Suchergebnisse

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavargere microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and three per cent by water bodies, settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 14 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 75 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 5 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 57 kg/ha) in 37 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 19(4) 15 (3) Pomegranate - 85(17) Maize - 37 (7) Guava - 66(13) Bajra 15(3) 135(26) Jackfruit - 66(13) Redgram - 34(3) Jamun - 85(17) Bengal gram 19(4) 77(15) Musambi 19(4) 66(13) Groundnut 15(3) 315 (61) Lime 19(4) 66(13) Sunflower 19 (4) 15 (3) Cashew - 171(33) Cotton 19(4) 15(3) Custard apple 34(7) 444(86) Chilli - 15(3) Amla 15(3) 463 (90) Tomato - 15(3) Tamarind - 20(4) Drumstick - 260(50) Marigold - 34(7) Mulberry - 416(81) Chrysanthemum - 34 (7) Mango - - Jasmine - 15(3) Sapota - 66(13) Crossandra - 34(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (60%) men and 76 (40%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 33 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (40%) were in 16-35 years of age, 65 (34.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere had 34.21 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.32 per cent of them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.11 per cent of them did ITI, and 6.32 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 12.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 46.84 per cent of the household members, 17.37 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.47 per cent were general labour, 1.05 per cent were in private, 20.53 per cent were students, 2.11 per cent were housewives and 2.11 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 67.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 15 per cent of them possess pucca house and 2.50 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 92.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 60 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7989, mixer grinder was Rs.1980, bicycle was Rs. 2142, motor cycle was Rs.34800, auto phone was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2295.  About 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.50 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent of them possess tractor, 30 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.50 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 87.50 per cent of them possess weeder, 5 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.50 per cent of them possess thresher and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.2331, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3200, the average value of harvester was Rs.60000, the average value of thresher was Rs.45000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.87.  The results indicate that, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 17.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 12.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.40.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere micro watershed possess 23.76 ha (46.71%) of dry land and 27.10 ha (53.29%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.24 ha (93.72%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (6.28%). Small farmers possess 6.16 ha (57.35%) of dry land and 4.58 ha (42.65%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.25 ha (27.54%) of dry land and 8.54 ha (72.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.11 ha (34.50%) of dry land and 13.49 ha (65.50%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,172.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,937.87. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,553.08 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,886.99 for dry land and Rs. 850,971.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,192.01 for dry land and Rs. 561,895.74 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 140,660.59 for dry land and Rs. 392,651.47 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 49.62 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.44 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 4.58 ha, 8.54 ha and 13.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), brinjal (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), ladies finger (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), pearlmillet (1.62 ha), sunflower (2.18 ha) and tomato (0.89 ha). 3  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere micro watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 96.97 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 84.93 per cent.  The results indicate that, 72.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.50 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 6.25 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 75 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, and 37.50 per cent availed loan from money lenders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,375, Rs. 258,500, Rs. 525,000 and Rs. 260,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for animal husbandry and 16.67 per cent borrowed for the purpose of borewell/irrigation related equipments.  The results indicated that 84.62 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 15.38 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  The results indicate that, around 42.31 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 53.85 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 3.85 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 52582.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 179075. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 126492.37, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 49699.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105455.28. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 55755.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.12.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27360.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35390.45. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8030.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23644.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36489.05. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1006.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49015.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57055.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8039.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 40080.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3030.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 41939.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95363.45. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 53423.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 13772.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28106.90. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14334.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.04.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 53235.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 186686.05. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 133450.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.51.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 97,600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,581.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,320, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 69,571.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 108,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,532.54. For landless households it was Rs. 19,360, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,727.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,604.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,387.76, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,534.69.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 126 coconuts and 22 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 1 coconut tree in their backyard. 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 147 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees, 2 banyan trees and 2 peepul tree in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2125, for irrigation facility Rs. 1175, for improved crop production Rs. 1075 and for improved livestock management Rs. 575.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.5 per cent of the households for land development, 20 per cent for irrigation facility, 22.5 per cent for improved crop production and 15 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, brinjal, groundnut, ladies finger, maize, navane, paddy, sunflower and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 15 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.50 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 27.50 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 22.50 per cent have used truck and 40 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 18.18 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 72.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent used fire wood and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 92.50 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.50 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 27.27 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 14.29 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30 per cent, 6 milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 85 per cent and meat was adequate for 82.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 70 per cent, milk was inadequate for 10 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 10 per cent and meat was inadequate for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 12.50 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 2.50 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (45%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (72.50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.50%), less rainfall (12.50%), inadequate extension services (72.50%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (7.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkashindhag-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 659 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 94 per cent is covered by soils, 1 per cent by rock outcrops and 5 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 4 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 7 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 87 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 63 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 80 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 58 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 53 per cent soils are moderately alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.8-9.0) and 41 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 46 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) and 89 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  An area of about 81 per cent is deficient (0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 101(15) 362(55) Sapota - 139(21) Maize - 462(70) Pomegranate - 300(45) Bajra 139(21) 323(49) Guava - 139(21) Groundnut 33(5) 106(16) Jackfruit - 139(21) Sunflower 1(<1) 299(45) Jamun - 288(44) Cotton 1(<1) 463(70) Musambi 1(<1) 299(45) Red gram - 289(44) Lime 1(<1) 299(45) Bengalgram 1(<1) 462(70) Cashew - 139(21) Chilli 106(16) 33(5) Custard apple 140(21) 322(49) Tomato 106(16) 33(5) Amla 139(21) 323(49) Brinjal 139(21) 323(49) Tamarind - 149(23) Onion 33(5) 106(16) Marigold - 462(70) Bhendi 33(5) 429(65) Chrysanthemum - 462(70) Drumstick - 300(45) Jasmine - 302(46) Mulberry - 299(45) Crossandra - 152(23) Mango - 98(15)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 109 (54.50%) men and 90 (45%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.5, marginal farmers' was 7.1, small farmers' was 6.1, semi medium farmers' was 6.1, medium farmers' was 9.5 and for large farmers it was 6.  The data indicated that, 42 (21%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 88 (44%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (25.50 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (9.50 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Chikkasindhogi-1 had 29.50 per cent illiterates, 12.50 per cent of them had primary school education, 22.50 per cent of them had middle school education, 25.50 per cent of them had high school education, 4 per cent of them had PUC education, 1 per cent of them had diploma, 0.5 per cent of them had ITI and 4.5 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 6.45 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 67 per cent of the household members, 2 per cent were agricultural labourers, 1 per cent had household industry, 27.5 per cent of them were student, 1.5 per cent of them were housewife and 0.5 per cent of them were in government and private services.  The results shows that 8 per cent of the households participated in user groups and 91.50 per cent of them have not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 35.48 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 6.45 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 54.84 per cent of them possess pucca house and 3.23 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 93.55 per cent of the households possess TV, 77.42 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 51.61 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the households possess tempo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess refrigerator and bicycle, and 93.55 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The average value of television was Rs.6276, mixer grinder was Rs.1515, motor cycle was Rs.52437, mobile phone was Rs.1710, refrigerator was Rs.8000 and bicycle was Rs.3000.  About 22.58 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.23 per cent of them possess tractor, 12.90 per cent of them posses bullocks cart, 38.17 per cent of them power tiller and 93.55 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.1,500, the average value of tractor was Rs. 5,00,000 and the average value of sprayer was Rs.3,953, the average value of bullock cart Rs.18,500, and the average value of weeder Rs.95. 2  The results indicate that, 16.13 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, 22.58 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo, 3.23 per cent of the households possess crossbred cow, goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.27, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 3.47 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.77.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 3.23 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, 6 (3.0%) persons were migrated from the micro watershed which includes 3 persons from semi medium farmers and 3 persons from medium farmer category.  People have migrated on average of 299.2 Kms and average duration was 8 months. Semi medium farmers have migrated 433.33 kms and on an average 10 months in a year.  Improved quality of the life was the major positive consequence of migration of 16.67 per cent of the households and construction house was the major positive consequence for 33.33 per cent.  Increased workload for other family members was the major negative consequence of migration.  The results indicate that, households of the Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed possess 17.89 ha (39.72%) of dry land and 27.14 ha (60.28%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 267994.14 and average value of irrigated was Rs.1, 89,272.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning bore wells and 1 functioning open well in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed which was possessed by small farmers, medium farmers, semi medium farmers and large farmers.  The depth of bore well was found to be 47.64 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 0.29 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had irrigated area of 1.75 hectares, small farmers had 6.67 hectares, semi medium farmers had 8.73 hectares, medium farmers had 7.69 hectares and large farmers had 4.05 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown Maize (26.34 ha), Tomato (2.4 ha), Cotton (2.05 ha), Groundnut (1.68 ha), Pearlmillet (2.59 ha), Paddy (0.81 ha), Sorghum (0.81 ha), Bengal gram (0.51 ha), Chilly (0.4 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Chikkasindhogi-1 micro watershed was found to be 96.83 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 87.82 per cent, for small farmers it was 93.99 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per 3 cent, medium farmers had cropping intensity of 100 per cent and large farmers had 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 90.32 per cent of the households possess bank account and 12.90 per cent of them have savings. Around 50 per cent of landless, 44.44 per cent of marginal, 22.22 per cent of small, 50 per cent semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  About 10 per cent have availed loan in cooperative bank, 40 per cent have availed loan from friends and relatives and 100 per cent have availed loan from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of the households have borrowed loan for agriculture, 4.55 per cent have borrowed for buying irrigation related equipments and 4.55 per cent have borrowed for social functions like marriage, from institutional and non institutional sources.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 234356.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 167960. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. -66396.80, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 46729.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67925.00. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 21195.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 72133.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62490.23. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -9643.26. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.87.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 44743.83. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75381.17. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 30637.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for bengal gram was Rs. 251848.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 111150. The net income from bengal gram cultivation was Rs. -140698.19, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.44.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 25747.08. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 24700. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. - 1047.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.96.  The total cost of cultivation for chilly was Rs. 76456.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800. The net income from chilly cultivation was Rs. 22343.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 50384.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38902.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 11481.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.77. 4  The results indicate that, 35.48 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. Only 19.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate. The data also revealed that 19.35 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder were inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 22500 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 61655.56, for small farmers it was Rs.56222, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.94688, for medium farmers it was Rs.191500 and for large farmers it was Rs.73000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13296.47. For landless farmers it was 6250, for marginal farmers it was Rs 8969, for small farmers it was Rs. 4464.51, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 10348.48 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 70500 and for large farmers it was Rs. 55000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 22 coconut, 19 mango and 3 sapota trees in their field. Farmers have also grown 5 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, 93.55 per cent of the households are interested in growing horticultural crops which include 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium, medium and large farmers.  Households have planted 31 neem trees, 1 banyan tree in field and 9 neem trees in backyard.  The results indicate that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 6193 for land development, Rs. 2241 for irrigation facility, Rs.4113 for improved crop production and Rs.1774 for improved livestock management.  Loan from bank is the major source of investment for 78.13 per cent of households for land development. For irrigation facility 25 per cent of the households depend on loan from bank, 12.5 per cent depend on own funds and 9.38 per cent of the households depend on soft loans. For improved crop production 59.38 per cent of the households depend on bank loan and for improved livestock management 21.88 per cent of the households depend on bank loan.  The results indicated that, Bengal gram, chilly, cotton, maize and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, About 73.33 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants includes 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 85.71 per cent of the small farmers, 66.67 per cent of the semi medium farmers and 33.33 per cent medium farmers. About 23.33 per cent of the households have sold in regulated markets, which include 14.29 per cent of small farmers, 33.33 per cent of semi medium farmers, 66.67 per cent of the medium farmers and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  About 9.68 per cent of the households have used tractor as mode of transport and 116.13 per cent have used truck. 5  The results indicated that, 90.32 per cent of the households have experienced the soil and water erosion problems i.e. 88.89 per cent of marginal farmers and 100 per cent of small, semi medium, medium and large farmers. 90.32 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, 51.61 per cent of the households have adopted field bunding, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted contour bunds, 3.23 per cent of the households have adopted farm pond, 29.03 per cent have adopted bore well recharge pit and 45.16 per cent of the households are following summer ploughing.  About 100 per cent of the households who adopted field bunding, farm pond and contour bund and 33.33 per cent the households who adopted bore well recharge pit, opined that they were in good condition. Around 66 per cent of the households opined that bore well recharge pits require full replacement.  The results indicated that 87.10 per cent of soil conservation structure is constructed by farmers on their own, 41.94 per cent of the soil conservation structures are constructed by the government and another 3.23 per cent is constructed by farmer organizations.  The results indicated that, canal was the major source of drinking water for 93.55 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 3.23 per cent of the households.  About 83.87 percent used fire wood and another 12.9 percent of the households used LPG. Electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  About 25.81 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of landless, 11.11 per cent of marginal, 11.11 per cent of small, 25 per cent of semi medium, 50 per cent of medium farmers and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 87.10 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 3.23 per cent of the households possessed APL and 6.45 per cent did not possess PDS card.  About 67.74 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 100 per cent of the landless, 55.56 percent of the marginal, 55.56 per cent of the small, 75 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent of the large farmers.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 87.10 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 3.23 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 80.65 per cent, fruits were adequate for 22.58 per cent, milk was adequate for 83.87 per cent, egg were adequate for 16.13 per cent and meat was adequate for 6.45 per cent of the households.  Cereals were inadequate for 3.23 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 6.45 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 3.23 per cent, fruits were inadequate 6 for 25.18 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 35.48 per cent and meat was inadequate for 41.94 per cent of the households.  Oilseeds were market surplus for 70.97 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 3.23 per cent, fruits were market surplus for 16.13 per cent, eggs were market surplus for 6.45 per cent and meat was market surplus for 9.68 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 48.39 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.19%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (3.23%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (41.94%), high rate of interest on credit (29.03%), low price for the agricultural commodities (3.23%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (9.68%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (16.13%), less rainfall (87.10%) and source of Agri–technology information (News paper/TV/Mobile) (16.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Maslapur-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 510 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 92 per cent is covered by soils and 8 per cent by rock outcrops, habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 10 per cent has sandy soils at the surface, 78 per cent has loamy soils at the surface and 4 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 6 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 86 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 22 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 70 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 35 per cent are slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) and 56 per cent are very neutral (pH pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in 31 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 34 per cent are low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 336 (66) Sapota 18 (4) 70 (14) Maize - 336 (66) Pomegranate 18 (4) 79 (15) Bajra 26 (5) 383 (75) Musambi 18 (4) 79 (15) Groundnut 26 (5) 377 (74) Lime 18 (4) 79 (15) Sunflower - 53 (10) Amla 44 (9) 382 (75) Red gram - 53 (10) Cashew - 88 (17) Bengalgram 9 (2) 257 (50) Jackfruit 18 (4) 70 (14) Cotton - 336 (66) Jamun - 97 (19) Chilli - 327 (64) Custard apple 44 (9) 382 (75) Tomato - 327 (64) Tamarind - 27 (5) Brinjal 26 (5) 284 (56) Mulberry 18 (4) 95 (19) Onion 26 (5) 284 (56) Marigold - 336 (66) Bhendi - 284 (56) Chrysanthemum - 336 (66) Drumstick 18 (4) 51 (10) Jasmine - 327 (64) Mango - 18 (4) Crossandra - 327 (64) Guava - 88 (17) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The result indicated that 35 farmers were sampled in Maslapur-2 micro watershed among them 5(14.29%) were landless, 4 (11.43%) were marginal farmers, 16 (45.71%) were small farmers and 10 (28.57%) were semi medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 98 (58.68%) men and 69 (41.32%) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 5, marginal farmers' was 3.75, small farmers' was 4.56 and semi medium farmers' was 5.40.  The data indicated that, 27 (16.17%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (44.31%) were in 16-35 years of age, 50 (29.94%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16(9.58%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Maslapur-2 had 30.54 per cent illiterates, 49.70 per cent of them had primary school education, 1.80 per cent of them had middle school education, 8.38 per cent of them had high school education, 4.79 per cent of them had PUC, 0.60 per cent of them had diploma and ITI education, 2.99 per cent of them had degree education and 0.60 per cent of them did other education.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 20.96 per cent of the household members, 56.29 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.80 per cent was in private sector, 20.36 per cent were students and 0.60 per cent was children. In case of landless farmers, 8 per cent were agriculturist, 60 per cent were general labourers and 32 per cent were students. In case of marginal farmers 20 per cent of them were practicing agriculture, 40 per cent were agricultural labourers, 6.67 per cent were in private service and 33.33 per cent were students. In case of small farmers, 21.92 per cent were agriculturists, 58.90 per cent were agricultural labourers and 19.18 per cent were students. In case of semi medium farmers 25.93 per cent were agriculturist, 55.56 per cent were agriculture labourers, 3.70 per cent were in private service, 12.96 per cent were students and 1.85 per cent was housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 51.43 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 40 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 8.57 per cent of them possess Pucca house.  The results showed that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 80 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 28.57 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.43 per cent of the households possess mobile phones. 2  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.4906, mixer grinder was Rs.1332, bicycle was Rs. 1650, motor cycle was Rs.33583 and mobile phone was Rs.1707.  Data showed 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 2.86 per cent of them possess both power tiller and tractor, 28.57 per cent of them possess sprayer, 94.29 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18500, plough was Rs.2029, the average value of power tiller was Rs.30000, the average value was tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer was Rs.3368, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.17.  The results indicate that, 31.43 per cent of the households possess both bullocks and local cow, 2.86 per cent of the households possess both crossbreed cow and sheep respectively.  In case of marginal households, 25 per cent of them possess bullocks, local cow and sheep respectively. 43.75 per cent of the small farmers possess bullock and local cow correspondingly, 6.25 per cent of the small farmers possess crossbred cow. In case of semi medium farmers, 30 per cent of households possess bullock and local cow respectively.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.80, average own labour (women) available was 1.63, average hired labour (men) available was 6.80 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.09.  In case of marginal farmers, average own labour men available was 1.50, average own labour (women) was 1.25, average hired labour (men) was 7.75 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.50. In case of small farmers, average own labour men available was 1.88, average own labour (women) was 1.63, average hired labour (men) was 8.94 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.25. In case of semi medium farmers, average own labour men available was 2, average own labour (women) was 1.90, average hired labour (men) was 5.20 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.30.  The results indicate that, 97.14 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Maslapur-2 micro watershed possess 23.43 ha (61.01%) of dry land and 14.97 ha (38.99%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 2.59 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 18.81 ha (88.74%) of dry land and 2.39 ha (11.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.03 ha (13.90%) of dry land and 12.58 ha (86.10%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 243,202.62 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 460,746.14. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,812.21 for dry land. In case of small famers, the 3 average land value was Rs. 207,250.43 for dry land and Rs. 753,559.31for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 147,609.56 for dry land and Rs. 405,178.51 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 15 functioning and 14 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 42.86 per cent of the farmers in micro watershed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 29.52 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40ha, 3.48 ha and 11.05 ha of irrigated land respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (14.71 ha), groundnut (8.40 ha), bajra (1.88 ha), Sunflower (1.62 ha), Bengal gram (1.21 ha), Red gram (1.21 ha), Sorghum (1.21 ha), castor (0.81 ha), Tomato (0.81 ha), water melon (0.81 ha) and Banana (0.49 ha) in kharif season and also grown maize (1.62 ha) and groundnut (1.21 ha) in Rabi season. Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, sunflower and Bengal gram. Small farmers had grown maize, groundnut, bajra, Bengal gram, paddy, red gram, sorghum, castor and banana. Semi medium farmers had grown maize, groundnut, sunflower, tomato and watermelon.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Maslapur-2 micro watershed was found to be 92.65 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, small farmers it was 92.25 per cent and in case of semi medium it was 92.18 per cent.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of the households have bank account and 85.71 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 60 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27663.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28612.58. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 949.39, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.03.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 53510.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54452.62. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 942.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.02.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 30927.98. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 43172.02. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for water melon was Rs. 37280.33. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69160. The net income from water melon cultivation was Rs. 31879.67. