiencies of transport vehicles. Road vehicle efficiency might be improved by 5–20% through strategies such as eco-driving styles, increased load factors, improved maintenance, in-vehicle technological aids, more efficient replacement tyres, reduced idling and better traffic management and route choice (medium agreement, medium evidence). The total mitigation potential in 2030 of the energy efficiency options applied to light duty vehicles would be around 0.7–0.8 GtCO2-eq in 2030 at costs <100 US$/tCO2. Data is not sufficient to provide a similar estimate for heavy-duty vehicles. The use of current and advanced biofuels would give an additional reduction potential of another 600–1500 MtCO2-eq in 2030 at costs <25 US$/tCO2 (low agreement, limited evidence). Although rail transport is one of the most energy efficient modes today, substantial opportunities for further efficiency improvements remain. Reduced aerodynamic drag, lower train weight, regenerative breaking and higher efficiency propulsion systems can make significant reductions in rail energy use. Shipping, also one of the least energy intensive modes, still has some potential for increased energy efficiency. Studies assessing both technical and operational approaches have concluded that energy efficiency opportunities of a few percent to up to 40% are possible (medium agreement, medium evidence). Passenger jet aircraft produced today are 70% more fuel efficient than the equivalent aircraft produced 40 years ago and continued improvement is expected. A 20% improvement over 1997 aircraft efficiency is likely by 2015 and possibly 40 to 50% improvement is anticipated by 2050. Still greater efficiency gains will depend on the potential of novel designs such as the blended wing body, or propulsion systems such as the unducted turbofan. For 2030 the estimated mitigation potential is 150 MtCO2 at carbon prices less than 50 US$/tCO2 and 280 MtCO2 at carbon prices less than 100 US$/tCO2 (medium agreement, medium evidence). However, without policy intervention, projected annual improvements in aircraft fuel efficiency of the order of 1–2%, will be surpassed by annual traffic growth of around 5% each year, leading to an annual increase of CO2 emissions of 3–4% per year (high agreement, much evidence). Biofuels have the potential to replace a substantial part but not all petroleum use by transport. A recent IEA analysis estimates that biofuels' share of transport fuel could increase to about 10% in 2030. The economic potential in 2030 from biofuel application is estimated at 600–1500 MtCO2-eq/yr at a cost of <25 US$/tCO2-eq. The introduction of flexfuel vehicles able to use any mixture of gasoline2 and ethanol rejuvenated the market for ethanol as a motor fuel in Brazil by protecting motorists from wide swings in the price of either fuel. The global potential for biofuels will depend on the success of technologies to utilise cellulose biomass (medium agreement, medium evidence). Providing public transports systems and their related infrastructure and promoting non-motorised transport can contribute to GHG mitigation. However, local conditions determine how much transport can be shifted to less energy intensive modes. Occupancy rates and primary energy sources of the transport mode further determine the mitigation impact. The energy requirements for urban transport are strongly influenced by the density and spatial structure of the built environment, as well as by location, extent and nature of transport infrastructure. If the share of buses in passenger transport in typical Latin American cities would increase by 5–10%, then CO2 emissions could go down by 4–9% at costs of the order of 60–70 US$/tCO2 (low agreement, limited evidence). The few worldwide assessments of transport's GHG mitigation potential completed since the TAR indicate that significant reductions in the expected 80% increase in transport GHG emission by 2030 will require both major advances in technology and implementation via strong, comprehensive policies (medium agreement, limited evidence). The mitigation potential by 2030 for the transport sector is estimated to be about 1600–2550 MtCO2 for a carbon price less than 100 US$/tCO2. This is only a partial assessment, based on biofuel use throughout the transport sector and efficiency improvements in light-duty vehicles and aircraft and does not cover the potential for heavy-duty vehicles, rail transport, shipping, and modal split change and public transport promotion and is therefore an underestimation. Much of this potential appears to be located in OECD North America and Europe. This potential is measured as the further reduction in CO2 emissions from a Reference scenario, which already assumes a substantial use of biofuels and significant improvements in