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for banana was Rs. 95816.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 679249.97. The net income from banana cultivation was Rs. 583433.42. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.09.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 58817.01. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 156227.50. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 97410.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.66.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bengalgram was Rs. 45612.07. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45960.53. The net income from bengalgram cultivation was Rs. 348.45. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.01.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sunflower was Rs. 27395.92. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 50931.76. The net income from Sunflower cultivation was Rs. 23535.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.86.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 21266.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20729.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -537.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.97.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 14285.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31369. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 17083.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.2.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 13687.64. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31122.00. The net income from redgram cultivation was Rs. 17434.36. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Castor was Rs. 32673.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from Castor cultivation was Rs. -3033.72. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.91.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that, in landless farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs. 43000, in marginal farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.27500, wage was Rs.23750, agriculture was Rs.28025 and goat farming was Rs.10000. In small farmers, the average annual gross income from service/salary was Rs.5312.50, wage was Rs.24187.50, agriculture was Rs.64390.63 and dairy farming was Rs.3937.50. In semi medium farmers, the average annual gross income from wage was Rs.13500, agriculture was Rs.69100 and dairy farming was Rs.800. 5  The results indicate that, in case of landless the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs. 17000. In marginal farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.5000, wage was Rs.8333.33, agriculture was Rs.14750 and goat farming was Rs.15000. In small farmers, the average annual expenditure from service/salary was Rs.20000, wage was Rs.7133.33, agriculture was Rs.31875 and dairy farming was Rs.5800. In semi medium farmers, the average annual expenditure from wage was Rs.10000, agriculture was Rs.29000 and dairy farming was Rs.1333.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 24 coconut, 2 lemon trees and 13 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 55 neem trees and 5 tamarind trees in their field and also planted 1 neem tree in their back yard.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 7342.86, for irrigation facility Rs. 1057.14 and for improved crop production Rs. 285.71.  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment capacity for 85.71 per cent of the households for land development, 22.86 per cent of the households for irrigation facility and 5.71 per cent of the households for improved crop production .  The results indicated that, banana, Bengal gram, castor, red gram, sorghum, tomato and water melon crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Bajra, groundnut, maize, paddy and sunflower crops were sold to an extent of 92.05 per cent, 92.02 per cent, 98.89 per cent, 88.89 per cent and 28 per cent respectively.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 80 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 100 per cent of the marginal farmers, 87.50 per cent of the small farmers and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households and 2.86 per cent of the households were using bore well for drinking water in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 6  The results indicated that, 57.14 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 100 per cent of the landless, 100 per cent of the marginal, 6.25 per cent of the small and 100 per cent of the semi medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 40 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 60 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 40 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 54.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 82.86 per cent, milk was adequate for 45.71 per cent, eggs were adequate for 60 per cent and meat was adequate for 60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 40 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 54.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 42.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 20 per cent, milk were inadequate for 17.14 per cent and egg was inadequate for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (28.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (51.43%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (25.71%), inadequate extension services (8.57%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (20%), less rainfall (62.86%) and Source of Agri-technology information(Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (14.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:RelyOnVML /> <o:AllowPNG /> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">O presente ensaio pretende discutir a autonomia e democracia na organiza</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">çã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o do trabalho pedag</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ó</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">gico da escola p</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ú</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">blica a partir da compreens</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o da fun</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">çã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o social da escola na atualidade e das constru</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">çõ</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">es te</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ó</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ricas que rompem com o modelo de educa</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">çã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o voltada ao mercado. A partir dos elementos apontados na discuss</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o, O estabelecimento dos objetivos educacionais na escola s</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o concebidos por mecanismos criados atrav</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">é</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">s das pol</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">í</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ticas educacionais de avalia</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">çã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o externa e do financiamento do sistema escolar brasileiro. Os professores s</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o colocados </span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">à</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">margem das defini</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">çõ</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">es a respeito do seu pr</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ó</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">prio trabalho na escola, o que se pode suscitar a respeito do alunado arrolado no contexto escolar a reproduzir e obedecer, sob o discurso propagado de que assim, se tornar</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">á</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">mais cr</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">í</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">tico, aut</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ô</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">nomo e cidad</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o, no entanto, alienado do processo e do produto do seu trabalho, pois os objetivos do trabalho pedag</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ó</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">gico respondem a interesses e demandas do capital e n</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">ã</span><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; font-family: " lang="EN-US">o dos sujeitos envolvidos. </span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves /> <w:TrackFormatting /> <w:DoNotShowInsertionsAndDeletions /> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning /> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas /> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF /> <w:LidThemeOther>PT-BR</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables /> <w:SnapToGridInCell /> <w:WrapTextWithPunct /> <w:UseAsianBreakRules /> <w:DontGrowAutofit /> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark /> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning /> <w:DontFlipMirrorIndents /> <w:OverrideTableStyleHps /> <w:UseFELayout /> </w:Compatibility> <w:DoNotOptimizeForBrowser /> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math" /> <m:brkBin m:val="before" /> <m:brkBinSub m:val=" " /> <m:smallFrac m:val="off" /> <m:dispDef /> <m:lMargin m:val="0" /> <m:rMargin m:val="0" /> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup" /> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440" /> <m:intLim m:val="subSup" /> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr" /> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true" DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99" LatentStyleCount="267"> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Normal" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 7" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 8" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="toc 9" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" QFormat="true" Name="caption" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Title" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" Name="Default Paragraph Font" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Strong" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="59" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Table Grid" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Placeholder Text" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Revision" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Quote" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light List Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Grid Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Dark List Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful List Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography" /> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading" /> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <mce:style><! /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Tabela normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif"; border:none;} --> <!--[endif] -->

ABSTRACT Il concetto di "Appropriatezza" è stato introdotto nel contesto normativo italiano a seguito della Raccomandazione n° 17/1997 del Comitato dei Ministri del Consiglio d'Europa agli Stati membri, "sullo sviluppo e l'attivazione dei sistemi di miglioramento della qualità dell'assistenza sanitaria", in cui l'appropriatezza delle cure viene indicata come una delle componenti fondamentali; infatti, la Legge 449/1997, immediatamente successiva, inserisce l'appropriatezza fra i profili da considerare nell'ambito del monitoraggio dell'attività ospedaliera. Successivamente, il Piano Sanitario Nazionale 1998-2000 introduce la distinzione fra "Appropriatezza clinica" e "Appropriatezza organizzativa": come noto, la prima si riferisce all'erogazione di cure mediche ed interventi di comprovata efficacia in contesti caratterizzati da un profilo beneficio-rischio favorevole per il paziente, mentre la seconda concerne la scelta delle modalità di erogazione più idonee ai fini di massimizzare la sicurezza ed il benessere del paziente e di ottimizzare l'efficienza produttiva ed il consumo di risorse. A seguire il recente D.M. 10/12/2009 in materia di controlli sulle cartelle cliniche , specifica modalità di controllo delle cartelle cliniche finalizzandolo alla verifica della appropriatezza . Non ultimo Il Patto per la Salute 2010-2012, nel ribadire la necessità di perseguire l'efficienza, la qualità e l'appropriatezza dell'Assistenza Sanitaria, anche ai fini del raggiungimento dell'equilibrio economico, introduce un ampio set di indicatori, fra cui alcuni specificamente destinati al monitoraggio dell'appropriatezza organizzativa aggiornando inoltre la lista di DRG ad alto rischio di inappropriatezza se erogati in regime di ricovero ordinario. Nel sistema organizzativo sanitario attuale sono identificati indicatori di inappropriatezza organizzativa: - Degenza media preoperatoria L'indicatore viene calcolato come rapporto fra il totale delle giornate intercorse tra la data di ricovero e la data di intervento ed il totale dei dimessi. - Percentuale interventi per frattura del femore effettuati entro due giorni L'indicatore viene calcolato come rapporto percentuale fra il numero di dimessi con diagnosi principale di frattura del femore che abbiano subito l'intervento entro due giorni dal ricovero ed il totale dei dimessi con diagnosi principale di frattura del femore. - Percentuale di dimessi da reparti chirurgici con DRG medici L'indicatore viene calcolato come rapporto percentuale fra i dimessi da reparti chirurgici cui sia stato attribuito un DRG medico ed il totale dei dimessi da reparti chirurgici. - Percentuale di ricoveri con DRG chirurgico sul totale dei ricoveri (RO + DH) L'indicatore viene calcolato come rapporto percentuale fra i dimessi con DRG chirurgico ed il totale dei dimessi. - Percentuale di ricoveri ordinari con DRG ad alto rischio di inappropriatezza L'indicatore viene calcolato come rapporto percentuale fra il numero di ricoveri in regime ordinario e DRG a rischio in appropriatezza ed il totale dei ricoveri con DRG a rischio inappropriatezza. - Percentuale di ricoveri in DH medico a carattere diagnostico sul totale dei ricoveri in DH medico L'indicatore è calcolato come rapporto percentuale tra il numero di ricoveri in DH medico a carattere diagnostico e il totale dei ricoveri in DH medico. - Percentuale di ricoveri ordinari medici brevi (0-2gg) sul totale dei ricoveri ordinari medici L'indicatore è calcolato come rapporto percentuale fra il numero di ricoveri ordinari con DRG medico e durata della degenza minore o uguale a due giorni ed il totale dei ricoveri ordinari con DRG medico. - Percentuale di ricoveri ordinari medici oltre soglia sul totale dei ricoveri ordinari medici di pazienti con età maggiore o uguale a 65 anni L'indicatore è calcolato come rapporto percentuale fra il numero di ricoveri ordinari con DRG medico e durata della degenza superiore alla soglia specifica del DRG di afferenza ed il totale dei ricoveri ordinari con DRG medico di pazienti con età maggiore o uguale a 65 anni. I valori medi Regionali costituiscono gli standard di riferimento ( G.U. 05.01.2010). Al di là di quanto istituzionalmente disponibile e condiviso sull'argomento , la riflessione piu' importante è che la appropriatezza organizzativa non è spesso sostenuta dalla appropriatezza della offerta , inoltre la stessa viene spesso vissuta come un ripiego e non come una opportunità , come un imperativo per la riduzione dei costi e non come un decisione logica e corretta nella presa in carico del paziente ed a tutela della salute del cittadino e della comunità. Proprio sulla inappropriatezza della offerta è necessario soffermarsi per delineare alcune criticità: - gli ospedali sono luoghi di cura culturalmente e strutturalmente preposti al trattamento del paziente in degenza, diversi setting assistenziali che richiedono numerosi accessi per brevi prestazioni devono essere espletati in strutture sanitarie dedicate con appropriati percorsi strutturali ed organizzativi; - prestazioni brevi in piu' accessi rappresentano spesso un disagio per l'utente soprattutto se trattasi di persone anziane o con autonomia ridotta; - il personale addetto alla assistenza ( ormai non piu' giovane poiché la media anagrafica degli operatori sanitari sì è alzata in assenza di turn over e concorsi) è spesso impreparato alla gestione dei pazienti in modalità diversa dal ricovero ordinario , valutando , incautamente , day surgery , day hospital e PAC diversi dal ricovero ordinario solo per il tempo di permanenza in ospedale ( sottovalutando qualunque altro aspetto). Qualunque sia il setting assistenziale , gli aspetti gestionali - organizzativi, i percorsi diagnostico terapeutici , modalità di comunicazione con l'utenza devono essere chiari , sicuri ed efficaci indipendentemente dalla complessità assistenziale. Non si puo' quindi prescindere dalla esigenza di scegliere sistemi qualità idonei al contesto secondo standard internazionali , ricordando che lo Stato Italiano ha imposto alle organizzazioni sanitarie i sistemi qualità attraverso i Requisiti organizzativi per l'Accreditamento Istituzionale , diversificati per Regione ma sempre ispirati a Sistemi Qualità. Negli ultimi anni si è andata sempre più diffondendo, a livello internazionale e anche in Italia, la consapevolezza che la gestione e l'organizzazione dei servizi sanitari debbano avere tra i principi fondamentali la garanzia e la promozione della qualità e la sicurezza dei servizi sanitari e delle cure erogate. Se inizialmente il concetto di qualità e la sua applicazione si scontrava con la convinzione " la qualità costa ", oggi il SSN si sforza di appropriare le prestazioni sempre piu' rispetto alle richieste dell'utenza , ai bisogni di salute , alle risorse sempre piu' esigue e secondo una programmazione a lungo termine , affinchè gli investimenti siano ammortizzabili nel tempo. Si è quindi modificata la idea di qualità e si è adeguata al contesto sociosanitario della nostra Nazione . Lo dimostrano anche le diverse normative sull'accreditamento istituzionale che sebbene orientate dal Dlvo Decreto Legislativo n° 502 del 1992 e s.m.i e il 517 del 1993 , nelle diverse Regioni di Italia hanno cercato di rendersi operative mediante leggi regionali operative in diversi tempi , in diversa modalità , proprio perché diversa è l'utenza da regione a regione , così come diversa è la maturità e la sensibilità dei professionisti su questo argomento. "Dal controllo qualità alla assicurazione qualità" , proprio per sottolineare il ruolo di garanzia che è affidato ad un sistema qualità e per sensibilizzare ad una cultura adocratica ove posto l'obiettivo , tutto il controllo di processo è monitorato, ove la prevenzione dell'evento avverso è centrale così come centrale è il ruolo dell'appropriatezza clinica ed organizzativa : un sistema organizzativo dinamico ed aperto , in continua autovalutazione e correzione . E' pur vero che se le aziende private e di produzione beni , si rendono maggiormente competitive mediante la implementazione di un sistema qualità e si propongono sul mercato come fornitori in grado di soddisfare meglio il cliente , il mondo sanitario , piu' complesso e multidisciplinare , valuta ancora con diffidenza questo approccio gestionale e strategico per differenziarsi sul mercato dell'offerta di servizi di prevenzione , cura e riabilitazione. Anche su questo argomento alcune regioni sono convinte da tempo , altre stentano a maturarne la applicazione , sebbene le normative ormai spingano in tal senso. Resta comunque indiscusso che la realizzazione della qualità, come piena e sostanziale capacità di soddisfazione di bisogni, è un obiettivo "strategico", da perseguire tramite due strumenti essenziali, complementari e sinergici: - L'ottimizzazione dei prodotti e processi, fondata sulla ricerca, innovazione e sviluppo tecnologico. - L'adeguata gestione e tenuta sotto controllo di tutte le attività (tecniche, commerciali, amministrative, ecc.) connesse con la produzione di beni e servizi. Il sistema sanitario italiano è un contesto altamente poliedrico e dinamico, caratterizzato da una complessità strutturale, organizzativa e tecnologica molto alta. Perseguire ottimizzazione dei processi ed adeguato controllo dei processi è davvero impresa complessa : le tecniche gestionali attualmente impiegate in questo settore permettono solo in parte di adottare soluzioni gestionali in grado di raggiungere gli obiettivi aziendali di efficienza, efficacia ed economicità, e solo a seguito della loro effettiva implementazione, e successiva valutazione. Questa condizione espone i manager delle strutture sanitarie al rischio di prendere decisioni che, a dispetto della bontà del progetto, sono esposte al verificarsi di problemi, lacune ed inefficienze in fase di attuazione tali da minarne l'efficacia. Inoltre vi è il rischio, a seguito dell'adozione di soluzioni gestionali errate, di impiegare in maniera poco corretta le risorse economiche eventualmente disponibili. Simulare vuol dire riprodurre nella maniera più accurata possibile il funzionamento di un sistema, o di una parte di esso, al fine di studiarne le risposte al cambiamento dell'ambiente esterno, attraverso l'analisi di indicatori prestazionali opportunamente scelti, chiamati "key performance indicators" (KPI). Inoltre la simulazione può essere considerata un utile strumento per studiare i modelli organizzativi di sistemi reali, al fine di analizzarne e prevederne il comportamento e quindi studiarne l'evoluzione in funzione di determinate specifiche, con una semplicità ed un'interattività non possibile operando direttamente sul sistema reale. L'approccio combinato della simulazione ad eventi discreti (DES) e delle metodiche del business process management (BPM) consente di valutare soluzioni operative alternative a quelle attualmente impiegate, valutandone le conseguenze in termini di prestazioni del sistema (sulla base dei parametri scelti) prima di realizzarle, decidendo poi se attuarle nella realtà oppure cercarne di nuove .Il tutto va inserito nella più generale ottica di un raggiungimento di un maggiore risparmio in termini di tempo e soldi, rendendo inoltre possibile la valutazione ex-ante di più soluzioni manageriali, al fine di individuare e verificare la migliore in accordo con gli obiettivi aziendali e di gestione delle risorse. OBIETTIVO DELLA TESI La tesi costituisce l'elaborato finale relativo a tre anni di studio e ricerca e vuole descrivere la metodologia utilizzata , le attività svolte, i risultati ottenuti. La attività di ricerca si è svolta su tre prevalenti indirizzi: a) Start up di un sistema qualità nella u.o. di Chirurgia Generale e Mininvasiva della Azienda Policlinico Federico II° di Napoli secondo Standard Internazionale UNI EN ISO 9001 / 2008 e Regolamento 01/2007- Decreto Commissario ad Acta 124/2012 b) Confronto della appropriatezza organizzativa della u.o rispetto al contesto aziendale , rispetto ad altre strutture sanitarie , e la appropriatezza Aziendale rispetto alla appropriatezza di altre organizzazioni sanitarie, attraverso n° 7 DRG chirurgici e monitoraggio di specifici indicatori c) Creazione di un modello di simulazione delle attività svolte dalla u.o. per profilo assistenziale al fine di avere un supporto conoscitivo per la appropriatezza e uno strumento operativo per l'efficienza . METODOLOGIA Start up di un sistema qualità nella u.o. di Chirurgia Generale e Mininvasiva della Azienda Policlinico Federico II° di Napoli secondo Standard Internazionale UNI EN ISO 9001 / 2008 e Regolamento 01/2007- Decreto Commissario ad Acta 124/2012 a1.) iniziale inquadramento quadro Normativo di riferimento, la ISO 9001:2008 e i requisiti strutturali , tecnologici ed organizzativi richiesti dalla normativa sull'accreditamento della Regione Campania . A tal fine si è creata una " tabella di conversione " che dettaglia esattamente la scheda BURC n. 67 del 22 Ottobre 2012 - SCHEDA SRIC 4 - DEGENZA , annotando i punti in comune e di corrispondenza della UNI EN ISO 9001/2008 e i riferimenti procedurali e documentali della Unità Operativa presenti o da creare . a.2) una seconda parte che fa un attenta analisi delle attività svolte dalla unità operativa , flussi di lavoro , risorse coinvolte . A tal fine si assimila la u.o. in oggetto alla u.o. generica di " chirurgia generale ", oggetto di studio ancora in corso di validazione sui modelli ospedalieri chirurgici che schematicamente riassume i principali processi legati alla degenza in u.o. di tipo chirurgico. a) Figura 1 – Diagramma delle attività di unità operativa chirurgica a.3) una terza parte che alla luce degli obiettivi organizzativi, strutturali e tecnologici, ha delineato le priorità di intervento per la implementazione del sistema qualità e dei requisiti organizzativi dell'accreditamento al SSN, con una analisi che sottolineasse punti di forza, le opportunità e i benefici attesi dal progetto per la vita futura della unità operativa ; a.4) una quarta fase che ha identificato le "attività di programmazione di correzione " si è basata sulla redazione e condivisione di alcune procedure organizzative e strumenti operativi e di monitoraggio. I processi di : 1. redazione e gestione della cartella clinica 2. compilazione e gestione di documentazione infermieristica 3. somministrazione e gestione intra reparto dei presidi farmacologici ; 4. monitoraggio e valutazione dell'appropriatezza organizzativa della u.o. sono risultati critici per importanza , frequenza ed anomalie rilevate ; questi processi sono stati analizzati , presi in carico e ridisegnati attraverso procedure operative e strumenti di controllo. b) Studio di n° 7 DRG chirurgici al fine di valutare in due diverse realtà la appropriatezza organizzativa dei casi trattati ". Lo studio è stato effettuato su i seguenti DRG chirurgici - DRG 290 – Interventi sulla tiroide; - DRG 494 – Colecistectomia laparoscopica senza esplorazione del dotto biliare comune senza cc; - DRG 493- Colecistectomia laparoscopica senza esplorazione del dotto biliare comune con cc; - DRG 161 Interventi per ernia inguinale e femorale età > 17 anni con cc; - DRG 162 Interventi per ernia inguinale e femorale età > 17 anni senza cc; - DRG 149 – Interventi maggiori su intestino crasso e tenue senza CC ; - DRG 570 - Interventi maggiori su intestino crasso e tenue con CC senza diagnosi; di questi DRg sono stati monitorati negli ultimi tre anni indicatori di appropriatezza organizzativa al fine di confrontare la u.o. in studio con la globalità aziendale e confrontare due realtà aziendali sanitarie diverse a mission( policlinico universitario e ospedale presidio di zona). c) Creazione di un modello di simulazione delle attività svolte dalla u.o. per profilo assistenziale al fine di avere un supporto conoscitivo per la appropriatezza e uno strumento operativo per l'efficienza . Tale attività di ricerca ha visto un team multidisciplinare attivo nella applicazione di Work Flow Management e Simulazione ad Eventi Discreti che ha applicato tali metodologie di BPM al DRG 290. CONCLUSIONI e PROSPETTIVE Dal percorso di studio e ricerca si evincono tre conclusioni: - Il progetto sulla Unita' operativa di Chirurgia Generale e Mininvasiva di avviare un sistema qualità secondo lo Standard UNI EN ISO 9001e Regolamento 01/2007- Decreto Commissario ad Acta 124/2012 ha consentito di dotare la U.O di una nuova modalità di gestione della cartella clinica cartacea ( è in sperimentazione aziendale la modalità informatizzata) , documentazione infermieristica e somministrazione e gestione di terapie farmacologiche , utili alla riduzione di rischi di errore di compilazione cartella e documentazione allegata inclusa la infermieristica , nonché riduzione di errori nella gestione e somministrazione delle terapie farmacologiche. - Lo studio degli indicatori legati alla appropriatezza organizzativa sui sette DRG scelti ci consente di concludere che la Azienda Policlinico Federico II di Napoli ha in corso un percorso di miglioramento attivo e costante: la sua valutazione globale consente di confermare all'Azienda i requisiti di appropriatezza organizzativa che sostengono poi i finanziamenti pubblici aziendali; l'analisi piu' interessante non è nella sua globalità ma nella scansione di ogni unità operativa che concorre al risultato globale . In questo contesto la U.O. di Chirurgia Generale e Mininvasiva della Azienda Policlinico Federico II di Napoli ha creato un sua identità rispettosa dei principi di appropriatezza organizzativa aziendale mantenendo i suoi standard all'interno dei valori medi aziendali , spesso anche migliorandoli ( e questo consente al altre uu.oo. di alzare i valori al di sopra delle medie aziendali). Restano significativi per ulteriori approfondimenti alcuni valori sopra le medie aziendali unicamente per i casi oltre soglia ( rari) - Dalla analisi dei casi trattati sia nel Presidio Ospedaliero di Solofra e che nella U.O. di Chirurgia Generale del Presidio Ospedaliero di Solofra , si evince : il peso che ha la mission aziendale diversa dal Policlinico nella gestione della appropriatezza organizzativa ; la esigenza di rispondere ad un bisogno di salute imminente ( anche in emergenza ) , in un contesto geografico e sociale molto differente da quello della Azienda Policlinico Federico II , ha portato il Presidio di Solofra anche a scegliere codifiche diverse per il riconoscimento dei casi clinici trattati . Per esempio per la gestione della colecistectomia , molti casi sono stati trattati e codificati con SDO in altro DRG diverso dai 493-494, e per tanto sono sfuggiti all'oggetto di studio. Un diverso DRG comporta una diversa remunerazione e un diverso riconoscimento in fatturazione all'ASL. Questa attività giustifica anche il fatto che il DRG 494 scenda da n° 97 casi trattati nel 2011 e n° 94 nel 2012 a n° 57 casi nel 2013. Da sottolineare pero' che se la codifica DRg cambia per identificare una procedura , non si marca il drg 493 che è complicato perché sono presenti pochi casi e anche i casi fuori soglia nel 2011 e 2012 sono n° 0 e n° 4, mentre nel 2013 sono n° 10 su un totale di n° 57 dimessi: questo dato richiederebbe un approfondimento su verifica delle cartelle cliniche per comprendere quali anomalie hanno creato tali dati numerici. - In merito a ciascun DRG il dato piu' significativo , riguardo al DRG 290, è che trattasi di un percorso diagnostico terapeutico molto strutturato al quale il paziente accede già iperstudiato , con a corredo svariati esami strumentali e laboratoristici effettuati in tempi diversi ed al di fuori del DRG ( quindi non in ricovero ma in regime ambulatoriale).In particolare nella Azienda Policlinico Federico II accedono pazienti afferenti dalla Regione Campania e da tutto il Meridione , per tanto le chirurgie aziendali accolgono casi anche molto complessi o non accettati in altre strutture. Alla luce di tale realtà e sebbene sia attivo il servizio di prericovero , taluni pazienti si ricoverano con un un giorno di anticipo rispetto alla data procedurale per ragioni logistiche ( residenza troppo lontana , o tempi troppo lunghi e modalità di percorrenza poco agevoli), ragioni socio-familiari, raramente per motivazioni legate all'età. Tali considerazioni possono ritenersi sufficienti per analizzare la media di degenza globale e la preoperatoria , ulteriormente migliorabile e valutare la ipotesi che il DRG 290 possa, in piccole percentuali e con oculata scelta dei casi clinici da arruolare, proporsi come DRG con tempi di ricovero piu' brevi secondo canoni istituzionali, anche in one day surgery, se le valutazioni epidemiologiche per complicanze periprocedurali su scala piu' ampia possano confortare tali ipotesi. Questa è la prospettiva futura piu' interessante su cui soffermare la attenzione, considerando che nel documento " Rapporto annuale sull'attività di ricovero ospedaliero- Dati SDO" del 2012 il DRG 290 , con rango 39 risulta tra i primi 60 DRG per numerosità di dimissioni, con un totale di n° 36.648 dimissioni , n° 350.645 giornate di degenza ed una remunerazione teorica di Euro 101.373.777. Tai ipotesi non possono essere azzardate per il DRG 494 non avendo valutato alcuna cartella clinica e quindi non conoscendo dati piu' precisi sui pazienti dimessi: un approfondimento da valutare in futuro per considerazioni piu' complete . Certamente si potrà quindi valutare : - l'importanza economica di questa ipotesi che se fosse realizzabile anche in una minima percentuale dei casi clinici in DRG 290 varrebbe un risparmio finanziario sicuramente apprezzabile per il SSR e SSN; - la possibilità di abbreviare liste di attesa e motivare la permanenza del trattamento chirurgico intraregionale , evitando la mobilità extraregionale . - In merito alla Simulazione ad Eventi Discreti (DES) applicata al profilo assistenziale con DRG 290 , si puo' concludere che la applicazione è stata con successo validata . La prospettiva futura piu' di rilievo consiste non solo nella applicazione ad altri DRG, sicuramente con percorsi clinico-diagnostici maggiormente articolati , con utilizzo di diagnostiche piu' invasive , consulenze specialistiche piu' frequenti( per esempio tutti i DRG che contemplano la procedura chirurgica sul colon), ma nella valutazione completa di tutti i dati economici provenienti da un controllo di gestione che abbia fotografato i costi di tutte le risorse utilizzate nel percorso diagnostico clinico , al fine di rendere non piu' utile ma indispensabile la applicazione di Business Process Management – DES nei processi decisionali e direzionali delle Aziende Sanitarie . Tale applicazione , consentirebbe di agire , modificare e correggere processi sanitari che contestualmente sono stati identificati come inefficienti o non conformi , senza attendere i dovuti e lunghi tempi dell'analisi gestionale .