fuel efficiency based on a continuation of current trends. This estimate of mitigation costs and potentials is highly uncertain. There remains a critical need for comprehensive and consistent assessments of the worldwide potential to mitigate transport's GHG emissions (low agreement, limited evidence). While transport demand certainly responds to price signals,the demand for vehicles, vehicle travel and fuel use are significantly price inelastic. As a result, large increases in prices or taxes are required to make major changes in GHG emissions. Many countries do heavily tax motor fuels and have lower rates of fuel consumption and vehicle use than countries with low fuel taxes (high agreement, much evidence). Fuel economy regulations have been effective in slowing the growth of GHG emissions, but so far growth of transport activity has overwhelmed their impact. They have been adopted by most developed economies as well as key developing economies, though in widely varying form, from uniform, mandatory corporate average standards, to graduated standards by vehicle weight class or size, to voluntary industry-wide standards. The overall effectiveness of standards can be significantly enhancedif combined with fiscal incentives and consumer information (medium agreement, medium evidence). A wide array of transport demand management (TDM) strategies have been employed in different circumstances around the world, primarily to manage traffic congestion and reduce air pollution. TDMs can be effective in reducing private vehicle travel if rigorously implemented and supported (high agreement, low evidence). In order to reduce emissions from air and marine transport resulting from the combustion of bunker fuels, new policy frameworks need to be developed. However ICAO endorsed the concept of an open, international emission trading system for the air transport sector, implemented through a voluntary scheme, or incorporation of international aviation into existing emission trading systems. Environmentally differentiated port dues are being used in a few places. Other policies to affect shipping emissions would be the inclusion of international shipping in international emissions trading schemes, fuel taxes and regulatory instruments (high agreement, much evidence). Since currently available mitigation options will probably not be enough to prevent growth in transport's emissions, technology research and development is essential in order to create the potential for future, significant reductions in transport GHG emissions. This holds, amongst others, for hydrogen fuel cell, advanced biofuel conversion and improved batteries for electric and hybrid vehicles (high agreement, medium evidence). The best choice of policy options will vary across regions. Not only levels of economic development, but the nature of economic activity, geography, population density and culture all influence the effectiveness and desirability of policies affecting modal choices, infrastructure investments and transport demand management measures (high agreement, much evidence).
Until recently, child development was accepted as the perspective through which children were understood and socialization the primary way in which sociologists thought about children. An increasing number of scholars now view childhood as socially constructed and children as actors in their own social worlds rather than simply as incomplete persons who are in the process of becoming adults. Courses using this perspective explore social constructions of childhood held by adults and embodied in institutions through time and across places, and how biology, gender, social class, and social location affect the everyday lives of children in families, schools, and other social contexts.Author recommendsJohnson, Heather Beth 2001. 'From the Chicago School to the New Sociology of Children: The Sociology of Children and Childhood in the United States, 1900–1999.'Advances in Life Course Research (Children in the Millennium: Where Have We Come From, Where Are We Going?) 6: 53–93.This article reviews the place of children in sociological research during the 20th century. Children were of interest as objects of socialization and when they engaged in deviant behavior, although they were largely ignored as unworthy of serious sociological attention until the last two decades of the century. Debates among recent scholars about what stance should be taken toward children in the 'new' sociology of childhood are outlined.Waksler, Frances Chaput (Ed.) 1991. Studying the Social Worlds of Children: Sociological Readings New York, NY: Falmer Press.In this classic collection, including several chapters by the editor, Waksler pulled together articles that provides evidence that sociologists' underestimate the capacity of children to make sense of their worlds and to act on them. Both theoretical statements and empirical research are included, as is a chapter that is the precursor to Waksler's book, The Hard Times of Childhood and Children's Strategies for Dealing with Them (1996, New York, NY: Falmer Press).Small, Meredith F. 2001. Kids: How Biology and Culture Shape the Way We Raise Our Children. New York, NY: Doubleday.Small, an anthropologist intrigued with 'ethnopediatrics', brings together scientific research on the capacities of infants and children and evidence of the way childhood is organized in various societies.Zelizer, Viviana A. 1985. Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children. New York, NY: Basic Books.This classic work in economic sociology provides a wealth of detail about how children's lives in the USA were affected by their changing value/social construction, especially in the early 20th century. Many current institutions and beliefs, which are now taken for granted, were developed during this period, for better or worse.Lareau, Annette 2003. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Findings from Lareau's extensive, ethnographic research on differences between the everyday family lives of middle‐class and working‐class children are reported in this book. The results of her analysis make clear that adults' social constructions of children shape the experience of childhood and that even within one society there can be systematic variation in the social construction of children that results in marked differences in children's everyday lives.Corsaro, William A. 2005. The Sociology of Childhood, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Corsaro has been conducting ethnographic research with preschool children in various forms of care and reporting on it for more than 25 years. His textbook focuses primarily on preschool children and how they interact with one another to form their own peer cultures. The book includes many episodes of interaction among children that ground his arguments.Adler, Patricia and Peter Adler 1998. Peer Power: Preadolescent Culture and Identity. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.This book presents findings from the Adlers' study of peer culture among elementary school‐aged children in a Colorado community. The importance of friendship and popularity to the children is examined, particularly in school, as well as the significance for children of extracurricular activities.Mayall, Berry 2002. Towards a Sociology for Childhood: Thinking from Children's Lives. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.Mayall brings together data from the four research projects she conducted with colleagues in Great Britain in the 1990s to write an overview of what she learned about doing research with children and from listening to their points of view. The book includes children's assessments of their lives and relationships.Lee, Nick 2001. Childhood and Society: Growing up in an Age of Uncertainty. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.Lee focuses on childhood as an institution in the late 20th century and explores the ambiguity of contrasting the social construction of adults as 'human beings' with the social construction of children as 'human becomings'. His perspective is both macro and global and includes information about how decisions made by such institutions as the United Nations and the World Bank affect children in various countries.Online materials http://www.childtrends.org/ Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization that collects and analyzes data; conducts, synthesizes, and disseminates research; designs and evaluates programs; and develops and tests promising approaches to research in the field. For researchers and educators, this Web site includes a link to research that provides the latest data and information for developing, evaluating, and guiding effective programs and research relevant to the overall health and well‐being of children and youth (http://www.childtrendsdatabank.org/) and includes key indicators of child well‐being. http://www.aecf.org/MajorInitiatives/KIDSCOUNT.aspx Kids Count is a national and state‐by‐state effort to track the status of children in the USA by providing policy‐makers and citizens with benchmarks of child well‐being. The Social Science Data Analysis Network (SSDAN) is working with professors to introduce Kids Count data into social science courses through course modules, exercises, and access to other data available on their Web site (http://www.ssdan.net/kidscount/). http://www.hull.ac.uk/children5to16programme/intro.htm The Economic and Social Research Council Research Programme on Children 5–16: Growing into the 21st century, under the direction of Alan Prout from 1995–2000, funded 22 different research projects that examined children's lives by treating children as social actors. The Web site includes a description of the programme, research findings, and an extensive bibliography. http://www.childstats.gov/ The Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics is a working group of federal agencies that collects, analyzes, and reports data on issues related to children and families. The forum's annual report, America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well‐Being, provides a summary of national indicators of child well‐being and monitors changes in these indicators over time. http://www.unicef.org/ The UNICEF Web site focuses on the well‐being of children in countries around the world, particularly on their health and their mothers' ability to provide for them.Sample syllabus Course Outline and Reading Assignments 1 Recognizing the capacities of newborn children Meredith F. Small, Chapter 1, Kids' World, and Chapter 2, The Evolution of Childhood, in Kids: How Biology and Culture Shape the Way We Raise Our Kids. 2 Social construction of childhood in different times and places a Children's place in the past Coldrey, Barry M. 1999. '"... a Place to Which Idle Vagrants May Be Sent": The First Phase of Child Migration during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.'Childhood and Society 13: 32–47.deMause, Lloyd 1974. 'Infanticide and the Death Wishes toward Children;''Abandonment, Nursing, and Swaddling.' Pp. 25–39 in The History of Childhood. New York, NY: Harper and Row. b Children's place in other societies Schildkrout, Enid 2002 [1978]. 'Age and Gender in Hausa Society: Socio‐Economic Roles of Children in Urban Kano.'Childhood 9 (3): 344–68. c Changing value of children in American society in the 20th century Zelizer, Viviana 1985. Selected chapters from Pricing the Priceless Child. d Children's place in American society in the 21st century Zelizer, Viviana 2002. 'Kids and Commerce.'Childhood 9 (4): 375–96.Cook, Daniel Thomas 2000. 'Childhood is Killing "Our" Children: Some Thoughts on the Columbine High School Shootings and the Agentive Child.'Childhood 7: 107–17. 3 The 'new' sociology of childhood: Agency and competence Waksler, Frances Chaput 1986. 'Studying Children: Phenomenological Insights.'Human Studies 9 (1): 71–82.Alanen, Leena 1988. 'Rethinking Childhood.'Acta Sociologica 31 (1): 53– 67.Matthews, Sarah H, 2007. 'A Window on the "New" Sociology of Childhood.' Sociology Compass: http://www.blackwell‐compass.com/subject/sociology/section_home?section=soco‐social‐psychology (doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00001.x) 4 Collecting data from and about children Christensen, Pia Haudrup 2004. 'Children's Participation in Ethnographic Research: Issues of Power and Representation.'Children and Society 18: 165–76.Davis, John M. 1998. 'Understanding the Meanings of Children: A Reflexive Process.'Childhood and Society 12: 325–35. 5 Inside the black box of early childhood socialization Clawson, Dan and Naomi Gerstel 2002. 'Caring for our Young: Child Care in Europe and the United States.'Contexts 1 (4): 28–35.Corsaro, William 1979. '"We're Friends, Right?" Children's Use of Access Rituals in a Nursery School.'Language in Society 8: 315–36.Corsaro, William and L. Molinari 1990. 'From seggiolini to discussione: The Generation and Extension of Peer Culture among Italian Preschool Children.'International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 3: 213–30. 6 Children's participation in everyday life a FamilyLareau, Annette 2002. 'Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black and White Families.'American Sociological Review 67: 747–76.Dodson, Lisa and Jillian Dickert 2004. 'Girls' Family Labor in Low‐Income Households: A Decade of Qualitative Research.'Journal of Marriage and Family 66: 318–32.Nettleton, Sarah 2001. 'Losing a Home through Mortgage Repossession: The Views of Children.'Children and Society 15: 82–94. b School Sherman, Ann 1997. 'Five‐year‐olds' Perceptions of Why We Go to School.'Childhood and Society 11: 117–27.Adler, Patricia A., Steven J. Kless, and Peter Adler 1992. 'Socialization to Gender Roles: Popularity among Elementary School Boys and Girls.'Sociology of Education 65: 169–87.Adler, Patricia A. and Peter Adler 1995. 'Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion in Preadolescent Cliques.'Social Psychology Quarterly 58 (3): 145–62. c 'Free' time Lareau, Annette 2000. 'Social Class and the Daily Lives of Children: A Study from the United States.'Childhood 7 (2): 155–71.Rasmussen, Kim 2004 'Places for Children – Children's Places.'Childhood 2004: 155–73. 7 Children's rights/parental rights Smith, Anne B. and Nicola J. Taylor 2003. 