Los estudios sobre el proceso de producción, circulación y consumo de los mensajes de los medios han variado según los tipos de investigación, las teorías, los enfoques y las preocupaciones de cada momento y lugar. Las investigaciones llevadas a cabo brindan respuestas sobre ciertas cuestiones puntuales como por ejemplo los efectos de una campaña electoral, la recepción de una serie televisiva o la interpretación de las noticias de un programa informativo. En la actualidad, los estudios sobre la influencia de los mensajes y sobre los usos, consumos y tipos de recepción están cambiando sus preguntas, objetivos, metodologías y teorías porque las sociedades, las tecnologías, los públicos y los géneros también están cambiando a un ritmo vertiginoso. Estos procesos de transformaciones y adaptaciones fueron bautizados por autores como Henry Jenkins (2008) con el término de "convergencia mediática". Esto significa que el flujo de contenidos circula a través de múltiples plataformas comunicacionales, que se da un proceso de cooperación entre múltiples industrias mediáticas y que las audiencias migran "…a cualquier parte en busca del tipo deseado de experiencias de entretenimiento" (Jenkins, 2008: 14). Ya no se está en presencia de audiencias relativamente homogéneas reunidas en torno a la radio, la televisión y los diarios de un país o ciudad, sino que hoy se observan públicos que pueden acceder con su computadora portátil o su teléfono celular a contenidos realizados en diferentes partes del mundo, en variados formatos y géneros. Los estudios actuales sobre recepción dan cuenta, ya desde los años ochenta, de la fragmentación de los públicos, no solo por clase social, la dimensión clásica de análisis, sino por otros clivajes, como los de edad, género, lugar de residencia, gustos e intereses particulares y pertenencia a subculturas o tribus urbanas. Se realizan investigaciones en torno a los consumos femeninos, adolescentes, de comunidades de inmigrantes, y también sobre un modo de socialización poco estudiado hasta entonces, como el de los clubes de fans. Estos clubes existen desde la década de 1930, crecieron con el auge de las estrellas de rock como Elvis Presley y se consolidaron como tipo de agrupamiento cultural en la década de 1960 con los televidentes de series como Star Trek (Jenkins, 1992, 2008). Pero recién a fines de los años ochenta y comienzos de los noventa, los estudios académicos empiezan a analizarlos desde la perspectiva de los estudios culturales, un tipo de enfoque que privilegia pensar los procesos de formación de sentido de los sectores subalternos. Los clubes de fans ocupan un lugar subordinado en el campo de la cultura y de los medios de comunicación, porque suelen ser vistos como grupos de fanáticos, exaltados, obsesivos, irracionales y desmesurados (Borda, 1996; Borda, 2012; Spataro, 2012). Estos tipos de agrupamientos dan cuenta no solo de un nuevo tipo de consumo y recepción de productos de las industrias culturales sino también de nuevas comunidades nucleadas en torno a ciertos intereses particulares que se forman en diferentes lugares del planeta. Existen diferentes fanatismos según el tipo de industria cultural, formatos y géneros: fans de programas de televisión, de películas, de libros, de bandas de música, de actores, de cantantes, de escritores, de "famosos" o "mediáticos" y de conductores de televisión. Por otro lado el fenómeno del fanatismo se extiende a otras prácticas u objetos (Borda, 2012), que no tienen que ver directamente con las industrias culturales, como por ejemplo los fanáticos de algún deporte, religión o producto comercial (juguetes, autos, marcas, etcétera). El uso masivo de internet en los años noventa generó lo que Jenkins (2008) denomina una "cultura participativa", o sea, un tipo de cultura en la que los consumidores de ciertos productos culturales buscan influir de manera creciente en el modo en que se produce y distribuye un producto (por ejemplo enviando cartas, formando clubes de fans o realizando peticiones); también produciendo ellos mismos productos derivados, como sitios web, fanfiction, fanarts, cosplay (ver Glosario sobre estos términos). Jenkins aclara que el poder de las corporaciones es mayor al de los consumidores, pero esto no impide que se forme una cultura de "prosumidores", o sea, una cultura en la que de modo creciente, los usuarios de redes sociales y sitios web produzcan ellos mismos sus contenidos. Por ejemplo: hoy cualquiera puede escribir un cuento y publicarlo en su página de Facebook. Este cuento puede ser leído por nadie o por millones de personas y no tiene ningún costo de producción, distribución y recepción. En la actualidad, el consumo de medios está atravesado por las prácticas típicas del consumo masivo del siglo XX y por un nuevo tipo de prácticas que combinan el consumo de contenidos no masivos, medianamente masivos o absolutamente masivos en diferentes lenguajes, soportes y formatos comunicacionales. Entre mis alumnos (soy docente de escuelas secundarias) comencé a observar estas nuevas prácticas comunicacionales, expresivas, de consumo y recepción. También pude ver, a partir del año 2009 y 2010, el creciente entusiasmo que generaba una saga romántica de vampiros denominada Crepúsculo -Twilight, en su idioma original-, de la escritora estadounidense Stephenie Meyer. Investigando en internet advertí que había cientos de sitios web dedicados a esta saga alrededor del todo mundo y que su consumo y recepción también tenía que ver con las transformaciones descriptas. El público de la saga Crepúsculo comenzó a gestarse con la publicación del primer libro en el año 2005 y el éxito de la primera película, en 2008. La película ayudó a que crecieran las ventas de los libros y a que la saga fuera más conocida. Al mismo tiempo, el fenómeno se difundió a través de la comunicación interpersonal presencial y en línea. Crepúsculo es una saga romántica, cuyos protagonistas son una joven humana y un vampiro que se enamoran y viven una serie de aventuras hasta que pueden vivir felices "por siempre y para siempre jamás" (Amanecer). La mayoría de las lectoras son mujeres jóvenes, aunque también, según lo que investigué, hay mujeres y varones de diferentes edades. Las películas fueron vistas por un público más amplio, en general jóvenes, adultos jóvenes y familias con hijos adolescentes. Indagando un poco más, me di cuenta de que para varias alumnas y familiares (como mi sobrina y mi hija), no se trataba de una saga "más", sino que su entusiasmo tenía un agregado de interés, emoción y alegría que yo no sabía bien cómo denominar, hasta que me fui adentrando en las investigaciones sobre fanatismo. Desde esta perspectiva, pude observar un conjunto de "…prácticas, actitudes, expectativas y modos de relación y comunicación disponibles para la construcción de identidades colectivas e individuales tanto duraderas como fugaces" que (Borda, 2012: 108) denomina fondo de recursos. Este concepto permite describir lo que hacen, piensan y sienten los fans en general y sirve como modelo descriptivo para pensar este tipo de práctica social. El público de lectores, seguidores y fans de la saga Crepúsculo forma parte de lo que Jenkins (2008) denomina "cultura de la convergencia" y "cultura participativa" porque esta saga de cuatro libros escritos derivó en la producción de cinco exitosas películas, de cinco bandas sonoras y de merchandising, en la creación de cientos de clubes de fans y páginas web en todo el mundo y en la formación de un público de fieles lectores para quienes esta saga es muy importante en sus vidas. A partir de la publicación de un libro "tradicional" se gestó un fenómeno de transposición mediática (Steimberg, 2005) de la que se apropiaron no solo diferentes productores mediáticos sino también jóvenes lectores y fans que de algún modo también deseaban participar en la producción de contenidos, pero sin un afán comercial. Algunos de estos contenidos fueron páginas web, fanarts, fanfiction (ver Glosario), entre otros. Carlos Scolari (2009) propone utilizar para este tipo práctica el término de "narrativas transmediáticas". El término, tomado de Henry Jenkins (2003), se refiere a que "…cada medio/plataforma cuenta una parte diferente de un gran mundo mediático. Lo que se ve en la pantalla no es lo mismo que se lee en el libro o se hojea en el cómic" (Scolari, 2009:1). El interés de estos jóvenes participantes no tiene que ver con hacerse famosos o ganar dinero, sino que impulsados por las características comunicacionales de la cultura actual, se sintieron con el derecho crear sus propios contenidos a partir de LSC (desde ahora, acrónimo para nombrar a la saga Crepúsculo). Pero antes de adentrarme en el análisis de los fans y sus prácticas, consideré necesario comprender qué significa culturalmente una saga de estas características porque expresa una serie de inquietudes, deseos y visiones sociales y ofrece un caso en el que reflexionar sobre el proceso de mediación cultural (Martín Barbero, 1991) que realizan las industrias culturales. En consecuencia, en el Capítulo 1 describo las características literarias y cinematográficas de LSC, sus formas de intertextualidad y la cuestión de la transposición entre medios y entre géneros. También analizo las condiciones históricas y sociales de producción de la novela romántica y de la literatura fantástica para comprender sus características literarias, sociales y culturales, así como sus cambios a lo largo de los siglos XVII, XIX, XX y XXI, en tanto la saga analizada forma parte de estos géneros. El objetivo fue analizar a LSC como un objeto cultural que forma parte de una red semiótica de discursos sociales (Verón, 1987). LSC es un punto en esta red simbólica de producción de sentido de lo que se denomina "posmodernidad". La posmodernidad puede ser conceptualizada como una etapa histórica dentro de la modernidad, que afianza el capitalismo como sistema económico y que a nivel cultural y social realiza algunas promesas liberadoras de la modernidad mientras niega otras (Anderson, 2000). Se han gestado luchas por la liberación de las mujeres y por el reconocimiento de los derechos de los niños, los jóvenes y otros sujetos subordinados; también se ha luchado para vivir en democracia y por respetar los derechos individuales, políticos y sociales. Pero por otro lado, no se ha logrado la igualdad económica porque sigue vigente el sistema capitalista con sus valores burgueses dominantes: individualismo, egoísmo, desigualdad, lucro y competencia. Estos valores son expresiones de una modernidad que no se clausuró sino que sigue más viva que nunca. LSC, como tantos otros productos de las industrias culturales, expone una serie de deseos, miedos, ideas y contradicciones sobre lo que significa para el ser humano vivir en la sociedad capitalista contemporánea. Si bien los sujetos viven en estructuras que los determinan, lo cierto es que son las acciones de estos propios sujetos los que generan los cambios históricos. Es un proceso dialéctico de mutua determinación. Los fans de LSC son la expresión de lo que interpretan y hacen un subgrupo de jóvenes, en su mayoría mujeres, en relación con su posición subordinada en las industrias culturales en el contexto de una cultura posmoderna. En el análisis de las películas y los libros observé la cristalización de imágenes dialécticas (Williams, 1980) que expresan relaciones de correspondencia con fenómenos económicos y sociales del mundo contemporáneo, como los de mutabilidad, adaptación, rapidez, liquidez, consumismo, cultura de la imagen, fragmentación, hipertextualidad, inestabilidad, inseguridad, tribalismo, otredad, exhibicionismo, individualismo, desigualdad social y aceptación del poder político y económico. Pero además de ser la expresión de veloces cambios sociales y culturales, en LSC se pueden encontrar, en términos de Williams (1980), elementos residuales del romanticismo como movimiento cultural, elementos emergentes del siglo XXI y elementos arcaicos, anteriores incluso a la modernidad clásica. Esta saga forma parte de un escenario cultural que ha dado lugar a varias sagas fantásticas como Harry Potter de J.K. Rowling (1997) o Las crónicas vampíricas de Anne Rice (1973), por nombrar a solo dos de las más conocidas. Estas historias retoman elementos que el imaginario de la modernidad dejó o intentó dejar de lado, como la brujería o los seres monstruosos. En el Capítulo 2 analizo el modo en que la identidad de los jóvenes y las mujeres es representada en esta saga, ya que también advierto elementos arcaicos, residuales y emergentes no solo en la construcción imaginaria que realiza la autora, sino también en el modo en que los entrevistados interpretan estas cuestiones. Las mujeres siguen siendo vistas como aquellas que se definen por su papel de esposa y madre, y el amor romántico y para toda la vida entre un hombre y una mujer es el ideal de esta saga. Si bien, estas cuestiones son discutidas en la trama y en algunos pasajes de la historia adquieren un papel importante como problemas morales, lo cierto es que los fans y los lectores adhieren a este ideal y para ellos lo más importante es la historia de amor. El amor romántico toma hoy el lugar que alguna vez tuvo la adoración religiosa (Giddens, 1992; Illouz, 2009). La mayor parte de las producciones de las industrias culturales, sean programas de televisión, películas, música o literatura, tienen como eje o tema importante en la trama una historia de amor (Illouz, 2009). En el Capítulo 3 se describe el desarrollo de los estudios de recepción y de fanatismo (Jenkins, 1992; 2008; Fiske, 1992; Borda, 1996, 2012) así como las características principales de los fans de LSC, en particular la producción de sitios web y lo que esta producción significaba para ellos. Analicé 29 sitios web: 16 son páginas web, blogs y foros y 13 son páginas de Facebook. Describí el diseño estético de las páginas, sus recursos expresivos como medios de comunicación, la producción de información, la interacción con los receptores y sus filiaciones territoriales con un país o región. Y envié por correo electrónico un cuestionario a 14 administradores de sitios web para que explicaran por qué habían creado los sitios y cuál era su experiencia con este tipo de medio. La metodología utilizada es de tipo cualitativa en tanto estudia la experiencia individual y la interacción social como los modos en los que se generan las significaciones sociales (Sautu y otros, 2010). Este tipo de metodología permite descubrir cómo se gestan individual y grupalmente las tendencias que se observan o se observarán a nivel macro social (Sautu y otros, 2010). El propósito de analizar los sitios de internet fue comprender estos nuevos tipos de consumo y de prácticas comunicacionales, como expresiones de modos emergentes de producción social de sentido. Por otro lado, este análisis también me sirvió para entender qué significa LSC para los fans. Observé que alrededor de LSC se creó una "comunidad interpretativa" porque quienes son fans y seguidores comparten un universo simbólico que tiene sus propias expresiones, temas y problemas. El concepto de "comunidades interpretativas" fue creado por Stanley Fish (1980; citado por Mirta Varela, 1999) que considera que es el lector quien hace a la literatura, en tanto un texto es tal porque existe un lector que lo interpreta. Pero para no caer en un planteo subjetivista, explica Varela, Fish introduce el concepto de comunidades interpretativas que "…están integradas por aquellos que comparten estrategias interpretativas no para leer sino para escribir textos, para constituir sus propiedades" (Fish, 1980: 11; citado por Varela, 1999). Los textos son escritos y leídos en marcos interpretativos, en comunidades que comparten significados a partir de las condiciones sociales y culturales que los generan. Néstor Garcia Canclini tomó el concepto para comprender los nuevos consumos culturales y dice: Las sociedades civiles aparecen cada vez menos como comunidades nacionales "…´se manifiestan más bien como comunidades interpretativas de consumidores, es decir, conjuntos de personas que comparten gustos y pactos de lectura respecto de ciertos bienes (gastronómicos, deportivos, musicales) que les dan identidades compartidas (García Canclini, 1995: 95, la cursiva es original). La comunidad interpretativa que se gestó a partir de LSC funcionó como marco para compartir lecturas, significados, nuevos modos de expresión y comunicación e identificaciones. En el Capítulo 4 desarrollé lo que fueron contando 35 jóvenes que dijeron ser fans de LSC, cuyas edades oscilaban entre los 11 y los 22 años. Realicé 10 entrevistas de modo presencial con un cuestionario e hice otras 25 mediante el mismo instrumento pero enviado por correo electrónico. Fueron 34 mujeres y un solo varón. Las respuestas en ambos casos -orales y grabadas o escritas- fueron similares en cuanto al contenido. No realicé más de esta cantidad de entrevistas porque en este punto se llegó a lo que Steve Taylor y Robert Bogdan (1986) denominan "saturación teórica", lo que significa que los datos comienzan a repetirse, o sea, que las respuestas a las preguntas son las mismas o similares y pueden obtenerse desde ese momento diferentes categorías de análisis para de los conceptos. Me interesó saber particularmente qué significaba LSC para los fans, qué interpretaban sobre la historia, qué los conmovía y seducía de la historia y qué opinaban sobre los personajes y situaciones vividas. El objetivo fue comprender por qué se consideraban fans, ué tipo de consumo y recepción hacían de LSC, y por qué esta saga era tan importante para ellos. Una de las frases más citadas y apreciadas por los fans es la que pronuncia Edward cuando le cuenta a Bella que es un vampiro: "Y de ese modo el león se enamoró de la oveja". Bella le dice entonces: "Qué oveja tan estúpida"; a lo que Edward agrega: "¡Qué león tan morboso y masoquista!" (Crepúsculo). En este diálogo puede observarse el juego de pasiones encontradas que forman parte del relato a lo largo de los cuatro libros y las cinco películas: deseo, temor, peligro, masoquismo, vulnerabilidad, humor, resignación, reflexión, fatalismo, desesperación, ironía, ternura. El monstruo queda seducido por la víctima y por ello no puede asesinarla; por otro lado, la víctima tampoco puede huir del monstruo porque también ha sido hechizada por sus encantos. Sin embargo, el monstruo y la humana ironizan sobre esto y lo que era un relato sobrenatural se convierte en una historia romántica posmoderna en la que se debaten cuestiones morales que están en el límite entre lo aceptable y lo no aceptable. Los fans en general no comentan este tipo de cuestiones, pero interpreto que el aprecio por esta frase tiene que ver con la percepción del peligro que no solo vive Bella, sino también Edward, convertido en un león morboso y masoquista que sufre por los efectos del amor. El vampiro, que dominaba la situación, pasa a ser el dominado. El fanatismo tiene también un lugar dependiente o subalterno, ya que los fans viven para estar al tanto de cualquier novedad, aceptando resignadamente su lugar subordinado en la escena cultural, esperando ser alguna vez mínimamente reconocidos. No es que los fans disfruten de esta situación de subordinación, pero la aceptan y son felices sabiendo que adoran a su ídolo o a su historia. Para ellos, pocas cosas pueden compararse con los momentos de felicidad que han vivido siendo fans. Y como el león, el fan acepta su condición, porque aunque quisiera resistirse, no podría hacerlo. Es un cazador cazado que juega el juego que más le gusta: interpretar, describir, analizar y expresar todo lo que su pasión le genera. ; Fil: Malagón, Mariana. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales. Buenos Aires, Argentina

"Self-preservation is the first duty of a nation"Alexander Hamilton "The whole point of the doomsday machineis lost if you keep it a secret!!"Dr. Strangelove VII) Críticas Una de las principales críticas realizadas al realismo es su imposibilidad de explicar el cambio y, en particular, aportar inteligibilidad al mundo de la posguerra fría. Los cambios provocados por la globalización a partir de la década del 90 han, para muchos autores, resquebrajado profundamente los fundamentos axiomáticos del realismo. Badie (2001: 255-256) identifica tres aspectos fundamentales de este cambio de paradigma: A) Acercamiento: el nuevo orden mundial no es más territorial, sino que se basa en lo transnacional y en la interconexión entre individuos y flujos que no son controlados por el estado, provocando la eclosión de nuevas identidades y lealtades. B) Emergencia de bienes públicos globales. En un mundo globalizado, los bienes públicos dejan de ser puramente soberanos (nacionales). La búsqueda del bien social necesita de la mediación, movilización y cooperación internacionales que sobrepasan el control del estado (ej: medio ambiente, DD.HH, bienes socio-económicos, etc.). C) nacimiento de nuevos actores que reconfiguran la relación tradicional entre el ciudadano y el estado y, en cierta medida, atacan la legitimidad del contrato social y ponen en riesgo a la comunidad política en su conjunto. Esta nueva realidad debilitaría la soberanía y la territorialidad tradicionalmente asociadas al Estado-Nación. La nueva concepción de la soberanía lidia con el mercado transnacional y los nuevos compromisos y lealtades generados por la etno-política. En un mundo globalizado, el poder ya no residiría exclusivamente en la soberanía de un estado unitario, sino que éstos se ven de manera creciente obligados a conciliar o negociar sus estrategias con una multiplicidad de nuevos actores no estatales en una escena internacional pública que ya no puede ser monopolizada por el Estado-Nación. Según Badie, (2001: 258) este proceso sería similar al de la emergencia de la burguesía que demandaba participación política al interior de los Estados-Nación en los siglos XVIII y XIX, llevando al colapso de los regímenes absolutistas. Estos nuevos actores internacionales desafían el rol monopólico y absolutista del Estado-Nación y demandan derechos de participación y definición en la agenda internacional. Para esto, los realistas, clásicos y otros, tienen pocas respuestas. Esta crítica hace eco de lo que los adversarios del realismo han sostenido por décadas, a saber que la suposición (dogmática) realista del estado como actor unitario y racional ha desviado la atención del estudio, necesario, de las complejidades de la estructura del estado, del proceso de formación de preferencias así como de la acción de los actores no estatales (Williams, 2004: 636). Otra crítica importante que han enfrentado todas las escuelas realistas es que a pesar de su resistencia como programa de investigación, en particular en la academia estadounidense, el realismo político ha sido históricamente poco propenso a la verificación científica. Vasquez demuestra que las hipótesis realistas han constantemente fallado la corroboración empírica, mientras que las hipótesis no-realistas, liberales u otras, han demostrado ser estadísticamente significativas (Vasquez, 1983: 202), lo que ha llevado al autor a proponer el abandono del paradigma realista como guía teórica y práctica. La obsesión de la academia estadounidense con el enfoque realista ha sido bien documentada. Ya planteaba Kuhn (1970: 24) los problemas del "fanatismo científico" al advertir que cuando un paradigma se torna dominante, la academia se vuelve intolerante hacia las teorías alternativas y decide trabajar exclusivamente dentro del marco teórico dominante. El problema de esto, como bien marca Karl Popper, es que ese acto tiende a empobrecer a la academia y debilitar el pensamiento original e innovador (Walker y Morton, 2005: 342). ¿Cómo explicar entonces que a pesar de sus falencias el realismo político haya sido el paradigma dominante en el mundo académico y político? La respuesta realista es la siguiente: ningún paradigma rival ha logrado presentar, de manera integral, una visión alternativa, descriptiva y normativa de la acción de los estados y del funcionamiento de las RR.II. Una segunda respuesta es que el realismo, desde el inicio de la Guerra Fría, ha aportado un paradigma legitimador a la política exterior estadounidense. Al centrar el realismo el interés nacional en términos de seguridad y promover el gasto militar, alabar la Realpolitik y minimizar el componente legal o moral de las RR.II, ha encontrado en los decisores de política exterior (así como en el complejo industrial-militar) fervientes defensores de sus principios. No es de extrañar que los principales policy-makers de la Guerra Fría, como H. Kissinger o G. Kennan, hayan sido realistas convencidos (Wittner, 1985: 285). Finalmente, el cambio en el paradigma dominante parece haber seguido, si bien de manera relativamente lenta, los cambios estructurales en el mundo en los últimos 40 años. Walker y Morton (2005: 352) analizaron la producción de artículos académicos entre 1970 y 2000 en los Estados Unidos, agrupando principalmente los estudios en tres grandes escuelas: realismo, liberalismo y otros. Entre 1970-74, los artículos realistas y relacionados al realismo representaban el 73% del universo estudiado (37 artículos) y los artículos sobre liberalismo y otros tan sólo el 28%. En 1989, 61% de los artículos aún estaban bajo el paradigma realista. En el año 2000, tan sólo el 34% de los artículos analizados (515 artículos) versaban sobre el realismo político, contra 65% para artículos liberales y otros (de los cuales 40% eran sólo sobre el liberalismo). Esto demostraría que, por lo menos a nivel de la academia estadounidense, el realismo ha dejado de ser la teoría dominante. A nivel de los decisores de política exterior, el realismo sigue relevante, en particular a partir del 11 de setiembre de 2001. A todas estas críticas los realistas responderán invariablemente: los supuestos que han hecho del realismo político una filosofía política relevante, y dominante, desde hace más de dos mil años, permanecen incambiados hasta el día de hoy. El mundo sigue siendo un lugar anárquico, inseguro e imprevisible. Las guerras modernas entre pequeños estados o entre estados rebeldes y la superpotencia dominante no hacen más que confirmar la hipótesis neorrealista de que la disuasión atómica ha cambiado para siempre la guerra dentro del S.I. Las N.U no tienen más poder hoy en día del que tenían hace 50 años y es difícil imaginar un escenario futuro donde la Organización cumpla un rol eficaz como garante de la seguridad internacional, inclusive, o justamente a pesar de la reforma del Consejo de Seguridad. A pesar de la emergencia de nuevos actores, flujos transnacionales y problemas transfronterizos que demandan una respuesta concertada, los estados siguen siendo los actores principales de las RR.II. Los realistas no niegan la importancia de los nuevos temas de la agenda transnacional pero, argumentan ellos, ninguno de estos asuntos ha cambiado drásticamente la razón de ser de los estados ni alterado su principal obligación: salvaguardar su seguridad. Ni siquiera el terrorismo en su versión más extrema representa una amenaza seria a la integridad de los estados, por más que así haya sido instrumentalizado por los decisores de política exterior, apelando o inspirándose erróneamente en una lectura realista para lidiar con este problema. "The war on Terror" no es, desde una perspectiva realista, una guerra: no es más que una respuesta desproporcionada de un estado poco racional que combate un enemigo no tradicional en términos realistas. La "seguridad nacional" es sin dudas la expresión más utilizada en la arena política estadounidense desde el 11 de setiembre, pero lo que los decisores de política exterior estadounidenses parecen no entender, es que si bien los Estados Unidos no pueden perder esa guerra, tampoco pueden ganarla. Ya lo decía Morgenthau cuando criticaba el involucramiento de EEUU en la guerra de Vietnam: "Our very presence in Vietnam is in a sense dictated by considerations of public relations; we are afraid lest our prestige would suffer were we to retreat from an untenable position. One may ask whether we have gained prestige by being involved in a civil war on the mainland of Asia and by being unable to win it. Would we gain more by being unable to extricate ourselves from it, and by expanding it unilaterally into an international war? …Does not a great power gain prestige by mustering the wisdom and courage necessary to liquidate a losing Enterprise? In other words, is it not the mark of greatness, in circumstances such as these, to be able to afford to be indifferent to one´s prestige?". Si Morgenthau no consideraba la Guerra de Vietnam digna del interés nacional, ¿cómo puede serlo en el siglo XXI la guerra contra Al-Qaeda?. VIII) Consideraciones finales En conclusión, me gustaría refutar en parte el argumento comúnmente utilizado para avanzar la muerte del realismo como doctrina relevante a la hora de explicar el accionar de los grandes estados en el concierto internacional, a saber: el fin del estado nación y la consolidación del supranacionalismo, el ejemplo más estridente siendo la construcción europea. Pero para entender claramente a qué me refiero, conviene recordar brevemente qué es un Estado. Según la definición clásica comúnmente aceptada, un Estado, para existir, debe tener por los menos 4 características incompresibles. El Estado es entonces: a) una población, b) dentro de un territorio, c) con alguna forma de gobierno centralizado y d) que ejerce el monopolio legítimo de la fuerza (o de la coerción) para asegurar, entre otras cosas, la seguridad interna y externa. Ahora bien, si reflexionamos en términos de la Unión Europea y hasta donde ha avanzado la construcción de un Estado Europeo, constatamos que es bien cierto que la UE cuenta con tres de las cuatro características normalmente atribuidas al Estado. La Unión Europea posee una población claramente identificable, los ciudadanos miembros de los estados que la conforman, con derechos y obligaciones propias que no poseen los ciudadanos no europeos. La UE cuenta igualmente con unas fronteras delimitadas y protegidas que separan a este "Estado Europeo" de las naciones no europeas. La UE tiene además su propio gobierno (supranacional), el Parlamento, el Consejo y la Comisión, que poseen importantes potestades legislativas y ejecutivas capaces de imponerse a las legislaciones nacionales. Por lo tanto, la Unión Europea estaría en camino a