'Rethinking Children's Involvement in Decision‐Making After Parental Separation.'Childhood 10 (2): 201–16.Van Krieken, Robert 1999. 'The "Stolen Generations" and Cultural Genocide: The Forced Removal of Australian Indigenous Children form Their Families and Its Implications for the Sociology of Childhood.'Childhood 6 (3): 297–311. 8 Current global issues a UN rights of the child Jans, Marc 2004. 'Children as Citizens: Towards a Contemporary Notion of Child Participation.'Childhood 11 (1): 27–44.Roche, Jeremy 1999. 'Children: Rights, Participation and Citizenship.'Childhood 6 (4): 475–93. b Children's place in the 21st century Penn, Helen 2002. 'The World Bank's View of Early Childhood.'Childhood 9 (1): 118–32.Bey, Marguerite 2003. 'The Mexican Child: From Work with the Family to Paid Employment.'Childhood 10 (3): 287–99.Aptekar, Lewis and Behailu Abebe 1997. 'Conflict in the Neighborhood: Street and Working Children in the Public Space.'Childhood 4: 477–90.Films and videosA Baby's World A Whole New World (ages newborn to 1 year) The Language of Being (ages 1–2 years) Reason and Relationships (ages 2–3 years)This series of videos, each approximately 1‐hour in length, summarizes and illustrates evidence of the remarkable and often misinterpreted capacities of infants and toddlers.The Orphan TrainsThis video is a good companion to Viviana Zelizer's book Pricing the Priceless Child. In addition to depicting conditions for some urban children in US cities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, interviews in old age with the last children who were shipped West in the 1920s highlight the vulnerability of children in societies that are unprepared to take responsibility for them when their parents are unable to provide care.Michael Apted's 7 Up through 49 UpThis documentary film series, which began in 1964 with 14 7‐year‐olds whom Apted has since revisited every 7 years to produce a new film, raises questions about the relationship between childhood and adulthood.Project ideas1. This assignment is intended to make students aware of the presence (or absence) of children in their daily rounds – when, where and under what conditions they share space with children.Choose two days on which your daily schedule is different (e.g., a weekday and a weekend day) and record every instance in which you come in contact with children. Do not go out of your way to encounter children. Just go about your daily rounds. Record the time, place (including who is present if it is not obvious), age of children, your relationship to the children, and what you and the children are doing. Include children whom you know well, children with whom you are acquainted, and children who are strangers. Concentrate especially on the last category because it is the one that you probably attend to least in your daily rounds. Also be sure to indicate what your role in each setting is. Once you have collected these data, write a summary of your contact with children in your daily life. What children do you encounter, how often, under what conditions? What is your relationship to the children in your life?2. This assignment is intended to explore how children are constrained by adult rules and power.Observe children in an 'adult' setting and identify adults' rules for children in that setting. Justify the choice of setting as 'adult', e.g., children are not 'supposed' to be there (a bar/pub), children are a disturbance (an exclusive expensive restaurant). Consider both adults' rules for children's behavior in the setting and children's options and resources. Address the questions: Where do children fit in adult worlds? What roles are they expected to play?3. This assignment is used in conjunction with Annette Lareau's work on differences in the way working and middle class children are treated by adults.Students choose two school districts whose borders correspond to a community and that have widely different percentages of children who passed the fourth‐grade proficiency test in a specified year. In Ohio, this information is available on the website of the Department of Education. Students then retrieve demographic data from the Web site of the US Census about the two school districts/communities, including but not limited to:
Proportion of School Age Children = Percentage of population age 5–17 Community Stability = Percent of rental occupied housing units Community Education Level = Percentage of population aged 25 and over with Bachelor's Degree or higher Community Income Level = Median family income Poverty Level = Percent of families below poverty level
In a paper, students summarize and interpret the findings. In addition, put the data from all the districts/communities into one table with the percentages of students who passed the exam in the first column in descending order.