convertirse en un estado hecho y derecho. Hélas para los defensores de dicha tesis, la cuarta característica, el monopolio de la fuerza, está claramente ausente de las discusiones reales de la construcción europea y ello, por un buen tiempo a venir. Recordemos que para los realistas, clásicos y demás, este cuarto componente, a saber el monopolio de la fuerza, destinado a garantizar la supervivencia del Estado, debe ser casi exclusivamente la única preocupación de los Estadistas y por lo tanto, sin ella, no podemos hablar propiamente de Estado. En consecuencia, mientras que los franceses, los alemanes o los ingleses no hagan un paso en dirección hacia una verdadera política de defensa supranacional (y no internacional o concertada), es decir, hasta el día en que los gobiernos nacionales no cedan la potestad sobre su bien más preciado (según los realistas) a un órgano supranacional sobre el cual ejerzan poco o nulo control, entonces el axioma realista que los grandes estados siguen pensando y actuando antes que nada en términos de seguridad y de poder, seguirá siendo relevante para el estudio de las RR.II. Aquellos que desconocen la penetración del realismo y de la realpolitik y desu fuerza ordenadora como principio de acción de los estados, ciegamente niegan que los estados, en materia de seguridad, continúan avalando, en el siglo XXI, una visión Hobbesiana del S.I. Afirmo plenamente en este epílogo que el realismo sigue siendo una doctrina relevante para explicar, si bien no todos, por los menos varios aspectos cruciales de las RR.II. Me arriesgaría a afirmar igualmente que el realismo progresivamente retomará un lugar de privilegio entre las teorías dominantes. El S.I internacional se encuentra actualmente en un período de transición entro lo que fue el fin de la Guerra Fría, el interludio del dominio unilateral estadounidense y la emergencia progresiva de China como principal potencia antagonista. La historia ha tenido múltiples escenarios de dominio unipolar o hegemónico, desde los siglos que duró el Imperio Romano, los años de la Francia Napoleónica, los meses de la Alemania Nazi hasta los 20 años del nuevo orden mundial capitalista y liberal. Pero, si hay algo que el realismo enseña y predice con infalibilidad matemática, es que el poder en el sistema internacional tiende siempre al equilibrio. Es altamente improbable que la potencia China no expanda su área de influencia hasta chocar irremediablemente con los intereses estadounidenses. En la aceptación mutua de la paridad de fuerzas y en el miedo recíproco entre ambas potencias, encontraremos seguramente las garantías de la seguridad colectiva, tal como predice el realismo, y no así otras teorías. El pensamiento realista ha sido injustamente simplificado y encasillado en lo que parece ser una colección de máximas de galletas de la fortuna: de Clausewitz a Maquiavelo, pasando por Tucídides, Hobbes y Morgenthau, el realismo ha producido enunciados categóricos que parecen despojar al mundo de todo matiz. Si bien es cierto que esas afirmaciones banalizan una de las escuelas teóricas más fecundas, no es menos cierto que la incertidumbre del sistema internacional ha llevado a los teóricos realistas a considerar que la supervivencia del Estado es algo demasiado importante para dejarlo en manos de los buenos sentimientos. BibliografíaARON, R., 1984, Paix et guerre entre les nations (8ed.),Calmann-Lévy, Paris.ASHLEY, R., «The Poverty of Neorealism» in International Organization, Vol. 38, Nº2 (Spring, 1984), pp. 225-286.BADIE, B., «Realism under Praise, or a Requiem? The paradigmatic Debate in International Relations» in International Science Review, Vol. 22, Nº3, Transformation of International Relations: Between Change and Continuity, (Jul., 2001), pp. 253-260.BATTISTELLA, D., «L´Intêret national. Une notion, trois discours» in CHATILLON, F., (dir.) 2002, Politiques étrangère. Nouveaux regards, Presses de Sciences Po, pp. 139-166.CEDERMAN, L. E., «Analysing State-Formation and power Politics» in International Studies Quaterly, Vol. 38, Nº4 (De., 1994), pp. 501-533.CHERNOFF, F., «Scientific Realism as a Meta-Theory of International Politics» in International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 46, Nº2 (Jun., 2002), pp. 189-207.FORDE, S., «International Realism and the Science of Politics: Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Neorealism» in International Studies Quaterly, Vol. 39, Nº2 (Jun., 1995), pp. 141-160.FOUZOUNI, B., «Confutation of Politcal Realism» in International Studies Quaterly, Vol. 39. (1995), pp. 479-510.GLASER, C., «The Security Dilemma Revisited» in World Politics, Vol. 50, Nº1, Fiftieth Anniversary Special Issue (Oct., 1997), pp. 171-201.GLYNN, P., 1999, Closing Pandoras Box: Arms Races, Arms Control and the History of the Cold War, Basic Books, New York.GREENFIELD, L., «Is Nation Unavoidable? Is Nation Unavoidable Today» in KRIESI, H. Et al. (eds), 1999, Nation and Nationality Identity, The European Experience in Perspective, Verlag Rüegger, Chur, pp. 37-54.HOLSTI, K., 1984, The Dividing Discipline: hegemony and diversity in International theory, Allen and Unwin, Boston.JAMES, P., «Neorealism as a Research Entreprise: Toward Elaborated Structural Realism» in International Political Science Review, Vol. 14, Nº2 (Apr., 1993), pp. 123-148.JERVIS, R., «Realism in the Study of World Politics» in International Organization, Vol. 52, Nº4, International Organization at Fifty: Exploration and Contestation in the Study of World Politics (Autumn, 1998), pp. 971-991.KENNAN, G., 1967, Memoirs 1925-1950, Little, Brown and Company, Boston.KRATOCHWIL, F., «The embarrassment of Change: Neorealism as the Science of realpolitk without Politics» in Review of International Studies, Vol. 19 (1993), pp. 63-80.KUHN, T., 1970, The Structure of Scientifc Revolutions (2ed.), University of Chicago Press, Chicago.LAKATOS, I., 1980, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Vol 1 Philosophical Papers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.LEGRO, J. y A. MORAVCSIK, «Is Anybody Still a Realist» in International Security, Vol. 24, Nº2 (Fall 1999), pp. 5-55.LYNN-JONES, S., «Offense-Defense Theory and its Critics» in Security Studies, Nº4 (summer 1995), pp. 660-691.MEARSHEIMER, J., «The False Promise of International Institutions» in International Security, Vol. 19 (Winter, 1994).MEARSHEIMER, J., 2001, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, W.W Norton, New York.MONTGOMERY, E., «Breaking out of the Security Dilemma: Realism, Reassurance, and the Problem of Uncertainty» in International Security, Vol. 31, Nº2 (Fall, 2006), pp. 151-185.MORGENTHAU, H., «The Mainsprings of American Foreign Policy: The National Interest vs. Moral Abstractions» in The American Political Science Review, Vol 44, Nº4 (Dec., 1950), pp. 833-854.MORGENTHAU, H., «What is the National Interest of the Unites Staes?» in Anals of the American Academy of Political Science, Vol. 282, The National Interest-Alone or with Others? (Jul., 1952), pp-17.MORGENTHAU, H., 1961, Politics Among Nations, Knopf, New York.NINCIC, M., «The National Interest and Its Interpretation» in The Review of Politcs, Vol. 61, Nº1 (Winter, 1999), pp. 29-55.ROSE, G., «Neoclassical Realism and The thories of Foreign Policy» in World Politics, Vol. 51, Nº1 (Oct, 1998), pp. 144-172.ROSENAU, J., «National Interest» in D.L Sillis (ed.), 1968, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. XI, Free Press, New York.SCHWELLER, R., «New Realist Research on alliances: Refining, Not Refuting Waltz´s Balancing Proposition» in The American Political Science Review, Vol. 91, Nº4 (de., 1997), pp.927-930.SHIMKO, K., «Realism, Neorealism, and American Liberalism» in The Review of Politics, Vol. 54, Nº2 (Spring, 1992), pp. 281-301.SWEENEY, K. y FRITZ, P., «Jumping on the Bandwagon: An interest-Based Explanation for Great Power Alliances» in The Journal of Politics, Vol. 66, Nº2 (May, 2004), pp. 428-449.TUCKER, R., «Professor Morgenthau´s Theory of political Realism: In Defense of the National Interest: A Critical Study of American Foreign Policy by Hans J. Morgenthau» in Political Science Review, Vol.46, Nº1 (Mar., 1952), pp. 214-224.VASQUEZ, J., 1983, The Power of politics: a critic, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick NJ.VIOTTI, P., y M. KAUPPI, 1993, International Relations Theory: Realism, Pluralism, Globalism (2nd ed.), Macmillan, New York.WAGNER, R., «The theory of Games and the Problem of International Cooperation» in The American Political Science Review, Vol. 77, Nº2 (Jun, 1983), pp. 330-346.WALKER, T. y J. MORTON, «Re-Assessing the "Power of Power Politics" thesis: Is Realism Still Dominant?» in International Studies Review, vol. 7, Nº2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 341-356.WALTZ, K., 1959, Man, the State, and War, Columbia University Press, New York.WALTZ, K., 1979, Theory of International Politics, Addison-Wesley, Reading.WALTZ, K., «The Origins of War in Neorealist Theory» in The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, Nº4, The Origin and Preventions of Major Wars (Spring, 1988), pp. 615-628.WALTZ, K., «Structural Realism after the Cold War» in International Security, Vol. 25, Nº1 (Summer 2000), pp. 5-41.WENDT, A., «Anarchy is What States make of It. The Social Construction of Power Politics» in International Organization, Vol. 46 (spring 1992).WENDT, A., «Constructing International Politics» in International Security, Vol. 20 (Summer 1995).WILLIAMS, M., «Why Ideas Matter in International Relations: Hans Morgenthau, Classical Relism, and the Moral Construction of Power Politics» in International Organization, Vol. 58, Nº4 (Autumn, 2004), pp. 633-665.WITTNER, L., «Pursuing "The National Interest": The Illsuion of Realism» in American History, Vol. 13, Nº2 (Jun, 1985), pp. 282-287.ZIMMER, L. 2011, The Vietnam War debate: Hans J. Morgenthau and the atempt to halt the drift into disaster, Lexington Books, UK. *Este artículo fue presentado en la 9° sesión el Seminario Interno de Discusión Teórica 2013, organizado por el Departamento de Estudios Internacionales de la Universidad ORT Uruguay. Germán Clulow es Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales por la Universidad ORT –Uruguay, Master en Ciencia Política por la Université de Genève – Suiza, y Master en Estudios de Desarrollo por el Instituto de Altos Estudios Internacionales y de Desarrollo (IHEID-The Graduate Institute) Ginebra, Suiza.

1. Introducción.Hemos leído últimamente muchos análisis sobre un caso de asilo diplomático de público conocimiento que hoy concita tanto interés como preocupación en las relaciones internacionales, donde aparecen mezclados diferentes conceptos sobre el Asilo Diplomático y otros institutos similares, así como sobre la aplicación de la teoría de la extraterritorialidad para justificar la inviolabilidad de la sede de la misión diplomática, generando sin duda confusión a los lectores poco familiarizados con el tema.Intentaremos esclarecer estos conceptos, pretendiendo únicamente "refrescar" antecedentes, dejando el tratamiento profundo del tema en los excelentes trabajos que existen en la materia.2. Refugio y Asilo.No puedo dejar aquí de rendir un reconocimiento a tres distinguidos académicos y diplomáticos uruguayos que han tratado este tema en el pasado con gran brillo. Me refiero a mi respetado profesor el Dr. Manuel A. Vieira, autor del excelente trabajo "Derecho de Asilo Diplomático" del año 1961, al Embajador Dr. Emilio Oribe, autor de "Las Reglas de Calificación en el Asilo Diplomático y la Doctrina Uruguaya", del año 1964 y al Embajador Juan Domingo del Campo, autor de "Una Experiencia en la Aplicación del Derecho de Asilo", del año 1967.Sería injusto no mencionar también un trabajo realizado hace muy poco tiempo por una funcionaria del Servicio Exterior uruguayo, la Licenciada Cristina Mansilla, que ha escrito un muy documentado estudio sobre "La Tradición de Asilo en Uruguay ". Ambos institutos son diferentes, por más que configuren dos aspectos de una misma realidad, que es la de proteger personas contra las persecuciones, revistiendo carácter humanitario.El refugio tiene su origen en los finales de la Primera Guerra Mundial y es por lo tanto una institución de origen europeo, que llevó a la Sociedad de Naciones a ocuparse de los refugiados y a la firma de los primeros acuerdos internacionales sobre los mismos, para atender a las personas desplazadas por los cambios territoriales producto de las guerras o por persecuciones de regímenes políticos dictatoriales. Es en esa época que surge el famoso "Pasaporte Nansen", documento del que se dotaba a los refugiados que les permitía radicarse en un país diferente al suyo. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial surge una agencia especializada de las Naciones Unidas para ocuparse de los refugiados (el ACNUR o Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados) y se firma la Convención Relativa a los Refugiados en 1951, vigente al día de hoy y perfeccionada por el Protocolo de 1967. El refugio solo puede ser concedido territorialmente, las condiciones las fija el ACNUR, no es requerida la necesidad de persecución para concederlo, sino que basta con el temor fundado y los motivos abarcados pueden ser varios, como los de raza, religión, nacionalidad, opiniones políticas, etc. 3. El Asilo Territorial.El asilo en cambio, puede tener dos variantes: el asilo territorial y el diplomático.El asilo territorial es el que un Estado concede en su territorio a una persona perseguida por motivos políticos o acusada de cometer delitos políticos o comunes conexos con los políticos.Esta institución también es muy antigua pero a nivel universal no existe ninguna convención relacionada con el mismo. Las Naciones Unidas intentaron en 1977 concretar una convención pero no lo lograron.A nivel mundial solo existe un artículo, el 14, en la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos de 1948 en el cual se reconoce que toda persona tiene derecho a buscar asilo y más tarde, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas aprobó en 1967 la Resolución 2312 sobre Asilo Territorial, donde se dice que el otorgamiento de asilo en un Estado es un acto pacífico y humanitario y como tal no puede ser considerado inamistoso por ningún otro Estado. Por lo tanto, estas declaraciones a nivel universal no tienen carácter obligatorio sino meramente humanitario.En cambio, esta institución tiene en América Latina una base convencional desde mediados del siglo pasado, la Convención de Caracas de 1954 sobre Asilo Territorial, de la cual forman parte Brasil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haití, México, Panamá, Paraguay, Uruguay y Venezuela.A ella se le agregó el artículo 22 numeral 7 de la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San José de Costa Rica) de 1969, que dispone que toda persona tiene el derecho de buscar y recibir asilo en territorio extranjero en caso de persecución por delitos políticos o comunes conexos con los políticos y de acuerdo con la legislación de cada Estado o los convenios internacionales.Son miembros de este Pacto la totalidad de los países latinoamericanos menos Canadá y Estados Unidos, pero se han adherido al mismo Barbados, Dominica, Granada y Jamaica.Todos estos instrumentos, en forma muy similar, reconocen el derecho de buscar asilo pero no el de obtenerlo; sólo pueden beneficiarse del mismo quienes son perseguidos por motivos o delitos políticos. Quienes otorgan el mismo son las autoridades del país que lo concede y la consecuencia más importante es la obligación de no devolver al asilado al país que lo reclama, aunque en América Latina este principio ha sido violado muchas veces durante la época de las dictaduras militares. 4. El Asilo Diplomático.Finalmente, el asilo diplomático, que también algunos llaman de asilo político, es una institución que por ahora no tiene base en el derecho internacional universal y solo está consagrada en algunos tratados latinoamericanos sobre asilo diplomático y en normas regionales de derecho internacional consuetudinario sobre el asilo. Por lo tanto, debe quedar bien claro que fuera de América Latina, esta institución no es reconocida como una institución de derecho internacional consuetudinario y tampoco existen convenciones internacionales fuera de las que analizaremos dentro del continente latinoamericano.Eso no quiere decir que algunos países europeos, que no están ligados por ninguna norma jurídica en la materia, no lo hayan aplicado en el pasado circunstancialmente y por razones estrictamente humanitarias. A título de ejemplo, recordemos que en los siglos XVI y XVII fue practicado en Europa y más tarde en el siglo XX, en España durante la Guerra Civil Española, así como por los EEUU en el sonado caso del Cardenal Midszenty en Hungría o por parte de otros países europeos como Francia, Suecia o el Vaticano, en África y América Latina, también a fines siglo pasado. Los casos más sonados son los aplicados por varios países europeos en Chile durante la dictadura militar de Pinochet.En términos generales, las objeciones a un tratado internacional sobre asilo diplomático por parte de los países no latinoamericanos, se basan en que este es considerado como un abuso de la inmunidad de que gozan las sedes de las misiones diplomáticas (como lo veremos cuando tratemos más adelante la teoría de la funcionalidad), que además no está contemplada dentro de las funciones de las misión diplomática definidas en la Convención de Viena de 1961 sobre Relaciones Diplomáticas y porque finalmente es visto como una excesiva posibilidad de injerencia en sus asuntos internos por parte de las misiones diplomáticas extranjeras.Esto no quiere decir que no hayan existido intentos para codificar el asilo diplomático y concluir un tratado de alcance universal en la materia, tanto en el ámbito de las Naciones Unidas como en otros foros.En efecto, el Instituto de Derecho Internacional intentó, a mediados del siglo pasado, transformar el derecho de asilo en una norma de derecho internacional, aunque sin éxito.Poco después, la Asociación de Derecho Internacional trabajó, también sin éxito, sobre dos proyectos de Convención de Asilo Diplomático , en 1968 y 1971, inspirados en gran parte en las convenciones latinoamericanas en la materia, que veremos más adelante, aunque introduciendo innovaciones interesantes en aspectos tales como la calificación de las causales de admisión del asilo, la calificación de urgencia o las categorías de las personas que pueden ser admitidas al asilo.Estas iniciativas, no concretadas hasta ahora, encuentran serias dificultades para prosperar, aunque esto no quiere decir que sea imposible llegar a un acuerdo en la materia, como forma de regular y uniformizar los principios de esta institución en el derecho internacional. En el ámbito latinoamericano, el asilo diplomático se define en términos generales como la protección que un Estado ofrece a personas que no son nacionales suyos y cuya vida o libertad están en peligro por actos, amenazas o persecuciones de las autoridades de otro Estado o por personas o multitudes que hayan escapado del control de dichas autoridades.El asilo diplomático, que un autor definió como la "más emblemática figura del derecho internacional americano", surgió como una necesidad apremiante de carácter humanitario en las naciones americanas de origen hispano y se fue consolidando y enriqueciendo con la práctica recurrente desde fines del siglo XIX hasta nuestros días. Todos recordamos el caso Haya de la Torre, del año 1951, que motivó un fallo de la Corte Internacional de Justicia, el cual, a su vez, fue determinante para la suscripción de la Convención de Caracas sobre Asilo Diplomático de 1954 que veremos más adelante.Esta práctica fue convirtiéndose desde fines del siglo XIX en una serie de convenciones que abarcan desde un número reducido de Estados, como es el caso del Tratado de Derecho Penal de Montevideo de 1889 o el Tratado sobre Asilo y Refugio Político de Montevideo de 1939, hasta llegar a las convenciones celebradas en el marco del sistema interamericano, como la Convención sobre Asilo Político adoptada en La Habana en 1929, la Convención sobre Asilo Político celebrada en Montevideo en 1933 y finalmente la Convención sobre Asilo Diplomático de Caracas de 1954, de la cual Uruguay es miembro.Sin contar a los países del Caribe que ingresaron a la OEA con posterioridad y que por su origen europeo no tienen una tradición en materia de asilo diplomático, todos los estados de América Latina son parte de al menos una de estas tres convenciones citadas, menos Bolivia, que a pesar de haber firmado las tres, no las ha ratificado. Sin embargo, este país nunca se ha opuesto a este instituto.Por lo tanto, puede asegurarse, siguiendo a Edmundo Vargas Carreño, que "en la actualidad, para los Estados latinoamericanos, el asilo diplomático es una institución vigente, con fundamentos tanto en el derecho convencional como en el consuetudinario".De acuerdo a las tres convenciones que hemos mencionado, todas ellas en vigor, el asilo puede otorgarse en las Embajadas, los navíos de guerra o aeronaves militares. En la Convención de Caracas de 1954 se agregó la Residencia del Jefe de Misión. O sea que se excluye expresamente a los Consulados para acoger a un asilado.Ya vimos que en el caso del asilo territorial, no existe un "derecho de asilo" sino el "derecho a buscar asilo". En el caso del asilo diplomático ocurre lo mismo.Quien otorga el asilo diplomático es el Estado al cual se solicita el mismo, el cual no está obligado a concederlo ni explicar porque lo niega.Una vez concedido el asilo, el Estado territorial está obligado a respetarlo, debiendo otorgar el respectivo salvoconducto para la salida del asilado a otro Estado, que no tiene por qué ser necesariamente el Estado que otorgó el asilo.El asilo diplomático sólo procede en casos de urgencia, por la comisión de delitos políticos o por la persecución a raíz de la comisión de los mismos. Por lo tanto no debe concederse a aquellas personas que se encuentren inculpadas o procesadas o condenadas por delitos comunes ante tribunales competentes. Es importante tener en cuenta que el asilo diplomático se concede independientemente de la nacionalidad del asilado, o sea que puede otorgarse a una persona que no sea nacional de ninguno de los estados que reconocen este instituto.El asilo diplomático no está sujeto a reciprocidad. 5. La teoría de la extraterritorialidad como fundamento de la inviolabilidad de la Misión Diplomática.También en relación al caso de asilo diplomático que nos ocupa, numerosas declaraciones oficiales y artículos de prensa que hemos leído, se refieren a que una Embajada debe ser considerada, en razón de una pretendida "extraterritorialidad", un territorio extranjero en el corazón del Estado receptor. Nada más equivocado.La teoría de la extraterritorialidad ha perdido desde hace mucho tiempo los favores de la doctrina y debe ser considerada como definitivamente abandonada. Es más, nunca convenció al conjunto de la doctrina.Esta teoría fue defendida fundamentalmente por Hugo Grocio a comienzos del siglo XVIII, en su ensayo "Del Derecho de la Guerra y de la Paz" y también por otro gran jurista holandés, Bynkoerschoeck. El prestigio de ambos autores y la simplicidad de la idea que la fundamenta, explican el éxito que esta teoría tuvo en ese siglo.La misma reposaba en una ficción elemental que consideraba que el beneficiario de la inmunidad, en este caso el agente diplomático en funciones, jamás quita su territorio nacional y por ende tanto él como el conjunto de los locales diplomáticos que ocupa, se encuentran colocados "en extraterritorialidad". Bynkerschoeck iba todavía más lejos al asegurar que la inviolabilidad del agente diplomático dependía del hecho de que su lugar de trabajo como su residencia personal, eran consideradas como siendo parte de su territorio nacional. Se llegó al extremo de asegurar que en estos locales, los miembros del servicio doméstico que trabajaban para el agente diplomático, siendo de nacionalidad del Estado receptor, durante el tiempo de su servicio, cambiaban de nacionalidad, adoptando la del Estado acreditante. Ya en el siglo XIX surgieron por parte de autores muy importantes como Pinheiro-Ferreira y Bonfils, críticas muy fuertes a esta teoría "inútil, vaga y falsa, por ende peligrosa", que acabarían por determinar su completo rechazo.El fuerte surgimiento de la concepción de la soberanía de los Estados y de la competencia exclusiva sobre su territorio, se conciliaba muy mal con esta ficción tan elemental. Ya en esos momentos se percibía que se hacía necesario encontrar un fundamento más realista al régimen de la inmunidad diplomática así como justificarla mejor. Se hizo evidente entonces que para que esta inviolabilidad de los locales estuviera garantizada y asegurada, no era necesario fundamentarla en ninguna ficción jurídica y mucho menos en la de la teoría de la extraterritorialidad.Desde el momento en que es una inmunidad necesaria a la misión diplomática de una potencia soberana, que tiene una utilidad funcional esencial, esta inmunidad está implícita.De ello resulta que los locales diplomáticos estarán preservados de cualquier intrusión o de cualquier visita no deseada, sin que por ello deban ser consideradas como un territorio extranjero o como un enclave de soberanía extranjera.Existen numerosos ejemplos en la práctica diplomática comparada que así lo demuestran.Por ejemplo, cuando se afirma que el Estado acreditante tiene competencia de policía y de jurisdicción al interior de sus locales diplomáticos, la respuesta es un no categórico. Claro que el Estado acreditante puede rehusarse a permitir la entrada a la policía o a los jueces a los locales de la misión diplomática donde se han cometido crímenes o delitos, pero en esos casos el Estado receptor dispondrá de medios para hacer respetar el orden público, por ser el único competente para investigar y reprimir estos actos. Esta función deberá ejercerla con el acuerdo previo del Jefe de Misión y respetando la inviolabilidad de los documentos, archivos y mobiliario de la misión diplomática. Hay múltiples ejemplos que así lo confirman. Otro ejemplo muy claro es cuando se pregunta si la sede de la misión diplomática está sometida a las leyes y reglamentos del Estado receptor. Aquí la respuesta es de un sí categórico.Y en este caso se trata de todos las categorías de locales diplomáticos, incluida la residencia de los agentes diplomáticos. La práctica diplomática comparada está llena de ejemplos en tal sentido. Basta recordar casos vinculados con la violación, por parte de la misión diplomática, a la legislación sobre discriminación de género, a la legislación laboral, a la legislación relacionada con los sistemas de comunicaciones satelitales o a la legislación relacionada con reglas de urbanismo en el Estado receptor. 6. Teoría de la funcionalidad o del interés de la función.Cuando llegamos a la Convención de Viena sobre Relaciones Diplomáticas a mediados del siglo pasado, la teoría de la extraterritorialidad ya ni siquiera fue motivo de discusión y no aparece mencionada en ninguna parte. Por el contrario, en el Preámbulo de dicha Convención se dice que "las inmunidades y privilegios se conceden con el fin de garantizar el desempeño eficaz de las funciones diplomáticas".Este es hoy el fundamento de las inmunidades diplomáticas.La primera formulación de esta concepción funcional de las inmunidades diplomáticas fue hecha por el Instituto de Derecho Internacional en 1929 y fue luego recogida por la Convención de Viena de 1961 a la que ya nos hemos referido, recibiendo el apoyo unánime de la doctrina de Derecho Internacional (Lapradelle, Basdevant, Rousseau, etc.).Para volver al régimen de inviolabilidad de la misión diplomática en este marco jurídico y doctrinario, el mismo implica en primer lugar una obligación de no hacer. O sea que los agentes del Estado receptor y particularmente las fuerzas del orden no penetren en los locales de la misión o de la residencia del diplomático, salvo cuando, con la autorización del Jefe de Misión, se haga necesario realizar una investigación, como ya vimos.En segundo lugar implica una obligación de hacer. O sea que las autoridades del Estado receptor deben asegurar la protección absoluta de los locales diplomáticos contra todos los ataques que ésta pueda ser objeto.Es en este marco que hay que entender la objeción de aquellos países que no reconocen el derecho de asilo diplomático dentro de las Misiones Diplomáticas en su territorio.Para ellos, como ya lo vimos anteriormente, la contrapartida de la protección y de la inviolabilidad de los locales de la Misión Diplomática, consiste, entre otras, en el no otorgar asilo diplomático dentro de la misma, no afectar los locales de la Misión a fines que no sean los de la exclusiva representación diplomática, o que sirvan de base logística a actividades que puedan perturbar el orden o la seguridad interna del Estado receptor.Algunos Estados, para reforzar más aun el estricto cumplimiento de la teoría de la funcionalidad como fundamento de la inviolabilidad de la misión diplomática, han dictado leyes facultando a sus autoridades a revocar la misma en caso de que se compruebe que se han violado alguna de las condiciones enumeradas más arriba. De todas maneras, estos Estados han previsto en estos actos jurídicos que sus disposiciones no violen lo dispuesto por la Convención de Viena de 1961 en la materia.Si en cambio la inviolabilidad de la Misión estuviera fundada en la teoría de la extraterritorialidad, el asilo diplomático sería de rigor, pero aplicando la teoría de la funcionalidad o del interés de la función como fundamento de la inviolabilidad, el derecho de asilo sólo procede en los casos en que convenios internacionales o acuerdos particulares que vinculen a ambas partes así lo permitan.Como vimos anteriormente, este principio sin embargo ha sufrido numerosas excepciones, por razones humanitarias, a lo largo de los siglos, por parte de aquellos Estados que no reconocen este Instituto, pero en estos casos no existe norma obligatoria que los obligue a respetarlo.Ojala estas precisiones permitan al lector calificar mejor las características que reviste el caso de asilo diplomático que está hoy en día generando tantas interpretaciones por parte de los actores involucrados. Sobre el autorEmbajador uruguayo en Egipto y Catedrático de Integración Regional en Universidad-ORT.

The international business environment is still changing dramatically and, although international growth may introduce added complexity it may be unavoidable for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) mainly due to the increasing globalization of markets (Levitt 1983) and industries (Yip 2003). In the face of rapid globalization, SMEs are a vital part of the economic systems of both emerging and developed countries. As Veloso (1991) points out, this type of companies may be an important organ for increasing the level of competitiveness of emerging markets. Some studies, for example, Yasuf (2001), go to the extent of suggesting that growth and employment in developing countries depend on the fate of SMEs. The incentive and the legal structures within which firms must operate have been drastically altered. SMEs are no longer protected from foreign competition and local buyers and suppliers are becoming more sophisticated. To compete effectively, SMEs must adapt and reshape themselves to facilitate adjustments and enhance learning for their growth and economic development. This article provides a typology to explain the degree of internationalization of SMEs. At one extreme is tangible internationalization, which is short-term and depends on macro and microeconomics factors exogenous to firms; at the other is a combination of tangible and intangible internationalization, which implies a strong commitment by firms to become competitive at international levels.I argue that different forces have forced the internationalization not only of firms, but also of markets, so that SMEs can become global without a physical presence in foreign markets. Furthermore, it may be necessary for these companies to become global if they are to remain competitive in their local markets. As a result of this paradigm shift, internationalization is based not only on geographical aspects, which are closely related to firm internationalization, but also on intangible considerations, which are closely related to market internationalization.Tangible internationalization is a restricted approach defined as a physical presence in a foreign market; it consists mainly of foreign sales, foreign direct investment (FDI), physical presence in foreign markets, and foreign suppliers. It fluctuates with exchange rates, costs of inputs, and other resource endowments that are tied to a particular geographic location. On the other hand, intangible internationalization implies a change in the comprehensive approach to the way firms should reconfigure, develop and secure resources. Intangible internationalization requires facilitating learning at all levels of a firm to increase the stock of knowledge, and, therefore, to improve flexibility on the production side and increase the likelihood of developing new resources and processes, thus enhancing the firm's critical invisible assets (Itami and Roehl 1987). An SME should aim for both in order to take advantage of a physical presence in foreign markets and provide constant incentives to facilitate learning and new organizational capabilities and processes. Tangible internationalization is a short-term expansion in foreign markets because it takes advantage of temporary macro- and microeconomics conditions; it does not require changes at the firm level. On the other hand, a combination of intangible and tangible internationalization has a higher probability to be sustainable in the long term and mostly depends on the firm's actions to meet international standards.This article emphasizes 5 crucial aspects of that managers need to be aware of: I. A matter of having an strategic plan II. An internal perspective of the firm III.The need of expanding the knowledge bases of SMEs IV.How to access and secure resources: networks V.The entrepreneurial aspectsI. A Matter of Having an Strategic PlanWhile firms have an important degree of freedom to make their own decisions, the effect of the environment cannot be discounted. This matter becomes critically important in the context of emerging economies because firms are not only facing changes in the structure of the industry in which they operate, but also in the surrounding and institutional environments. To be aware of the different courses of action available, decision makers must understand all the pro-market reforms, not just those that most affect their own industry. According to Weick (1995), the strategic decisions that managers make depend on their cognitive structures and how they make sense of the environment. Managers need to understand any intended change in a way that makes sense or fits an interpretative schema or system of meaning (Bartunek 1984). Andrews (1980) compares the role of the owner-manager to an architect who is in charge of doing the synthesis. Senior managers have the role of analyzing, interpreting, and making sense of clues so as to formulate and implement strategies. Senior managers should act as catalysts to understand and create new interpretative frameworks that provide purpose and direction to the members of the organization (Westley 1990).Laying a Formal Foundation: Making the Implicit Explicit The fact that SMEs have inadequate organizational structures and managerial expertise is a real problem in a changing environment. SMEs do not have the same level of support to increase their competitiveness, and given the lack of managerial expertise, building an adequate structure is not a straightforward process, even though it is a central one. Formalizing routines and processes within firms to make them less dependent on a specific individual is key. This is an important concern because SMEs not only have a less highly developed structure, but their fate is closely linked to one or a few individuals who posses knowledge or resources that have not been made explicit to the rest of the firm.Nevertheless, in a changing environment managers need to be proactive and to rethink their approaches regarding the future activities of their firms. A mere replication of previous strategies may no longer be a valid option when firms are competing in the international arena. The future can be imagined and enacted and that companies must be capable of fundamentally reconciling themselves by regenerating their core competencies and reinventing their industry. The role of managers is not to plan for the future, but to manage the process of learning and to be open to the possibility that new strategies can emerge.II. Analyzing the Firm's ResourcesAn analytical examination of the resources of a firm may help to develop an understanding not only of possible short-run business strategies, but also of future diversifications (Montgomery and Wernerfelt, 1988), growth strategies (Penrose, 1959), and sustainability of long-term rents (Rumelt, 1984). SMEs can compete in the international arena, but they will face international competition from foreign SMEs as well as from multinational enterprises (MNEs). Focusing only on product-market strategies is not enough; instead, the long-term survival of a firm depends on the characteristics and endowment of its resources, which should be valuable and difficult to imitate (Mahoney and Pandian 1992; Grant 1991; Amit and Schoemaker 1993). To be able to compete, the manager-owners of SMEs must know the internal resources and capabilities of their companies. As Andrews (1980: 18-19) suggested, a firm should make its strategic plans "preferably in a way that focuses resources to convert distinctive competence into competitive advantage."Firms are a bundle of different kinds of resources and a set of commitments to certain technologies, human resources, processes, and know-how that manager-owners marshal. This issue is particularly important to the present study because it is not unusual that are controlled, managed, and run by one or a small group of individuals that have a deep, but tacit, knowledge of the firm. What is important is a clear identification—not just a vague idea—of the different resources on which a firm can depend.How to Reconfigure a Firm's Resources? Capabilities exist when two or more resources are combined to achieve a goal and they "emphasizes the key role of strategic management in appropriately adapting, integrating and reconfiguring the internal and external organization skills, resources, and functional competences to match the requirements of changing environment" (Teece et al. 1997: 515). It is important to note that the relative endowment of firms may not necessarily relate to their financial performance because "only the service that the resource can render and not the resources themselves provide inputs into the production process" (Penrose 1972: 25). It is the deployment of a combination of those services that are critical to the rent generation of the firm. Firms need to exploit the existing firm-specific capabilities and also develop new ones (Penrose 1959; Teece 1982; Wernerfelt 1984) to compete internationally and to grow. Over time, SMEs have seen the nature of their rents change; we should expect a shift from Ricardian to Schumpeterian rents. A company may not have better resources, but achieve rents because it makes better use of its resources (Penrose 1959). Rents depend not only on the structure of the resources, but also on the ability of firms to reconfigure and transform those resources. The above discussion leads to the formation of the following hypotheses:III. The Need of Expanding the Knowledge Bases of SMEsThe capacity to exploit a new set of opportunities depends partly on the strategic decisions made by managers. In some cases, these opportunities require at least a reconfiguration of the activities of the firm, but more often, they require the incorporation of new resources and, especially, the introduction of new processes.Firms are as systems of purposeful actions engaging in economic activities to achieve objectives, therefore, they must learn adapt and survive in a complex environment. Organizational learning is the process by which firms can cope with uncertainty and environmental complexity, and their efficiency depends on learning how the environment is changing and then adapting to those changes (March and Olsen, 1976).SMEs need to enhance their learning in two different aspects. First, internal knowledge should be coded and made available to selected members in the company. The manager-owner is knowledgeable about almost all aspects of the business (Mintzberg 1979), and his or her knowledge is personal in the sense that it is located in the mind and not always encoded or available to the rest of the firm. Routines should be created in order to secure the long-term existence of the firm because routines capture the experiential lessons and make that knowledge obtainable by the members of the organization that were not part of the history of the company (Levitt and March 1988).The second way SMEs need to enhance their learning is to make changes in their knowledge base. When socio-economic environments change, firms need to assess the change in order to reformulate how they react to new incentives. The first step is developing a capability to understand the new dynamics. When regulatory and competitive conditions change rapidly, persistence in the same routines can be hazardous because managers and employees use organizational memory or knowledge to make decisions and to formulate the present strategy of the firm.The effectiveness of decisions taken by an SME is greatly influenced by its knowledge base which, in turn, is the result of learning processes that are no longer applicable and may be misleading. Changes in the knowledge base are probably requisite for any firms competing in an industry with tradable products. Supporting infrastructure and routines may prove essential to increase the learning pace and to effectively integrate the new knowledge and reduce the inertia due to outdated knowledge.IV. How to Access and Secure Resources: NetworksSMEs, compared to larger firms, face major challenges in terms of securing and updating resources. Where internal resources are important to accounting for a firm's performance (Gnyawali and Madhavan, 2001), resources also can be secured within networks that may allow firms to be competitive locally and internationally. Increasingly, networking is seen as a primarily means of rising required resources. Resources, such as information, equipment, and personnel, can be exchanged in networks because of relationships between. Networks are important instruments to ease the constraints facing SMEs in terms of access to: a) capital markets to obtain long-term finance both locally and internationally, b) narrow and highly regulated labor markets, c) information and technologies, d) inefficient tax codes, and e) highly bureaucratic and expansive legal procedures. SMEs may be part of a network not only because it may find complementary resources, but also because owners and managers may have friendship ties with other owners and mangers. These non-economic reasons may be as important as economic ones.A Particular Kind of Network: Industry Clusters An extensive literature exists on the topic of industry clusters. Ricardo's "comparative advantages" can be considered as a pioneering concept of industrial clusters; and Marshall's exposition about externalities is based on industrial localization. Industrial clusters are characterized by having extensive interfirm exchanges and an advantageous environment to pursue business activities. Marshall (1961) argues that industry localization may be an important factor because a) it creates a market for workers with certain industry-specific skills, b) it promotes production and exchange of non-tradable specialized input, and c) firms may take advantage of informational spillovers. Krugman (1991) points out that given the existence of market imperfection, pecuniary externalities may also play an important role in determining the concentration of industry in a specific geographic location. Pouder and St. John (1996) argue that clustered firms have a greater legitimacy than firms outside a cluster. Clusters can provide a critical mass to counterbalance the political influence of large firms and to increase the pressure for investments that affect the productivity of the cluster. Furthermore, competition within clusters increases productivity and new firm development (Porter 1998).V. The Entrepreneurial AspectsIntangible internationalization requires facilitating learning by its employees in order to constantly transform the firm. Implementing mechanisms to expand the knowledge base and to diffuse information should allow SMEs to increase their capacity to develop new goods and services, and to compete in new markets. Key characteristics of this type of internationalization are common interests, trust and openness that allow employees to challenge assumptions. Intangible internationalization is a more difficult international expansion, but it provides sustainable competitive advantages. Consequently, SMEs would become competitive by reducing their costs, introducing new products and expanding their potential markets.It is not possible to engage in tangible internationalization without having a minimum level of intangible internationalization or being competitive without some degree of valuable, rare, in-imitable, non-substitutable resources (Barney 1991). SMEs should aim for both types of internalization in order to take advantage of physical presence in foreign markets and constantly provide the incentives to facilitate learning, new organizational capabilities and processes.Firms have different combinations of internationalization. In order to analyze how SMEs can take advantage of both tangible and intangible internationalization, the foundation of the potential competitive advantages need to be identified. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how firms deliver products that have value for customers, but also to understand what makes these firms different from the rest (Hall 1998). I argue that there are three major categories of differential that have a strong impact on the nature of internationalization of SMEs. The first is called firm differential, and includes a) organizational (team level), b) managerial (individual level), c) physical endowment and d) technological capabilities differentials. The second category is based on the home country characteristics and it is called country differential. The final category,market differential, takes into consideration the specific features of local markets and industries. These differentials deeply influence the role of owner-manager. There are three basic approaches that a SME can adopt while anticipating and responding to the needs of its customers. The first one is the approach of the Schumpeterian entrepreneur (Schumpeter, 1934), a leader who breaks away from routine and introduces either new goods/services or new production processes for existing goods/services. The second one is related to Porter's (1980) concept of cost leadership even though Porter studied larger firms from developed countries. The last style of owner-manager is the Kirznerian entrepreneur, who is a person alert to opportunities (see figure 1). This type of role implies that the owner-manager acts as a broker in order to take advantage of over-optimistic or over-pessimistic reactions of economic agents (Kirzner 1973); therefore, the owner-manager will act "in regard to the changes occurring in the data of the markets" (Mises 1949: 255).ConclusionIn the business literature, internationalization involvement usually results from one of two factors: a) the firm possesses some monopolistic advantage that it can use in another country, or b) the host country owns resources that are valuable to the foreign firm. While these reasons may be necessary and sufficient conditions for larger companies, is not necessarily the case for SMEs whom have no option but to internationalization.Those two factors do not necessarily apply to SMEs because they need to become international even if they do not compete in international markets. The average level of competitiveness of SMEs is below that of multinational enterprises. SMEs are faced with international competition whether they decide to internationalize or to remain "local." Even SMEs providing non-tradable goods face a "demand side" pressure to meet the characteristic of similar product sell in other countries. SMEs may not have the time required, according to this model, to meet world-class standards. ReferencesAmit, R. and Schoemaker, P. (1993). "Strategic assets and organizational rent". Strategic Management Journal,14(1):33-46. Andrews, K. (1980). The concept of corporate strategy. Homewood, Irwin. Barney, J. (1991). ¨Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage.¨ Journal of Management, 17(1): 99-120. Bartunek, J. (1984). "Changing interpretative schemes and organizational restructuring: the example of a religion order." Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3):355-372. Child, J. (1972). "Organizational structure, environment and performance: the role of strategic choice". Sociology,6(1):1-22. Gnyawali, D. and Madhavan, R. (2001). "Cooperative networks and competitive dynamics: A structural embeddedness perspective." Academy of Management Review, 26(3):431-445. Grant, R. (1991). Contemporary Strategic Analysis: Concepts, Techniques, Application. Basil Blackwell, Cambridge, MA. Itami, H. and Roehl, T. (1987). "Mobilizing Invisible Assets". Harvard Business School Press. Kirzner, I. (1973). "Competition and entrepreneurship". University of Chicago Press, Krugman, P. (1991). "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography." The Journal of Political Economy, 99(3):483-499. Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of markets. Harvard Business Review, 61(May-June): 92-102. Levitt, B. and March, J. (1988)."Organizational Learning." Annual Review of Sociology, (14):319-340. Mahoney, J. and Pandian, R. (1992). "The Resource-Based View Within the Conversation of Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal, 13(5):363-380 . March, J. and Olsen, J.(1976). Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen: Universitetsforlaget. Marshall, A., (1961 (1890)). Principles of Economics. London: Macmillan. Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the article. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Mises, L. (1949). "Human action; a treatise on economics". Yale University Press. Montgomery, C. and Wernerfelt, B. (1988). "Diversification, Ricardian Rents, and Tobin's q". RAND Journal of Economics, 19(4):623-632. Penrose, E. (1959). The theory of the Growth of the Firm. John Wiley: New York. Penrose, E. (1972). The theory of the Growth of the Firm. Originally published in 1959, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Porter, M. (1998). On Competition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Porter, M. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Free Press: New York. Pouder, R. and St. John, C. (1996). "Hot Spots and Blind Spots: Geographical Clusters of Firms and Innovation."The Academy of Management Review, 21(4):1192-1225. Rumelt, R. (1991). "How much does Industry Matter?" Strategic Management Journal, 12(3):167-185. Schumpeter, J. (1934). The Theory of Economic Development. Harvard University Press. Teece, D. Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997). "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal, 18(7):509-533. Teece, D (1982). "Toward an economic theory of the multiproduct firm". Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3:39-63. Veloso, P. (1991). "International Competitiveness and the creation of an enabling environment." International competitiveness, ed. By Irfan ul Haque, pp. 29-36. Washington, DC: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank. Weick, K. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Wernerfelt, B. (1984). ¨A resource based view of the firm.¨ Strategic Management Journal, 5(2):171-180. Westley, F. 1990. "Middle Managers and Strategy: Microdynamics of Inclusion." Strategic Management Journal,11(5): 337-351. Yasuf, S. (2001). "Globalization and the Challenge for Developing Countries." Policy ArticleWorking Paper 2618, the World Bank Yip, G. (2003). Total Global Strategy II. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Sobre el autorCoordinador Académico de Finanzas FACS, Universidad ORT Uruguay

Andehrs Behring Breivik no encaja en ninguna categoría existente de actuación violenta o política. Como lo revela su manifiesto, que dará que hablar durante años, Breivik es un terrorista sui generis.Brevemente, Breivik es un joven noruego que el pasado viernes cometió dos ataques terroristas. En el primero detonó una bomba en el distrito gubernamental de Oslo. En el segundo apareció disfrazado de policía en una pequeña isla donde se celebraba una reunión anual de las juventudes del Partido Laborista del país, y atacó a la multitud con armas y municiones de guerra.El manifiesto que el agresor envió a algunos miles de contactos horas antes de cometer el ataque es una obra sin precedentes en la historia de la acción criminal e ideológica. En primer lugar, el texto suma más de mil quinientas páginas, de las cuales Breivik es el autor de más de la mitad. En segundo lugar, la obra está escrita en perfecto inglés, con el objetivo expreso de difundir la ideología ahí presentada a la mayor cantidad de personas posible. En tercer lugar, los contenidos del trabajo son muy variados y llegan a un nivel de detalle inaudito. Este último aspecto es lo que hace de Breivik y su manifiesto algo extraordinario. Entre otras cosas, el lector encontrará:Una exposición detallada de la ideología política del autor (a la cual llama "Cultural conservatism or a nationalist/conservative direction"), con discusiones sobre Antonio Gramsci, György Lukács, Karl Marx, la historia del comunismo, tablas estadísticas sobre la demografía europea y otros elementos.Una descripción de los orígenes de la organización que pretende tener detrás, la Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici o PCCTS. El nombre es el término en latín para la orden medieval monástica y militar más conocida como los Templarios.Una guía meticulosa sobre cómo comprar los ingredientes para la elaboración de explosivos, así como su preparación, su detonación en ensayos, e incluso dónde y cómo esconderlos.Una guía similar para la obtención de armas, con discusiones de diversas fuentes como la mafia albanesa o la rusa. También explica cómo preparar una armadura de combate, así como los principios del combate urbano con armas de fuego.Una bitácora de su "trabajo" desde 2002 en adelante, que incluye su dieta con detalles sobre su ingestión de proteínas y su rutina diaria.Un presupuesto de toda su "obra" desde ese año en adelante. Breivik afirma haber invertido €317.000 a lo largo de una década en su "proyecto".Instrucciones para la construcción de su epitafio.Instrucciones para la implementación de un sistema de medallas, uniformes y ritos para la orden neo-templaria, con diagramas, nombres y criterios para la aplicación de cada una.Pasos básicos de contra-inteligencia para evitar ser detectado.Un currículum vitae completo.No hay cuestiones de menor importancia para Breivik: el ensayo también incluye discusiones detalladas sobre el estado actual de la educación terciaria en Estados Unidos y Europa, extensas explicaciones sobre la teología y la historia islámica, críticas hacia las letras del hip-hop misógino estadounidense, listas de canciones inspiradoras, etc. Una enorme proporción de los textos, como el propio Breivik admite, son de autores con argumentos válidos y que están muy lejanos de promover o aceptar actos de violencia como el suyo.El cuadro que ofrece la lectura de este ensayo es de una persona de una enorme inteligencia, capacidad de organización y, sobre todo, disciplina. Breivik es un individuo altamente preparado física y mentalmente para la grotesca tarea que se propuso. Tal como indica su ensayo, ya tiene preparados los discursos que realizará en su juicio, que pretende que sea altamente público. Antes de lanzar su ataque ya tenía decidido qué criterios aplicaría con el abogado que le asignara el estado, lo que le contestará al juez y demás quienes le digan que es un criminal psicótico, y cómo planea que termine el juicio.Esto último hace que sea poco probable que aparezcan otros Breiviks – aunque sigue siendo posible. Resulta simplemente increíble que pueda haber otro individuo que comparta la misma ideología hasta el mismo nivel de compromiso, y que sobre todo elija seguir el mismo camino.Breivik se ve a sí mismo como una persona fuertemente politizada, por lo cual es necesario discutirlo en esos términos. De los primeros que surgen apuradamente en los medios –seguramente por no haber leído el manuscrito-, no se aplica casi ninguno. Breivik no es nacionalsocialista o "neo-nazi"; tampoco es asimilable al Unabomber (por más que haya coincidencias en sus textos), ni al Ku Klux Klan o a los partidos nacionalistas europeos.De hecho, quizá la forma más correcta de definir a Breivik es resucitando el significado verdadero de un término muy abusado: "de derecha". Breivik ha elegido responder a la amenaza que percibe en Europa, que es sin dudas el Islam, con un remedio neo-medieval. En su ensayo, Breivik postula que la forma óptima de organización política en Europa debe estar basada en la monarquía, y no en repúblicas:"The king or queen of a country is more democratic than a president ever could be because he or she represents all citizens." (el original no es de Breivik).El noruego está a favor de la fusión de todas las iglesias bajo el Papa nuevamente, aún siendo él mismo luterano (no practicante, a diferencia de lo que sugieren los medios). La nueva mega-Iglesia tendría un monopolio público de la religión, así como acceso privilegiado a los contenidos de la educación y los medios. Su visión de una sociedad conservadora es esta: "Ladies should be wives and homemakers, not cops or soldiers (…) Children should not be born out of wedlock. Glorification of homosexuality should be shunned."Aunque Breivik dedica literalmente cientos de páginas a textos sobre la historia de la violencia islámica contra Europa (y también sobre el caso opuesto), en ningún momento menciona los más de mil años de calamidades, miseria y sufrimiento humano que fueron consecuencia directa del sistema medieval-monárquico-eclesiástico.El principal objetivo de Breivik y sus "templarios" es la erradicación de la presencia del Islam en Europa a través de tres modalidades. La primera es la conversión al cristianismo (incluyendo como variable su creación intelectual más débil, los cristianismos "agnóstico" y "ateo"). Esta vía tiene clarísimos componentes anti-liberales y anti-democráticos, ya que los musulmanes conversos deberían renunciar a sus nombres, idiomas, vínculos con sus países de origen (incluso por vía electrónica) y otras cuestiones básicas. Para Breivik, incluso será necesario que "All traces of Islamic culture in Europe will be eradicated, even locations considered historical" – algo por definición poco "conservador".Además, Breivik no tiene ilusiones sobre el "liberalismo islámico": "to take the violence out of Islam would require it to jettison two things: the Quran as the word of Allah and Muhammad as Allah's prophet. In other words, to pacify Islam would require its transformation into something that it is not."La segunda modalidad de erradicación del Islam es la limpieza cultural, que consistiría de deportaciones o expulsiones (Breivik menciona muchos modelos, incluyendo las gigantescas ordenadas por Stalin). La última es la exterminación.Es en referencia a esto último que Breivik dedica un pasaje a discutir a Adolf Hitler y el nacionalsocialismo. El autor se aleja de estos claramente, aunque por razones muy diferentes de las del ciudadano común. Su explicación es que la "causa" nacionalsocialista y el liderazgo de Hitler destruyeron a los nacionalismos europeos por más de un siglo (es decir, hasta bien entrado el siglo XXI), porque optaron directamente por el camino de la exterminación. El resultado fue una guerra que terminó en derrota, y la entrega del continente al bolchevismo y uno de sus herederos, la socialdemocracia multicultural.Esto explica una de las principales diferencias entre Breivik y el movimiento neo-nacionalsocialista es su posición respecto a Israel y los judíos. El terrorista noruego interpreta al estado israelí como un modelo a seguir de "reunión nacional" étnica, y simpatiza enormemente con su lucha anti-jihad. Ergo, para Breivik se trata de un aliado ante un enemigo en común. El mismo principio aplica Breivik, quien se define como anti-racista, a las alianzas que propone con asiáticos orientales, hindúes y otros con tal de luchar contra el Islam.A quien sí defiende Breivik abiertamente es a Slobodan Milosevic. De hecho, el noruego argumenta que fueron los ataques de la OTAN a la Serbia de ese dictador genocida lo que primero despertó su instinto conservador. Esa podría ser una pista significativa para entender el rompecabezas ideológico del agresor, ya que las dos intervenciones internacionales en Yugoslavia ocurrieron antes del Once de septiembre, que es el gran disparador de la actual preocupación por la jihad entre muchos occidentales.En la visión de Breivik, quizá el sistema de organización social ideal sería elapartheid, pero a diferencia del caso de Sudáfrica, no dentro de un país. Para él, los judíos deberían haber sido expulsados de Europa en los 1930s; ahora deberían ser expulsados los musulmanes. El autor incluso menciona los casos de países de Asia Oriental del presente, como Corea del Sur y Japón, como ejemplos de naciones étnicamente homogéneas y prósperas. Evidentemente, Breivik es una persona que piensa en términos profundamente colectivistas. No hay derechos individuales para las personas que no forman parte de su grupo. Esta forma de concebir el mundo, sumada a la forma en que Breivik se presenta como líder de un movimiento ideológico violento, lo hacen similar a figuras como Lenin, Hitler, Mao, el Che Guevara u Osama bin Laden.De hecho, como todo pretendiente a líder carismático, Breivik incluye en su manifiesto instrucciones para tener preparadas fotografías en las que el atacante se "vea bien", pensando en el momento en el cual su rostro sea visto por el mundo – tal como está ocurriendo ahora. Así se lo propuso Breivik: "As a Justiciar Knight you will go into history as one of the most influential individuals of your time. So you need to look your absolute best and ensure that you produce quality marketing material prior to operation." El texto incluso recomienda utilizar una cama solar y aplicarse maquillaje antes de tomarse las fotografías.El aspecto más sorprendente del planteo de Breivik es el blanco que escogió para su ataque. Al leer el inmenso manifiesto y contrastarlo con los hechos de los días pasados, es inevitable quedarse con la sensación de que fue todo una excusa para perpetrar un acto de extrema violencia contra jóvenes inocentes (y desarmados, por supuesto). El manifiesto incluso lo admite con una subsección entera: "The cruel nature of our operations". Breivik explica que aunque el enemigo objetivo es el Islam en Europa, el objetivo inmediato son los europeos que han trabajado durante cerca de medio siglo para que exista esa presencia islámica en la región.Estos son, para el noruego, los multiculturalistas, marxistas y demás miembros de una suerte de élite europea. De hecho, su objetivo explícito es que para el año 2020 ocurran golpes de estado en diversos países de Europa occidental (junto con la abolición de la Unión Europea), de modo de instalar regímenes conservadores que trabajen para la eliminación simultánea del marxismo multicultural y del Islam.Estas élites y su "political correctness" son las responsables, para Breivik, de que no se puedan discutir abiertamente cuestiones que preocupan a un nacionalista conservador como él. La principal de ellas es la presencia de musulmanes en Europa. La sección tres del manifiesto es fundamental, porque tras más de 750 páginas de "diagnóstico" sobre el estado actual de Europa, el autor quiebra con todos los demás que citó y anuncia su alejamiento de la vía pacífica. Por ejemplo, en la página 791 aparece, como un subtítulo más, un anuncio importante: "Why armed resistance against the cultural Marxist/multiculturalist regimes of Western Europe is the only rational approach".De hecho, en esa sección hay varias páginas dedicadas a enunciar los cargos legales que se le imputan a multiplicidad de líderes europeos. Como parte de su gigantesca acusación contra el sistema político-social europeo de posguerra, Breivik incluso ofrece cálculos específicos de las cantidades de europeos cuyos derechos han sido violados de diversas maneras por los efectos de esas políticos, que van desde la violación y el asesinato hasta los despidos de personas. Todos se imputan, en conjunto y criminalmente, a estas "élites" cuya muerte se anuncia poco a poco.En lugar de estas personas aparecerá, en palabras de Breivik, un "cultural conservative tribunal" en cada país que implemente un nuevo régimen político. Como parte de esta iniciativa, aparecen mencionadas casualmente algunas medidas atroces: "All Muslims are to be immediately deported to their country of origin. Each family (family head) will receive 25 000 Euro providing they accept the deportation terms. Anyone who violently resists deportation will be executed". Breivik también prevé compensaciones financieras para los sujetos que fueron "víctimas intelectuales" del sistema previo, así como específicamente para los ciudadanos de Serbia por el bombardeo de OTAN. También incluye los parámetros de su propia "ley de medios", por utilizar un desafortunado término rioplatense, que implica la imposición de cuotas de periodistas e intelectuales "conservadores" y nacionalistas en diversas organizaciones mediáticas.El método que ha elegido Breivik, conscientemente sin duda, es similar al viejo anarquismo de la propaganda por el hecho, que consiste de atacantes solitarios que cometen actos espectaculares de demostración e inspiración ideológica. El noruego llama a su campaña de violencia "A Declaration of pre-emptive War" contra sus dos enemigos. Breivik indica claramente que aquellos que existan como él actualmente en Europa son pocos pero que están en aumento; su ataque está pensado para encender la chispa de la conmoción en la región, lo cual incluiría también la aparición de más adeptos. Tácticamente, el ataque del pasado viernes 22 de julio en Noruega es definido por su autor como "military shock attacks by clandestine cell systems".Hay más pasajes que directamente preanuncian el ataque que Breivik escogió lanzar: "consider making use of a remote detonation, (…) to attract attention to one location. Ensure that the enemy forces are heading for this location. By then, you will be on the opposite side of town and in the middle of the process of finishing your primary goal." El blanco se vuelve cada vez más específico: el primero de la lista que hay en el manifiesto es "political parties - cultural Marxist/multiculturalist political parties."En el apartado correspondiente a este tipo de organización, el primer país detallado es Noruega, y el primer partido que aparece ahí es el "Norwegian Labour Party". Más adelante, nuevamente en primer lugar entre una lista de blancos, dice que un blanco primario es: "the annual party meeting of the socialist/social democrat party in your country."Curiosamente, aunque Breivik propone algunas formas de organización colectiva (como la neo-templaria), sus instrucciones para los actos de terrorismo son estrictas respecto a que las células deben ser individuales. Es por eso que Breivik el terrorista pasó desapercibido, a juzgar por la información disponible, incluso en los círculos nacionalistas no violentos.De los nueve miembros que supuestamente asistieron en 2002 a la reunión fundacional en Londres de la organización neo-templaria (todos anónimos), cuatro son descritos como "cristiano ateo" o "cristiano agnóstico". El propio Breivik está muy indeciso respecto a su religión: "I'm not going to pretend I'm a very religious person as that would be a lie (…) I consider myself to be 100% Christian (…) I'm not an excessively religious man". Sería interesante saber qué opinaría Hugues de Payens, fundador de la orden original, respecto a esta falta de disciplina teológica (que en realidad es una ausencia total). Son sin ninguna duda los nombres de estos nueve miembros iniciales, y de otros, lo que más están buscando los servicios de inteligencia de varios estados europeos.La visión del mundo de Breivik está claramente influenciada por el pensamiento colectivista, y su propia obra parece aproximarse a un sistema de pensamiento que podría llamarse ideológico. Es por eso que es posible concluir que no se trata de un lunático desequilibrado que pertenece a un manicomio. Es peor que eso: una persona que en todo momento supo lo que hacía, que se preparó durante años para hacerlo, y que desplegó un alto nivel de meticulosidad para lograrlo. Hasta el efecto de su ataque está pensado desde hace años: "The art of asymmetrical warfare is less about inflicting immediate damage but all about the indirect long term psychological and ideological damage. Our shock attacks are theatre and theatre is always performed for an audience".Las descripciones más personales de Breivik son reveladoras del grado de control que tenía sobre sí mismo: "I have managed to stay focused and highly motivated for a duration of more than 9 years now (…) I have never been happier than I am today (…) I do a mental check almost every day through meditation and philosophizing (…) I simulate various future scenarios relating to resistance efforts, confrontations with police, future interrogation scenarios, future court appearances, future media interviews etc".El objetivo de Breivik es la fundación de una nueva cadena de nacionalismos post-nazis en Europa, y es importante que ese proyecto fracase. El autor concibió un "100 year plan to contribute to seize political power in Western European countries currently controlled by anti-nationalists" (de ahí el título de su manifiesto: 2083). En sus planes más delirantes hacia el futuro, Breivik menciona todo tipo de planes, desde el robo y la detonación de armas nucleares en las capitales europeas hasta la colaboración con Al-Qaeda, el gobierno de Irán, y otros terroristas islámicos.Como se dijo anteriormente, el manifiesto es increíblemente largo y contiene todo tipo de cosas. Hay discusiones muy detalladas sobre la niñez ("My best friend for many years, a Muslim"), adolescencia (incluyendo encuentros con pandillas pakistaníes y un pasado como "graffiti artist") y juventud del autor, con descripciones (con nombres) de sus amigos y hasta las vidas sexuales de sus familiares más cercanos. Hay planes para la importación de inmigrantes en la era "post-islámica" de Europa, con detalles sobre los horarios, la compensación, las localidades y más. Breivik tiene hasta pensado cuál será el nuevo himno de Europa. También explica que él no fue el fundador de la organización neo-templaria, sino el octavo miembro (algo que recuerda a la historia de Adolf Hitler y su ingreso al NSDAP), y que a través de ella conoció a un criminal de guerra serbio en Liberia. Su mentor fue un inglés, fundador de la organización y sin duda un importantísimo blanco para la inteligencia doméstica británica en este mismo momento.Actualmente el "caso Breivik" se encuentra en una etapa que el propio terrorista ya tiene planeada desde hace años: "Your arrest will mark the initiation of the propaganda phase. Your trial offers you a stage to the world (…) A Justiciar Knight is not only a valorous resistance fighter, a one man army; he is a one man marketing agency as well". El terrorista está muy consciente de la opinión que el mundo se ha formado sobre él, y ya ha recorrido mentalmente el camino para superar el ostracismo de su causa: "It might sound completely ridiculous and funny to most people today. But by presenting the following accusations and demands in all seriousness we are indirectly conditioning everyone listening for the conflicts and scenarios ahead. They will laugh today, but in the back of their minds, they have an ounce of fear, respect and admiration for our cause and the alternative and authority we represent".Breivik no es un criminal o incluso un terrorista común. Es una figura nefasta con una ideología totalmente nueva. Es muy importante conocer los términos ideológicos y metodológicos en los que operó, porque existe una preocupante posibilidad de que haya otros como él en el futuro.*Licenciado en Estudios Internacionales - Universidad ORT Uruguay Candidato al Master of Arts in Security Studies - Georgetown University

Las críticasEn el marco de este derrotero por el que ha pasado la tesis de la Paz Democrática, se han montado diversos ángulos de críticas hacia la misma. Una primera vertiente destaca la implausibilidad de las explicaciones que intentan dar cuenta de la supuesta "ley". Así por ejemplo se ha señalado que en momentos de crisis aún en las democracias se produce una reducción del tamaño en el círculo decisor final. O que los dirigentes de los estados no democráticos también enfrentan condicionamientos de índole institucional o por parte de grupos de poder a los que están vinculados. O, incluso, que la opinión pública no es necesariamente una fuerza pacificadora. Asimismo, una crítica de índole realista se refiere a la escasez histórica de democracias que se traduce en pocas oportunidades de conflicto (Peñas, 1997: 133).Otro ángulo ha sido la existencia de serios problemas en la recolección y clasificación de los datos que sustentan la tesis. Su génesis yace en buena medida en la definición de los dos conceptos centrales detrás de la idea de la Paz Democrática: la democracia y la guerra. Sobre el concepto de "democracia" se advierten importantes diferencias en los criterios constitutivos del mismo. ¿Qué es una democracia? ¿Qué rasgos la definen? ¿Cuál es su condición? ¿Son éstas frágiles? Además, existen discrepancias entre las bases de datos y/o bien calificaciones bastante arbitrarias como por ejemplo la consideración en la basePolity II de Francia entre los años 1981 y 1986 como una "anocracia", mientras que El Salvador de la misma época, enfrascado en una cruenta guerra civil sí figuraba como "democracia".En cuanto a las guerras, el criterio de selección de datos más aceptado fue el implementado por Small y Singer que consiste en catalogar como guerra internacional a un conflicto que involucra uno o más participantes estatales y que provoca un mínimo de mil víctimas. Esto excluye intervenciones violentas que causan menos víctimas, pero no por ello políticamente menos significativas o bien las operaciones encubiertas (Salomón, 2001: 247). Tampoco ésta conceptualización da cuenta de las tendencias más modernas en los conflictos internacionales, entre las que se destaca la caída relativa de las disputas interestatales frente a las intraestatales ). En definitiva, "[lo] que caracteriza a nuestros días no es la desaparición de la violencia del sistema internacional ni la ausencia del recurso a la fuerza por parte de los Estados, sino la disminución del número de guerras formalmente declaradas y el aumento de guerras de guerrillas, guerras a través de terceros, subversión interior de los Estados instigada por otros Estados, acciones encubiertas, etc., menos costosas y que no necesitan ser justificadas, por lo menos tanto como una declaración formal de guerra" (Peñas, 1997: 135). Asimismo, los estudios cuantitativos en general han olvidado distinguir entre agresores y agredidos, o también la medición de la intensidad de la guerra (determinar si las democracias causan más muertes que otros Estados). La tesis de la Paz Democrática a su vez no ha logrado dar respuesta a ciertas anomalías que denotan la existencia de variables perturbadoras. Una anomalía es la existencia de zonas de paz en regiones del mundo donde no todas las sociedades son democráticas, como es el caso de América del Sur. Otra es que la correlación entre paz y democracia es más fuerte en el período posterior a la Segunda Guerra Mundial (Farber y Gowa, 1995). Este tipo de anomalías ha llevado a que explicaciones alternativas cobren fuerza. Entre estas, la más destacada es la teoría de Comunidades de Seguridad Pluralistas de Karl Deutsch (1957) que refiere a zonas donde sus miembros tienen la certeza de que sus disputas no se resolverán por medio de la fuerza. También se advierten reajustes y matizaciones de la tesis que debilitan su poder. Un ejemplo es la afirmación de Raymond Cohen (1994) de que la única conclusión razonables es que "los Estados democráticos del área del Atlántico Norte/Europa occidental, compartiendo una serie de circunstancias históricas particulares y una herencia cultural común, han evitado enfrentarse en una guerra" (en Peñas, 1997: 134). Asimismo, es posible encontrar evidencia en contra. Es el caso de la investigación de Charles Kegley y Margaret Hermann (1996) que arroja el interesante resultado de quince casos de intervención militar con uso de la fuerza, entre 1975 y 1995, por parte de democracias estables contra otras democracias estables, de las cuales ocho de ellas correspondían a intervenciones estadounidenses. Más recientemente, Thomas Schwartz y Kiron Skinner (2002: 160-161) identificaron un listado de conflictos que contrarían la tesis o están muy próximos a hacerlo y que hacen a lo que ellos llaman el "problema histórico" de la Paz Democrática:American Revolutionary War, 1775 (Great Britain vs. U.S.)Wars of French Revolution (democratic period), esp. 1793, 1795 (France vs. Great Britain)Quasi War, 1798 (U.S. vs. France)War of 1812 (U.S. vs. Great Britain)Texas War of Independence, 1835 (Texas vs. Mexico)Mexican War, 1846 (U.S. vs. Mexico)Roman Republic vs. France, 1849American Civil War, 1861 (Northern Union vs. Southern Confederacy)Ecuador-Columbia War, 1863Franco-Prussian War, 1870War of the Pacific, 1879 (Chile vs. Peru and Bolivia)Indian Wars, much of nineteenth century (U.S. vs. various Indian nations)Spanish-American War, 1898Boer War, 1899 (Great Britain vs. Transvaal and Orange Free State)World War I, 1914 (Germany vs. Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, and U.S.)Chaco War, 1932 (Paraguay vs. Bolivia)Ecuador-Peru, 1941Palestine War, 1948 (Israel vs. Lebanon)Dominican Invasion, 1967 (U.S. vs. Dominican Republic)Cyprus Invasion, 1974 (Turkey vs. Cyprus)Ecuador-Peru, 1981Nagorno-Karabakh, 1989 (Armenia vs. Azerbaijan)Yugoslav Wars, 1991 (Serbia and Bosnian-Serb Republic vs. Croatiaand Bosnia; sometimes Croatia vs. Bosnia)Georgia-Ossetia, 1991 (Georgia vs. South Ossetia)Georgia-Abkhazia, 1992 (Georgia vs. Abkhazia and allegedly Russia)Moldova-Dnestr Republic, 1992 (Moldova vs. Dnestr Republic and allegedly Russia)Chechen War of Independence, 1994 (Russia vs. Chechnya)Ecuador-Peru, 1995NATO-Yugoslavia, 1999India-Pakistan, 1999 Como se advierte, la teoría de la Paz Democrática se enfrenta a problemas tanto de índole empírica como de índole explicativa. Frente a este tipo de críticas, las reacciones se han dividido entre las defensivas (Maoz, 1997), las que han ignorado los hallazgos, las que han empezado a considerar otros factores (Russett, 1998) y las que se han dedicado a verificar su validez mediante estudios de casos (Elman, 1997). En definitiva, el debate ha sido prolífico y entre una de sus evoluciones más interesantes es la que ha recomendado evitar "las dicotomías simplistas y estudiar el mayor número posible de interacciones entre factores de conflicto internos e internacionales" (Salomón, 2001: 253).La materialización política de la Paz DemocráticaEn el contexto del "optimismo liberal" despertado por el colapso soviético y el fin de la guerra fría, la tesis de la Paz Democrática suscitó gran entusiasmo, sobre todo entre aquellos estudiosos de las Relaciones Internacionales que ansiaban acabar con la hegemonía retórica del realismo-neorrealismo en la disciplina. Como señala Peñas (1997: 130), "la gran virtud de esta tesis (…) es que en su discurso disuelve o reconcilia la escisión entre principios e intereses: una política de extensión de las democracias de libre mercado es a la vez una política éticamente justa y políticamente adecuada". Por tanto, el corolario político de la tesis de la Paz Democrática no es otro que la presunción de que el imperio de la paz y la cooperación internacionales requieren de la democratización de los Estados en el Sistema Internacional. Esto ha dado lugar al plano prescriptivo de los teóricos de la Paz Democrática. El más destacado en este sentido ha sido Russett al recomendar al gobierno en Washington la activa promoción democrática en base a las "pruebas sólidas de que las democracias no se hacen la guerra entre sí". Su propuesta se cuida de no alentar intervenciones militares unilaterales, sino apoyadas y legitimadas por organizaciones como la ONU o la OEA; y sus preceptos, en efecto, se materializaron durante la administración Clinton en la estrategia de Engagement y Enlargement ("compromiso y expansión"), en la que primacía global estadounidense, democracia y libre mercado caminaron de la mano.Pero lejos está de ser la Paz Democrática algo reciente o coyuntural en el discurso de política exterior de Estados Unidos. John Ikenberry sostiene que "[the] American preoccupation with promoting democracy abroad fits into a larger view about the sources of a stable, legitimate, secure, and prosperous international order. This outlook may not always be the chief guiding principle of policy, and it may sometimes lead to error. Still, it is a relatively coherent orientation rooted in the American political experience and American understandings of history, economics, and the sources of political stability" (Ikenberry, 1999). Sus orígenes políticos se remontan, claro es, a Woodrow Wilson quien en 1917 señaló: "A steadfast concert of peace can never be maintained except by a partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic government could be trusted to keep faith within it or observe its covenants". De acuerdo con el análisis de Henry Kissinger (1995), Wilson retomó postulados ya volcados en su momento por Thomas Jefferson, a saber: a) que la misión especial de Estados Unidos trasciende la diplomacia cotidiana, y los obliga a servir como faro de libertad para el resto de la humanidad, y b) que la política exterior de las democracias es moralmente superior porque el pueblo es, en esencia, amante de la paz. Esta misma línea de argumentación fue bien visible en la prédica de Harry Truman sobre las naciones libres, en la visión maníquea del "Imperio del Mal" de Ronald Reagan y, además del mencionado Clinton, más recientemente en las administraciones Bush (h) y Obama, como puede verse en los siguientes extractos obtenidos de distintos documentos estratégicos. Estamos en presencia por tanto de una constante de política exterior estadounidense.A National Security Strategy for a New Century, October 1998."…We seek international support in helping strengthen democratic and free market institutions and norms in countries making the transition from closed to open societies. This commitment to see freedom and respect for human rights take hold is not only just, but pragmatic, for strengthened democratic institutions benefit the United States and the world" (p. 33).The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, September 2002."…We will (…) use our foreign aid to promote freedom and support those who struggle non-violently for it, ensuring that nations moving toward democracy are rewarded for the steps they take (…) [and we will] make freedom and the development of democratic institutions key themes in our bilateral relations, seeking solidarity andcooperation from other democracies while we press governments that deny human rights to move toward a better future" (p. 4).National Security Strategy, May 2010."… The United States supports the expansion of democracy and human rights abroad because governments that respect these values are more just, peaceful, and legitimate. We also do so because their success abroad fosters an environment that supports America's national interests. Political systems that protect universal rights are ultimately more stable, successful, and secure. As our history shows, the United States can more effectively forge consensus to tackle shared challenges when working with governments that reflect the will and respect the rights of their people, rather than just the narrow interests of those in power" (p. 37).Esta prédica democrática, sin embargo, pareciera marchar a contramano de ciertas realidades. Señala Peñas, "la historia demuestra que las islas liberales no sólo han hecho la guerra por doquier, sino que además han sido responsables de un alto grado de militarización del mundo y han contribuido significativamente a la militarización y los conflictos entre los Estados no democráticos: esta militarización podría poner en peligro la paz democrática que el liberalismo propugna" (Peñas, 1997: 136). Estados Unidos, una de las democracias más importantes a nivel mundial (sino la más), posee en particular una historia reciente de retroalimentación entre militarización y conflictividad en el Tercer Mundo. Vale recordar, cómo a través de la CIA, Washington ayudó armar a la red al-Qaeda para combatir a la ocupación soviética de Afganistán en la década del '80, lo que a la postre generó una guerra civil en dicho país y el surgimiento de un importante enemigo en la figura de Osama Bin Laden, o bien el apoyo a Saddam Hussein durante la guerra irano-iraquí por aquellos mismos años en coexistencia casi paradojal con la venta encubierta de armamento a Irán —destinada a su vez a financiar la guerra sucia de los Contras nicaragüenses contra el gobierno revolucionario sandinista. La invasión a Iraq en marzo de 2003 y el posterior caos del país, también constituye un buen ejemplo del fracaso y los peligros que conlleva la aplicación de una retórica democrático-mesiánica a través de la manu militari.Ciertamente, el repaso de estos eventos despierta temores si se contempla el actual caso de Libia. Allí, la intervención bajo autorización del Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas para frenar la crisis humanitaria en curso en el país, por iniciativa de Francia, Estados Unidos, Italia, Gran Bretaña y España (todas democracias), se ha convertido en una operación liderada por la OTAN, donde se está financiando y proveyendo a las fuerzas insurgentes opositoras a Kadafy y en la que el objetivo del cambio de régimen parece cada vez más claro (van Tijen, 2011). A pesar del importante despliegue de poder aéreo y naval, la balanza del conflicto parece no sólo equilibrada sino estancada, contrariando las expectativas iniciales de los mandos políticos y militares occidentales, lo que a su vez augura una potencial inestabilidad en el corto y mediano plazo para todo el Magreb. ¿Es esta la clase de escenario regional que desea la comunidad internacional? ¿Es esto lo que pretenden las principales democracias occidentales? Difícilmente.Resulta por tanto un desafío tan grande como imperioso el lograr romper con la trampa entre democracia, militarización y conflictividad en aumento. Más aún si se advierten datos tan desalentadores como el tamaño del gasto militar de Estados Unidos, el cual eclipsa el gasto correspondiente al resto de las potencias y regiones del planeta.Tal contrariedad entre discurso pacífico-democrático y los hechos, en parte, se explica porque el objetivo estadounidense de la difusión de la democracia liberal a nivel mundial no es el único que compone su política exterior. Existen otros intereses (de seguridad, económicos, poder, etc.) y los medios para conseguirlos no siempre son pacíficos, ni justificables. Desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la política exterior estadounidense ha oscilado entre métodos como la negociación, disuasión, unilateralismo y multilateralismo (Barceló Sasía, 2006: 64). En este marco, por momentos el discurso político de la Paz Democrática ha generado la impresión de actuar más como una mera justificación retórica, como un auxilio para encubrir ideológicamente motivaciones de otro orden, antes que como el verdadero leit motif de las acciones emprendidas.Reflexión finalEn definitiva, la Paz Democrática, la idea de que las democracias no guerrean entre sí, cuyo corolario nos dice que la construcción de estados democráticos promueve la estabilidad en las relaciones internacionales, resulta una sugestiva noción desprendida del Liberalismo cuya corroboración científica, a pesar de las frases pomposas que puedan emitirse sobre su certeza y fiabilidad, se encuentra aún en juego. Siendo una tesis por demás atractiva, defendida y cuestionada en el mundo académico, resulta aún más trascendente su estudio dada su cristalización fáctica como supuesto criterio guía en el comportamiento exterior de los Estados democráticos más poderosos a nivel internacional. Los dilemas que ello entraña no son menores, como los intentos recientes y actuales de "democratizar" Medio Oriente y el Mundo Árabe nos recuerdan. Dobles discursos —morales de doble-standard de acuerdo con la célebre crítica de Stanley Hoffman— parecen conjugar anhelos democráticos con intereses geopolíticos y/o geoeconómicos, o más bien encubrir estos últimos bajo el manto de los primeros. En el medio, se resuelven y dirimen en el tablero mundial las corrientes de cambio pacífico o revolucionario, de progreso democrático o de restauración autocrática, las viejas lógicas de poder, de conquista y de influencia, la estabilidad internacional, el porvenir de la guerra y las sombras de la paz. *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín (UNSAM, Argentina). Investigador del Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios en Problemáticas Internacionales y Locales (CEIPIL-UNCPBA).Referencias BibliográficasBabst, Dean: "Elective Governments - A Force for Peace", The Wisconsin Sociologist, No. 3 (1964), pp. 9-14.Barceló Sasía, Alejandra: Anti-americanismo: ¿Problema de percepción o de formulación de política exterior? (Puebla: Universidad de las Américas Puebla, 2006). Bremer, Stuart A.: "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 36 (1992), pp. 309-341.Chan, Steve: "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall. Are the Freer Countries More Pacific?" Journal of Conjlict Resolution,No. 28 (1984), pp. 617-648. Cohen, Raymond: "Pacific unions: a reappraisal of the theory that 'democracies do not go to war with each other'", Review of International Studies, No. 20 (1994), pp. 202-232.Deutsch, Karl: Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).Doyle, Michael: "Kant, Liberal Legacies and Foreign Affairs, Part I & Part II", Philosophy & Public Affairs, No.12 (1983), pp. 205-235 y 323-353.Doyle, Michael: "Liberalism and World Politics", The American Political Science Review, Vol. 80, No. 4 (Dec. 1986).Elman, Miriam Fendius (ed.): Paths to Peace. Is Democracy the Answer? (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1997).Farber, Henry & Joan Gowa: "Polities and Peace", International Security, No. 20 (1995), pp. 123-146.Harrison, Ewan: "State Socialization, International Norm Dynamics and the Liberal Peace",International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 521-542.Hewitt, J. Joseph, Jonathan Wilkenfeld & Ted Robert Gurr: Peace and Conflict 2008. Executive Summary (College Park, MD: CIDCM, University of Maryland, 2008).Ikenberry, John: "Why Export Democracy?: The 'Hidden Grand Strategy' of American Foreign Policy", The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 23, no. 2 (Spring 1999).Kant, Immanuel: La Paz Perpetua (Buenos Aires: Longseller, 2001).Kegley, Charles & Margaret Hermann: "How Democracies Use Intervention: A Neglected Dimension in Studies of the Democratic Peace", Journal of Peace Research, No. 33 (1996), pp. 309-322.Kissinger, Henry: La Diplomacia (México: Fondo de cultura económica, 1995).Levy, Jack: "Domestic Politics and War", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, No. 18 (1988), pp. 653-673.MacMillan, John: "Whose Democracy; Which Peace? Contextualizing the Democratic Peace",International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 472-493.Maoz, Zeev & Nasrin Abdolali: "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1817-1976", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 33 (1989), pp. 3-35.Maoz, Zeev: "The Controversy over the Democratic Peace", International Security, No. 22 (1997), pp. 162-198.Peceny, Mark: "A Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Peace: The Ambiguous Case of the Spanish-American War", Journal of Peace Research, No. 34 (1997), pp. 415-430.Peñas, Francisco Javier: "Liberalismo y relaciones internacionales: la tesis de la paz democrática y sus críticos", Isegoría, Núm. 16 (1997), pp.119-140.Rendall, Matthew: "'The Sparta and the Athens of our Age at Daggers Drawn': Polities, Perceptions, and Peace", International Politics, No. 41 (2004), pp. 582-604.Risse-Kappen, Thomas: "Democratic Peace - Warlike Democracies? A Social Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Argument", European Journal of International Relations, No. 1 (1995), pp. 491-517.Rummel, Rudolph: "Libertarianism and Interstate Violence", Journal of Conflict Resolution, No. 27 (1983), pp. 27-71.Russett, Bruce: "A neo-Kantian perspective: democracy, interdependence, and international organizations in building security communities", en Emanuel Adler & Michael Barnett (eds.):Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Russett, Bruce: Grasping the Democratic Peace (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).Salomón, Mónica: "El debate sobre la «paz democrática». Una aproximación crítica", Revista de Estudios Políticos (Nueva Época), Núm. 113 (Julio-Septiembre 2001), pp. 237-265.Schwartz, Thomas & Kiron K. Skinner: "The Myth of the Democratic Peace", Orbis (Winter 2002), pp. 159-172.Small, Melvin & David Singer: "The War-Proneness of Democratic Regimes", Jerusalem Journal of International Relations, No. 1 (1976), pp. 50-69.Snyder, Jack: "Un mundo, teorías rivales", Foreign Policy edición española (dic.-enero 2005).Tovar Ruíz, Juan: "De Königsberg a Kosovo. La Paz Democrática: del planteamiento filosófico al discurso político y su aplicación en el régimen de los protectorados internacionales", Revista Académica de Relaciones Internacionales, núm. 10 (febrero de 2009). Van Tijen, Tjebbe: "NATO's collateral tyrannicide", Open Democracy (7 May, 2011). Walt, Stephen M.: "International Relations: One World, Many Theories", Foreign Policy(Spring 1998), pp. 29-46.Weede, Eric: "Democracy and War Involvement", Journal of Peace Research, No. 28 (1984), pp. 649-664.Wright, Quincy: A Study of War (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1942).

e.roszkowska@uwb.edu.pl ; Adamus-Matuszyńska A., Współczesne teorie konfliktu społecznego, AE w Katowicach, Katowice 1998. ; Aumann R. J., Hart S. (eds.), Handbook of game theory with economic applications, Tom I, II, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1994. ; Albrecht K., Albrecht S., Added Value Negotiating. The Breakthrough Method for Building Balanced Deals, Business One, Irwin, Homewood, III, 1993. ; Baran K. W., Zbiorowe prawo pracy, Universitas, Kraków 2002. ; Bargiel-Matusiewicz K., Negocjacje i mediacje, PWE, Warszawa 2007. ; Baron D. P., Ferejohn J. A., Legislatures, American Political Science Review, 1989. ; Bartos O. J., Process and Outcome of Negotiation, Columbia University Press, New York 1974. ; Bartos O. J. , Simple Model of Negotiation, [in:] I. W. Zartman (ed.), Negotiation Process: Theories and Applications, Sage, Beverly HillsCA 1978. ; Bazerman M. H., Neale M. A., Negocjując racjonalne, Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne, Olsztyn 1997. ; Bednarek A., Kraszewska H., Budowanie zgody. Mediacje jako sposób zapanowania nad konfliktem", Personel, 23(92), 2000. ; Bell D., Raiffa H., Tversky A., Decision Making. Descriptive, Normative and Prescriptive Interactions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1988. ; Kulpa A., Dwa oblicza konfliktu. Funkcjonalna teoria konfliktu Lewisa A. Cosera a współczesne koncepcje zarządzania konfliktami, Organizacja i Kierowanie, Nr 1(107), 2002. ; Lax D. L., Sebenius J. K., Negocjacje w trzech wymiarach. Jak wygrać najważniejsze gry negocjacyjne, MT Biznes, Warszawa 2007. ; Lemmerman H., Komunikacja werbalna. Szkoła dyskutowania, Wydawnictwo Astrum, Wrocław 1994. ; Lendzion J.P., Stankiewicz-Mróz. A., Wprowadzenie do organizacji i zarządzania, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków 2005. ; Lewicka-Strzałecka A., Etyka biznesu jako dyscyplina naukowa, [w:] J. Dietl, W. Gasparski (red.), Etyka biznesu, PWN, Warszawa 2000. ; Lewicki R. J., Robinson R. J., Ethical and unethical bargaining tactics: An empirical study, "Journal of Business Ethics", 17(6), 1998. ; Lewicki R.J., Weiss S.E., Lewin D., Models of conflict, negotiation and third party intervention: A review and synthesis, ,,Journal of Organizational Behaviour", Vol. 13, 1992. ; Lissowski G. (red.), Elementy teorii wyboru społecznego, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2001. ; Luce R., Raiffa H. , Games and Decisions. Introduction and Critical Survey, Jon Wiley, New York 1958; polskie wydanie: Gry i decyzje, PWN, Warszawa 1964. ; Luecke R., Negocjacje. Sztuka zawierania dobrych kontaktów, Harward Business Essentials, Warszawa 2008. ; Binmore K., Fun and Games. A text on Game theory, D.C. Heath and Company Lexington 1992. ; Malawski M., Wieczorek A. , Sosnowska H., Konkurencja i kooperacja. Teoria gier w ekonomii i naukach społecznych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1997. ; March G., Simon A., Teoria organizacji, PWN, Warszawa 1964. ; Masewicz W., Rokowania oraz spory zbiorowe pracy, Biblioteczka Pracownicza, Warszawa 1993. ; Mastenbroek W., Negocjowanie, PWN, Warszawa 1997. ; Mayer B., The dynamics of conflict resolution. A practitioner's guide, Jossey-Brass, A Wiley Company, San Francisco 2000. ; Mc Clintock C., Game Behavior and Social Motivation in Interpersonal Settings, [in:] Experimental Social Psychology, Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, New York. ; Mc Gregor D. F., The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill, New York 1985. ; Mesjasz C., Mediacje w konflikcie, ,,Przegląd Organizacji", 9(92). ; Mesjasz C., Założenia analizy negocjacji, ,,Organizacja i Kierowanie", nr 3(85), 1996. ; Mesjasz C., Determinanty i modele procesów negocjacji kredytowych pomiędzy bankiem a przedsiębiorstwem, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, Kraków 2000. ; Binmore K., Osborne M. J., Rubinstein A., Noncooperative models of bargaining, [in:] Aumann R. J., Hart S. (eds.), Handbook of game theory with economic applications, Tom I, Elsevier 1994. ; Mikuła G., Wenzel M., Justice and Social Conflict, ,,International Journal of Psychology", 35(2), 2000. ; Modzelewski W., Wprowadzenie do socjologii, "Śląsk" Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Katowice 1999. ; Moore Ch. W., The Mediation Process. Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, Londyn 1986. ; Morrow J. D., Game Theory for Political Scientists, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1994. ; Mucha J., Konflikt i społeczeństwo, PWN, Warszawa 1978. ; Mulholan J., The Language of Negotiation: A Handbook of Practical Strategies for Improving Communication, Routledge, London 1991. ; Murnighan J. K., Bargaining games. A new approach to strategic thinking in negotiations, William Morrow and Company, Inc. New York 1992. ; Myerson R. B., Game theory. Analysis of conflict, Harvard University Press, Harvard 1991. ; Myśliwiec G ., Techniki i triki negocjacyjne, EFEKT, Warszawa 1999. ; Nahotko S., Negocjacje biznesowe w zarządzaniu przedsiębiorstwem. Aspekt ekonomiczny, Biblioteka Menadżera Służby Pracowniczej, Zeszyt 192, OPO, Bydgoszcz 2001. ; Birkenbihl V., Komunikacja werbalna. Psychologia prowadzenia negocjacji, Astrum, Wrocław 1997. ; Najowska M., Problemy badania wpływu kapitału ludzkiego na zachowanie przedsiębiorcze, [w:] M. Juchnowicz (red.), Kapitał ludzki a kształtowanie przedsiębiorczości, Poltext, Warszawa 2004. ; Nierenberg G.I., Sztuka negocjacji, Studio Emka, Warszawa 1997. ; Nash J., Equilibrium Points in n-Person Games, "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (US)", No. 36, 1950. ; Nash J., Non-cooperative games, "Annals of Mathematics", Vol. 54, 1951. ; Nash J., The bargaining problem, "Econometrica" , No. 18, 1950. ; Nash J., Two–Persons Cooperative Games, "Econometrica", No. 21, 1953. ; Nęcki Z., Negocjacje w biznesie, Profesjonalna Szkoła Biznesu, Kraków 1991. ; Nęcki Z., Komunikacja międzyludzka, Wydawnictwo Aktywa, Kraków 2000. ; Nierenberg G. I., Sztuka negocjacji jako metoda osiągania celu, Wydawnictwo Studio Emka, Warszawa 1994. ; Nogalski B., Jarocki P., Komunikacja niewerbalna w negocjacjach międzynarodowych, TNOiK, Bydgoszcz 1998. ; Blake R., Molton J., The management by grid principles or intuitionalism: Which?, "Group and Organization Studies", No. 6, 1981. ; Obłój K., Mikroszkółka zarządzania, PWE, Warszawa 1994. ; Ordeshook P.C., Game Theory and Political Theory, Cambridge University, Cambridge 1986. ; Osborne M.J., Rubinstein A., Bargaining and Markets, Academic Press, Inc, San Diego, CA 1990. ; Owen G., Teoria gier, PWN, Warszawa 1975. ; Pawlak Z., Systemy informatyczne, PWN, Warszawa 1983. ; Parsons T., The social systems, Routledge, London 1951. ; Perrotin R., Heusschen P., Kupić z zyskiem. Negocjacje handlowe, Poltext, Warszawa 1994. ; Pietras C., Decydowanie polityczne, PWN, Warszawa 1998. ; Pietrzak M. (red.), Metody i techniki menadżerskie, Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa 2007. ; Pruitt D. G., Negotiator Behaviour, Academic Press, Orlando, Fla. 1981. ; Borkowska S., Negocjacje zbiorowe, PWE, Warszawa 1997. ; Putman L. L., Roloff M.E. (eds.), Communication and Negotiation, Sage, Newbury Park 1992. ; Pruitt D. G., Carnevale P. J., Negotiation in social conflict, Open University Press, Buckingham 1993. ; Pszczółkowski T., Umiejętność przekonywania i dyskusji, Warszawa 1995. ; Rahim M. A., A measures of styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict, ,,Academy of Management Journal", 26(2), 1983. ; Rahim M. A., Toward a theory of managing organizational conflict, ,,The International Journal of Conflict Management", Vol. 13, No. 3, 2002. ; Raiffa H. , The Art and the Science of Negotiation, Harvard University Press, Harvard 1982. ; Rapoport A., Guyer M.,Gordon D., The 2x2 Games, Ann Arbor, 1976. ; Reiter R., A logic for default reasoning, Artificial Intelligence, No. 13, 1980. ; Robbins S. P., Zachowania w organizacji, PWE, Warszawa 1998. ; Roszkowska E., Etyka a negocjacje, [w:] Ekonomia. Polityka. Etyka, (red.) A. F. Bocian, Uniwersytet w Białymstoku, Białystok 2003. ; Borkowski J., Dyrda M., Kanarski L., Rokicki B., Wybrane problemy psychologii organizacji. O konflikcie i negocjacjach, Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki Stosowanej i Zarządzania, Warszawa 2000. ; Roszkowska E., Proces negocjacji w ujęciu teorii kompleksów reguł, "Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne", nr 2(10), 2001. ; Roszkowska E., Modelowanie procesów decyzyjnych oraz negocjacji za pomocą kompleksów reguł, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2007. ; Roszkowska E., Style negocjacji-analiza zagadnienia, ,,Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne", nr 4(20), 2003. ; Rubin J. Z., Brown B. R., The Social Psychology of Bargaining and Negotiation, Academic Press, Orlando, Fla. 1975. ; Rumel-Syska Z., Konflikty organizacyjne. Ujęcie mikrospołeczne, PWN, Warszawa 1990. ; Rusinowska A., Przetarg, [w:] Grupowe podejmowanie decyzji. Elementy teorii. Przykłady zastosowań, (red.) H. Sosnowska, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 1999. ; Rusinowska A., Zagadnienie przetargowe ze zmiennymi w czasie preferencjami graczy, "Roczniki Kolegium Analiz Ekonomicznych", Zeszyt 6, 1998. ; Rządca R., Negocjacje w interesach, PWE, Warszawa 2003. ; Rządca R. A., Wujec P., Negocjacje, PWE , Warszawa 1998. ; Sajkiewicz A. (red.), Zasoby ludzkie w firmie. Organizacja, kierowanie, ekonomika, Poltext, Warszawa 1999. ; Błaut R., Skuteczne negocjacje, CIM , Warszawa 1994. ; Salacuse J., Salacuse J. W., Negocjacje na rynkach międzynarodowych, PWE, Warszawa 1994. ; Schelling T. C., Arms and the influence, Yale University Press, New Haven 1966. ; Schelling T. C., The strategy of conflict, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1960. ; Sebenius J. K., Negotiation Analysis: A Characterization and Review, ,,Management Science", Vol. 38, No. 1, 1992. ; Shubik M., Game Theory in Social Sciences. Concepts and solutions, The MIT Press, Cambridge 1982. ; Sikora J., Zarządzanie konfliktem w zakładzie pracy, TNOIK, Bydgoszcz 1998. ; Smith W. H., "Conflict", ,,Management Reviev", 1974; Omówienie [w:] ,,Organizacja i Kierowanie", nr 4, 1975. ; Sosnowska H., (red.), Grupowe podejmowanie decyzji, Scholar, Warszawa 2005. ; Spector B., Negotiation as a Psychological Process, [in:] I. W. Zartman (ed.), Negotiation Process: Theories and Applications, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, 1978. ; Stelmaszczyk M., Negocjowanie kontraktów handlowych. Poradnik dla eksporterów i importerów, CDKHZ, Warszawa 1992. ; Brdulak H., Brdulak J., Negocjacje handlowe, PWE, Warszawa 2000. ; Stępniewski J., Metoda negocjacji. Przygotowanie – techniki – sytuacje, AE we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 2001. ; Stoner J. A. F., Freeman R. E., Gilbert D. R., Kierowanie, PWE, Warszawa 2001. ; Stoner J. A. F., Wankel Ch., Kierowanie, PWE, Warszawa 1994. ; Straffin P., Teoria gier, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2000. ; Szaban J., Negocjacje jako jedna z technik zarządzania, Doskonalenie Kadr Kierowniczych, nr 2, 1986. ; Szapiro T., Co decyduje o decyzji, PWN, Warszawa 1993. ; Szapiro T., Podejście interaktywne we wspomaganiu podejmowania decyzji, ,,Monografie i Opracowania", nr 338, SGPIS, Warszawa 1991. ; Szostak A., Zarządzanie konfliktem, ,,Personel", nr 4, 1996. ; Szczepański J., Elementarne pojęcia socjologii, PWN, Warszawa 1969. ; Sztumski J., Konflikty społeczne i negocjacje jako metody ich przezwyciężania, Wydawnictwo Wydziału Zarządzania Politechniki Częstochowskiej, Częstochowa 2000. ; Brdulak H., Brdulak J., Sztuka i technika negocjacji handlowych, Wyd. Bizant, Warszawa 1996. ; Thomas K., Conflict and conflict management, [in:] Dunette M. D (ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Rand McNally, Chicago 1976. ; Thompson L., The mind and heart of the negotiator, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 2001. ; Thompson V., Modern organizations, Knopf, New York 1961. ; Thompson T. D., Organizations in action, McGraw-Hill, New York 1967 ; Thompson W., A class of solutions to bargaining Problems, "Journal of Economic Theory", Vol. 25, 1981. ; Thompson W., Cooperative models of bargaining, [in:] R. J. Aumann, S. Hart, (ed.), Handbook of game theory with economic applications, t. II, Elsevier 1994. ; Uniszewski Z., Konflikty i negocjacje, Prószyński i S-ka, Poznań 2000. ; Ury W., Odchodząc od nie. Negocjowanie od konfrontacji do kooperacji, PWE, Warszawa 1995. ; Wachowicz T., E-negocjacje. Modelowanie, analiza i wspomaganie, Wydawnictwo AE w Katowicach, Katowice 2006. ; Walas J., Konflikt na cenzurowanym, "Personel", 1996. ; Burns T., Caldas J. C., Roszkowska E., Generalized Game Theory's Contribution to Multi-agent Modelling Addressing Problems of Social Regulation, Social Order, and Effective Security, [in:] B. Dunin-Keplicz. A. Jankowski, A. Skowron, M. A. Szczuka (eds.), Monitoring, Security and Rescue Techniques in Multiagent Systems, Springer, Verlag 2005. ; Wall J. A., Stark J. B., Standifer R. L., Mediation. A current review and theory development, ,,Journal of Conflict Resolution", Vol. 45 (3), 2001. ; Watkins M., Sztuka negocjacji w biznesie. Innowacyjne podejścia prowadzące do przełomu, Wydawnictwo ONE Press, Warszawa 2005. ; Walton R. E., McKersie R. B., A Behavioral Theory of Labor Negotiations, ILR Press, Ithaca, New York 1993. ; Watson J., Strategia, Wprowadzenie do teorii gier, WNT, Warszawa 2005. ; Warschow T. A., Winning by Negotiation, McGraw Hill Book, New York 1990. ; Watson J. , Strategia. Wprowadzenie do teorii gier, WNT, Warszawa 2005. ; Weber R. A., Zasady zarządzania organizacjami, PWE, Warszawa 1990. ; Winch A., Winch S., Lepiej sprzedać, lepiej kupić. Taktyki perswazyjne w negocjacjach, ,,Personel", nr 13/14 (82/83), 2000. ; Winch S., Mity negocjacji, "Organizacja i Kierowanie", nr 2(112), 2003. ; Winch A., Winch S., Negocjacje. Jednostka, organizacja, kultura, Difin, Warszawa 2005. ; Burns T., Meeker L., Structural Properties and Resolutions of the Prisonier's Dilemma Game, [in:] A. Rapoport (eds.), Game Theory as the Conflict Resolution, Dordrecht-Holland, Reidel 1974. ; Von Neumann J., Morgenstern O., Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1972. ; Vliert E., Van de Prein E., The difference In the meaning of forcing In the conflict management of actors and observers, Referat na I Miedzynarodową Konferencję Grupy Kierowania Konfliktami, Fairfax, Wirginia 1987. ; Van de Vliert E., Kabanoff B., Toward Theory-Based Measures of Conflict Management, "The Academy of Management Journal", Vol. 33 (1). ; Zartman W. I. (ed.), International Multilateral Negotiation, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco 1994. ; Zbiegień-Maciąg L., Negocjowanie i negocjacje. Sposób na konflikty, Centrum Kreowania Liderów, Kłudzienko 1994. ; Zbiegień-Maciąg L., Taktyki i techniki negocjacyjne, Uczelniane Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Dydaktyczne, Kraków 2001. ; Zbiegiem Maciąg L., Zarządzanie personelem w firmie, Wydawnictwo AGH, Kraków 1995. ; Zarman I. W., Berman M., The Practical Negotiator, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connn. 1982. ; Burns T. Roszkowska E., Generalized Game Theory: Assumptions, Principles, and Elaborations Grounded in Social Theory, In Search of Social Order, Series. Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric, 2005, 8(21). ; Burns T., Roszkowska E., Economic and Social Equilibria: The Perspective of Generalized Game Theory, "Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne", Nr 3(31), 2006. ; Burns T., Roszkowska E., Fuzzy Game Theory: The Perspective of the General Theory of Games on Nash and Normative Equilibria, [in:] S. K. Pal, L. Polkowski, A. Skowron (eds.), Rough-Neural Computing: Techniques for Computing with Words, Springer, Verlag 2003. ; Boulding K. E., Conflict and defense, Harper, New York 1962. ; Caderman L., Unpacking the National Interest: An Analysis of Preference Aggregation in Ordinal Games, [in:] Game Theory and International Relations. Candidate Images in Presidential Elections, Westport-London 1995. ; Carnevale P.J., Pruitt D.G., Negotiation and mediation, "Annu. Rev. Psychol.", No. 43, 1992. ; Casse P., Jak negocjować, Zysk i S-ka, Poznań 1996. ; Cenker E. M., Negocjacje, Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Komunikacji i Zarządzania w Poznaniu, Poznań 2002. ; Chełpa S., Witkowski T., Paradoks zgody, czyli zarządzanie w sytuacjach konfliktowych i zarządzanie przez konflikt, "Personel" 10(67) 1999. ; Chełpa S., Witkowski J., Psychologia konfliktów, Wydawnictwo Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1995. ; Christopher E. M., Umiejętność negocjowania w biznesie, ZYSK i S-KA, Poznań 1998. ; Coddington A. J., Theories of the Bargaining Process, Aldine, Chicago 1968. ; Collins A., Mowa ciała, Oficyna Wydawnicza Rytm, Warszawa 2002. ; Colman A., Game Theory and Experimental Games: The Study of Strategic Interaction, Oxford-New York, Toronto-Sydney-Paris-Frankfurt 1982. ; Coser L. A., Funkcjonalna teoria konfliktu, [w:] J. Turner, Struktura teorii socjologicznej, PWN, Warszawa 1985. ; Cross J. G., Negotiation as a Learning Process, "Journal of Conflict Resolution", Vol. 21, 1977. ; Cyret R, March G., A behavioral theory of the firm, Oxford University Press, London 1963. ; Dana D., Rozwiązywanie konfliktów, PWE, Warszawa 1993. ; Dąbrowski P., Praktyczna teoria negocjacji, Sorbog, Warszawa 1991. ; Deutsch M., The resolution of conflict. Constructive and destructive process, Yale Univ. Pr., New Haven, New Haven 1973. ; Deutsch M., Cooperation and conflict: a personal perspective on the history of the social psychological study of conflict resolution West, M.A, [in:] D. J. Tjosvold, G. H. Smith (eds.), International handbook of organizational Teamwork and Cooperative Working, Wiley&Sons 2003. ; Domański S. R., Kapitał ludzki a wzrost gospodarczy, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1993. ; Drabik E., Elementy teorii gier dla ekonomistów, Wydawnictwo UwB, Białystok 1998. ; Drucker P. F., Praktyka zarządzania, Czytelnik, Kraków, 1994. ; Druckman D., Boundary Role Conflict: Negotiation as Dual Responsiveness, "Journal of Conflict Resolution", 1977, Vol. 21. ; Eisenhardt K. M., Kahwajy J. I., Bourgeois L. J. III, How Management Teams Can Have o Good Fight, Harvard Business Review, July-August, 1997. ; Fisburn P. C., Rubinstein A., Time preference, International Economic Review, (23) 1982. ; Fiszer R., Ury W., Patton B., Dochodząc do Tak. Negocjowanie bez poddawania się, PWE, Warszawa 1996. ; Flower A., Jak skutecznie negocjować, Petit, Warszawa 1991. ; Friedman W. J., Game theory with applications to economics, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1990. ; Galas Z., Nykowski I., Żółkiewski Z., Programowanie wielokryterialne, PWE, Warszawa 1987. ; Gasparski W., Etyka biznesu, PWN, Warszawa 2000. ; Gesteland R. F., Różnice kulturowe a zachowania w biznesie, PWN, Warszawa 2000. ; Gomolińska A., Rule Complexes for Representing Social Actors and Interactions, "Studies in Logic Grammar, and Rhetoric", No. 3(16), 1999. ; Gonciarski W., Konflikt niejedno ma imię (1), "Personel", 4(7), 1995. ; Gonciarski W., Konflikt niejedno ma imię (2), "Personel", 5(8), 1995. ; Gonciarski W., Konflikt niejedno ma imię (3), "Personel", 6(9), 1995. ; Goncarski W., Jak kierować konfliktami? (cz. I), "Personel", 7(10), 1995. ; Goncarski W., Jak kierować konfliktami? (cz II), "Personel", 8(11), 1995. ; Graham J., Vis-a-vis. International business negotiation, [in:] P. Ghauri, J.C. Claude Usunier (eds.), International Business Negotiations, Pergamon 1996. ; Griffin R., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2007. ; Gulliver P. H., Disputes and Negotiations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, Academic Press, Orlando 1979. ; Hamman J., Demokracja, decyzje, wybory, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2004. ; Harsany J. C., Approaches to the bargaining problem before and after the theory of games: a critical discussion of Zeuthen's, Hick's and Nash's theories, "Econometrica", (24) 1956. ; Harsany J., Game Theory and the Analysis of International Conflict, [in:] James S. Rosenau (ed.), International Politics and Foreign Policy, Free Press, New York 1969. ; Harsanyi J. C., Selten J., A Generalized Nash Solution for Two-person Bargaining Games with Incomplete Information, ,,Management Science", No. 18, 1972. ; Hawes L., Smith D., A critique of the assumption underlying the study of communication in conflict, ,,Speech Monographs", T.59, No. 4, 1973. ; Hawkins L., Hundson M., Cornall R., Prawnik jako negocjator, "ABC", Warszawa 1994. ; Houba H., Sneek K., Vardy F., Can Negotiations Prevent Fish Wars?, Tinbergen Institute, Discussion Paper 1996. ; Morrow J. D., Game Theory for Political Scientists, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1994. ; Jankowski W. B. , Sankowski T. P., Jak negocjować, CIM, Warszawa 1995. ; Jastrzębska-Smolaga H. (red.), Ekonomiczne podstawy negocjacji. Pomiędzy prawem a moralnością, Difin, Warszawa 2007. ; Juchnowicz M. (red.), Elastyczne zarządzanie kapitałem ludzkim w organizacji wiedzy, Difin, Warszawa 2007. ; Kowalczyk-Grzenkiewicz J., Arcimowicz J., Jermakow P., Rozwiązywanie konfliktów, sztuka negocjacji i komunikacji, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warszawa 2003. ; Kalai E., Proportional solutions to bargaining Situations: Interpersonal Utility Comparisons, ,,Econometrica", (45) 1977. ; Kalai E., Smorodinsky M., Other solutions to Nash's Bargaining Problem, ,,Econometrica", No. 43, 1975. ; Kałążna-Drewińska U., Negocjacje w biznesie. Kluczowe problemy, Wydawnictwo AE we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 2006. ; Kamiński J., Negocjowanie techniki rozwiązywania konfliktów, Poltext, Warszawa 2003. ; Kamiński J., Modele procesów negocjacji, "Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne", nr 1(5), 2000. ; Kamiński J., Negocjacje w biznesie jako przedmiot zainteresowania nauk ekonomicznych, "Optimum. Studia Ekonomiczne", nr 4(24), 2002. ; Kamiński J. Negocjacje w działalności marketingowej przedsiębiorstw, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2006. ; Karrass G., Dobić targu, Wydawnictwo Businessman, Sopot 1991. ; Kennedy G., Negocjacje doskonałe, Dom Wydawniczy REBIS, Poznań 1999. ; Kerstern G. E., Szapiro T., Generalized Approach to Modeling Negotiations, "European Journal of Operational Reseach", Vol. 26, 1986. ; Kersten G. E., Szapiro T., Generalized Approach to Modelling Negotiations, "European Journal of Operational Reseach", Vol. 35, No. 1, 1986. ; Kipnis D., Smith S. M., An influence Perspective on Bargaining within Organizations, "Research on Negotiation in Organizations", Vol. 1, 1983. ; Kowalczyk-Grzenkowicz J., Arcimowicz J., Jermakowicz P., Rozwiązywanie konfliktów, sztuka negocjacji i komunikacji, Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warszawa 2003. ; Kowalczyk E., Psychologiczne uwarunkowania negocjacji gospodarczych, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu, Poznań 2001. ; Kozielecki J., Konflikt, teoria gier i psychologia, PWN, Warszawa 1970. ; Kozioł L., Tyrańska M., Bińczycki B. , Metody analizy strategicznej w obszarze zarządzania zasobami ludzkimi, AE w Krakowie, Zeszyty Naukowe Nr 603, 2002. ; Kozina A., Style negocjowania-analiza porównawcza, Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, Nr 561, 2001. ; Koźmiński A. K., Piotrowski W. (red.), Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1998. ; Kreps D., Game Theory and Economic Modelling, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1990. ; Kreps D., A Course in Microeconomics Theory, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1990. ; Kreps D. M., Wilson R., Sequential equilibria, "Econometrica", No. 50, 1982. ; Kruś L., Bronisz P., Łopuch B., MCBARG System Supporting Multicriteria Bargaining, "Control and Cybernetics", Vol. 22, No. 4, 1993. ; Krzymieniewska G., Od walki do współpracy. Negocjacyjna sztuka zawierania porozumień, TNOIK, Bydgoszcz 1998. ; Kuc B. R., Moczydłowska J. M., Zachowania organizacyjne, Difin, Warszawa 2009.

Un viejo proverbio chino señala que "la puerta mejor cerrada es aquella que puede dejarse abierta". Efectivamente la transformación de China durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX grafica este dicho. De manera impensada para muchos, luego de casi tres décadas de férreo control estatal sobre la economía bajo el liderazgo de Mao Zedong, la dirigencia china que lo sucedió en el poder decidió hacia fines de los setenta "abrir una puerta bien cerrada" y emprender un ambicioso proceso de modernización, liberalización y apertura económica. De la mano de Zhou Enlai primero y Deng Xiaoping después, el Estado chino se embarcó en la tarea de modernizar dentro del país su sector agrícola, su estructura productiva, la ciencia y tecnología y la defensa nacional. El interés central detrás de esta transformación radicaba en acortar la brecha de desarrollo existente con los países más avanzados, situación que se reflejaba en el éxito económico de "vecinos" como Japón, Corea del Sur, Taiwán y Hong Kong. Para Deng, China sólo podría convertirse en una gran potencia a través de una política sistemática de modernización, con énfasis en el desarrollo económico y manteniendo la estructura de control político del Partido Comunista (Wilhelmy y Soto, 2005: 52). El desafío a superar consistía en dejar atrás una empobrecida, cerrada y estancada economía planificada y avanzar en la configuración de una economía competitiva. En la opinión del periodista Li Datong (2009), la política de reformas contó a grandes rasgos con dos etapas bien claras. En la primera, que se extendió de 1978 a 1989, el ímpetu de cambio fue puesto en la reducción de la pobreza rural y urbana. En la segunda, iniciada en 1992 con el famoso viaje de Deng al sur del país y culminada en el 2001 con el ingreso de China a la Organización Mundial de Comercio, el gobierno en estrecha alianza con sectores empresariales concentró esfuerzos en impulsar el crecimiento económico.Las principales medidas adoptadas consistieron en: la descolectivización de la agricultura y la autorización del uso privado de las tierras comunales (household responsibility system); el levantamiento de la prohibición para realizar actividades empresariales de índole privada; la apertura por primera vez desde la Revolución de 1948 al ingreso de capitales extranjeros; la creación de zonas económicas especiales y de apertura (existen actualmente una veintena, entre ciudades, provincias y áreas costeras); la privatización de numerosas empresas (a excepción de algunos grandes monopolios vinculados a energía y al sistema bancario); la descentralización del control estatal nacional hacia los gobiernos provinciales; la reducción general de aranceles y barreras comerciales; y el reconocimiento legal en 2005 de la propiedad privada.Estas reformas hicieron posible el denominado "milagro chino", la gran performance económica desatada a partir de 1978. Entre aquel año y el 2006 China mantuvo un promedio anual de crecimiento del 9,7%, tendencia que sólo se interrumpió tras los incidentes de la Plaza de Tiananmen en 1989 y que apenas se redujo en 1997 y 1998 durante la dura crisis asiática (Zhao, 2006: 3). Asimismo, mientras en los objetivos iniciales se esperaba cuadruplicar el PIB para comienzos del siglo XX, el desempeño real arrojó un impresionante crecimiento de trece veces del PIB de 1978 hacia el año 2006. En materia comercial, su comercio exterior se ha quintuplicado en los últimos diez años, mientras que su participación en el comercio mundial en ese mismo período se ha más que duplicado, llegando en 2007 al 9% de las exportaciones y al 6,8% de las importaciones globales. Además, China incrementó su penetración en los mercados de las economías desarrolladas y simultánea­mente se transformó en un importante destino de exportación, especialmente para las economías de la región asiática, convirtiéndose en un nuevo eje del comercio mundial –segundo exportador y tercer importador en 2007–, disputando así el papel de Estados Unidos, la Unión Europea y Japón (D'Elía et al., 2008: 67-8). Una de las principales fuentes de esta expansión comercial ha sido el creciente emplazamiento de firmas extranjeras en el país, las que se valen de los bajos costos de producción para sus operaciones. La participación de dichas firmas en las exportaciones chinas aumentó del 10% en 1990 a casi un 60% en 2004 (Blonigen y Ma, 2010: 475). Este fenómeno denominado "processing trade"explica que China se haya convertido en el principal receptor entre los países en desarrollo de inversión extranjera directa por primera vez en 1993 y uno de los tres primeros a nivel mundial entre 2003 y 2005 (Cheng y Ma, 2010: 545). Conjuntamente, el doble éxito comercial y en atracción de capitales apuntaló también las reservas internacionales. Mientras que en 1992 se registraron reservas por 19 mil millones de dólares, equivalente a un 4% del PIB, tan sólo quince años después éstas alcanzaron 1,4 billones, correspondiente al 50% del PIB (Truman, 2008: 169).A nivel doméstico, la principal transformación ha consistido en el establecimiento gradual de una "economía de mercado socialista". Su avance se evidencia en que hacia 1979 la totalidad de las industrias eran estatales o "colectivas" y el Estado controlaba los precios del 97% de los productos en circulación, mientras que hacia fines de la década de los noventa, menos del 30% de las empresas seguían siendo estatales y las fuerzas del mercado fijaban ya el 97% de los precios. Desde el 2001 estos márgenes se han mantenido mayormente constantes. Pero este ascenso económico posee una contracara de obstáculos, desafíos y debilidades bien marcados que pondrán a prueba la potencialidad de crecimiento a futuro. Por un lado, China es todavía un país pobre en términos de su ingreso per capita, estimado en aproximadamente U$S 3.000 anuales, lo que equivale sólo al 10% de los ingresos registrados en Estados Unidos y Europa. Este bajo registro se conjuga con una mayor desigualdad y una aguda concentración de los ingresos, siendo el 90% de la riqueza acaparada por el 1% más rico de la población (Datong, 2009). La razón detrás de éste pasivo social yace en las privatizaciones, la liberalización y el marcado contraste entre el interior del país y las más dinámicas zonas costeras e industriales —el 57% del PIB se produce en el este de China, un 26% en la región central y apenas el 17% en el oeste (D´Elía et al., 2008: 69). Consecuentemente, ello explica que el crecimiento de la economía esté principalmente impulsado por las exportaciones y la inversión más que por el consumo doméstico. Por el otro lado, los problemas ambientales se han vuelto verdaderamente acuciantes de la mano de este crecimiento. China ha reemplazado recientemente a los Estados Unidos como principal emisor mundial de gases de efecto invernadero. A causa del creciente parque automotriz, las industrias contaminantes y las numerosas plantas procesadoras de carbón, la calidad del aire se ha deteriorado en las principales ciudades. Así, por ejemplo, la concentración de partículas tóxicas inhalables en Beijing en el año 2008 superó en un 80% el estándar tolerable fijado por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (Jacobs, 2010). En las zonas rurales, la masificación del uso de fertilizantes y agrotóxicos para apuntalar la productividad de la agricultura ha contaminado buena parte de las cuencas hídricas.En el plano de los desafíos, debe sumarse que China no es una democracia. El sistema de gobierno es esencialmente autoritario, regido por actores que se imponen en contiendas intrapartidistas y burocráticas libradas a puertas cerradas en Beijing (Wilhelmy y Soto, 2005: 53). Lejos de ser China una "sociedad armónica", se han registrado al compás de las transformaciones importantes conflictos sociales con base en diferentes reclamos: mayor democratización, mejores condiciones de vida, reconocimiento de autonomía política en el caso del Tíbet, etc. Desde los años de Deng, la regla ha sido la aplicación de una política de "mano dura" para contener el disenso interno —como se evidenció en la plaza de Tiananmen en 1989. No obstante, este disenso ha ido en ascenso. En septiembre de 2003, Human Rights Watch informó que más de tres millones de personas se movilizaron en distintas protestas en sólo un mes y que, en más de cien casos a lo largo del país, los reclamos escalaron en violentos choques con las fuerzas de seguridad locales y la destrucción de edificios gubernamentales (Becker, 2006: 169). Por tanto, resta ver cómo el sistema político logra adaptarse a las radicales modificaciones sociales en curso y da cabida a nuevos actores en la lucha por el poder. A pesar de estos desafíos por resolver, existe un fuerte consenso mundial sobre el actual proceso de ascenso de China al status de gran potencia. La célebre predicción de Napoleón —"Let China sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world"—, parece estar siendo confirmada (Kynge, 2006). En efecto, "China is reemerging as a major power after one hundred and fifty years of being a weak player on the world stage—a brief hiatus in China's long history", de acuerdo con Susan Shirk (2007: 4), máxima responsable en el Departamento de Estado de las relaciones con China durante la administración Clinton. Si se considera su situación estructural, una estimación reciente del poder comprehensivo de China comparada con las otras grandes potencias del sistema internacional arroja los siguientes resultados. Allí se advierte que China es la única potencia con un status fuerte de poder en cada una de las dimensiones contempladas y por tanto la principal competidora estratégica detrás de la superpotencia estadounidense. Pero el nuevo protagonismo chino también se percibe de una manera más dinámica. Crecientemente el país empieza a desempeñar roles críticos en distintos asuntos de interés mundial, desde la no proliferación hasta el cambio climático, además de ser materia de controversia en Occidente en asuntos relacionados con la pérdida de empleos, déficits comerciales y derechos humanos. En la última década, además, China ha combinado su dinamismo económico con políticas pragmáticas de seguridad y defensa y un fuerte activismo diplomático, gracias a lo cual ha empezado a establecer sólidas relaciones no sólo en toda Asia sino también en Europa, África y Sudamérica, aprovechando en buena medida los "espacios" generados por la focalización de los Estados Unidos en las guerras de Afganistán e Irak y la lucha contra el AlQaeda (Gill, 2007: 1).En el caso particular de América Latina, el carácter actual de los vínculos con China se remonta a la finalización de la Guerra Fría. Fue entonces cuando la desideologización de la política exterior del gigante asiático y el auge del proceso de globalización brindaron un marco propicio para una fuerte expansión económica de las relaciones sino-latinoamericanas (Cesarín, 2006: 52). Algunas cifras ilustran el fenómeno. Las exportaciones de América Latina y el Caribe a China aumentaron en forma súbita desde los US$1.500 millones en 1990, a los casi US$3.000 millones en 1995 y US$5.400 millones en 2000, para crecer posteriormente un 42% anual entre 2000 y 2004 hasta llegar a superar los US$21.000 millones en 2004. En 2003, los recursos primarios representaban el 45,5% de la canasta (Davy, 2008: 4). Por su parte, las exportaciones chinas a la región durante la década de los 90 crecieron más de cinco veces, logrando un superávit comercial global que perduró hasta el 2002. Sin embargo, con los países ricos en recursos naturales como Brasil, Argentina, Chile y Perú, la balanza mercantil resultó deficitaria para Beijing (Cheng, 2006).El interés chino en los países del subcontinente se ha vuelto desde entonces más claro: América Latina constituye un importante reservorio de materias primas, alimentos y recursos naturales necesarios para la prosecución de su crecimiento —no debe perderse de vista que China importa el 30% del petróleo que consume, el 45% del mineral de hierro, el 44% de otros metales no ferrosos y una proporción cada vez más alta de productos agrícolas. El patrón de intercambio comercial y de inversiones en los últimos años refleja dicho interés: minería y forestación (Perú y Chile), pesca, agroalimentos y petróleo (Argentina y Venezuela), mineral de hierro y acero (Brasil), producción de alimentos (Brasil, Chile, Argentina y Perú) y minería (Perú, Colombia, Chile). (Cesarín, 2006: 52-3.) En efecto, la relativa bonanza económica latinoamericana de comienzos de siglo —en parte— se debe a la fuerte demanda china de este tipo de bienes y commoditiesque traccionó al alza los precios internacionales. Para algunos, esto representa una importante oportunidad de optimizar los procesos subregionales de integración e impulsar cambios en las estructuras productivas nacionales mediante la participación inversora de firmas chinas (Cesarín, 2005: 3). Pero esta situación, en principio favorable, amerita una reflexión cautelosa en la medida en que "el auge de los commodities encubre los riesgos inherentes de depender de un sector volátil y en gran medida poco calificado para el sostenimiento de un crecimiento económico a largo plazo y la prosperidad" (Davy, 2008: 2). En este sentido, China ofrece a la región oportunidades pero también desafíos: detrás de los cantos de sirena, se esconde el peligro de un comercio asimétrico que conduzca a la reedición de lazos de dependencia y a una inserción internacional de América Latina subordinada a los dictados de una gran potencia distante. Precisamente, el profesor Julio Sevares (2007: 12) ve en la relación económica Latinoamérica-China no una relación Sur-Sur, sino más bien el clásico esquema comercial Norte-Sur y el patrón inversor de tipo extractivo británico del siglo XIX.Con respecto estrictamente al plano político-estratégico, dos cuestiones deben considerarse. La primera es que China resulta para muchos de los liderazgos latinoamericanos un simpático ejemplo de éxito en materia de reformas dado el importante rol estatal en la conducción de la transformación económica. Representa así un exitoso experimento, distinto de las propuestas neoliberales que fracasaron en América Latina (Cesarín, 2010: 8). Y la segunda, es que la irrupción de China en la región plantea interrogantes sobre la eventual reacción de los Estados Unidos ante un eventual socavamiento de influencia en su "patio trasero". Se trata de un escenario que desde comienzos del siglo XXI se sigue con atención en las usinas de pensamiento estratégico en Washington. Allí se distinguen al menos dos posiciones: una, la de los decisores estadounidenses más temerosos que entienden a la nueva presencia china en la región como la movida inicial de una ofensiva diplomática a gran escala de Beijing para desafiar a los Estados Unidos en su propio hemisferio; y la otra perspectiva, más benigna, que percibe los crecientes vínculos como una oportunidad antes que una amenaza y como una manifestación natural de las necesidades energéticas y de recursos del país asiático sin miras explícitas de choque con la superpotencia (Roett y Paz, 2008: 1). Esta última visión es la que acepta la idea del ascenso pacífico ("peaceful rise") que ha publicitado Hu Jintao. De acuerdo con Zheng Bijian, uno de sus principales ideólogos, "China no tiene la intención ni de desafiar ni de subvertir el orden internacional político y económico ya existente (…). No buscamos la hegemonía ni en el pasado, ni ahora, ni nunca jamás en el futuro cuando hayamos alcanzado el desarrollo. Hemos convertido ya en una premisa básica de nuestro Estado la de no pretender nunca la hegemonía" (Bijian, 2005).La reemergencia histórica de China debe por tanto discurrir a través de la integración a las reglas de juego internacionales, a través del multilateralismo, la resolución pacífica de las disputas y la tolerancia hacia el resto de las naciones. En última instancia, la evolución hacia un abierto desafío estratégico entre los Estados Unidos y China o hacia una convivencia respetuosa entre superpotencias, dependerá del factor que prime en la interacción mutua: un juego de suma cero producto de las transformaciones estructurales en el sistema político internacional, o bien un juego de suma positiva resultado de intereses y percepciones convergentes.(1) El presente artículo es un fragmento de un capítulo de libro en elaboración sobre la inserción internacional de la Argentina entre el 2003-2007. *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional General San Martín (UNSAM).Referencias bibliográficasBecker, Jasper (2006): Dragon Rising. An inside look at China today (Washington D.C.: National Geographic). Bijian, Zheng (2005): "Diez puntos de vista sobre el ascenso pacífico de China y sobre las relaciones entre China y Europa", Real Instituto Elcano, disponible en:«http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/analisis/867/867_DiscursoZheng.pdf».Blonigen, Bruce A. y Alyson C. Ma (2010): "Please Pass the Catch-Up. The Relative Performance of Chinese and Foreign Firms in Chinese Exports", en Feenstra, Robert C. y Shang-Jin Wei: China's Growing Role in World Trade (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press).Cesarín, Sergio (2005): "Ejes y estrategias del desarrollo económico chino: enfoques para América Latina y el Caribe", en Cesarín, Sergio y Carlos Moneta: China y América Latina. Nuevos enfoques sobre cooperación y desarrollo. ¿Una segunda ruta de la seda? (Buenos Aires: BID-INTAL).Cesarín, Sergio (2006): "La relación sinolatinoamericana, entre la práctica política y la investigación académica", Nueva Sociedad, N° 203, Mayo/Junio, pp. 48-61.Cheng, Joseph Y. S. (2006): "Latin America in China's Contemporary Foreign Policy", Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 500-528.Cheng, Leonard K. y Zihui Ma (2010): "China's Outward Foreign Direct Investment", en Feenstra, Robert C. y Shang-Jin Wei: Op. Cit.Datong, Li (2009): "China's stalled transition", Open Democracy (February 19), disponible en «http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/chinas-stalled-reforms». Accedido 16/09/2010. Davy, Megan (2008): "¿Qué presagia el crecimiento de China para América Latina?",Panorama del Desarrollo Internacional del American Enterprise Institute, N° 2, julio.D´Elía, Carlos, Carlos Galperín y Néstor Stancanelli (2008): "El rol de China en el mundo y su relación con la Argentina", Revista del CEI, N° 13, pp. 67-89.Gill, Bates (2007): Rising Star. China's New Security Diplomacy (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press).Jacobs, Andrews (2010): "In China, Pollution Worsens Despite New Efforts", The New York Times (July 28), disponible en «http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/world/asia/29china.html?_r=1»(accedido 18/9/10). Kynge, James (2006): China Shakes the World: A Titan's Rise and Troubled Future - and the Challenge for America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt).Roett, Riordan y Guadalupe Paz (eds.) (2008): China's expansion into the Western Hemisphere (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution).Sevares, Julio (2007): "¿Cooperación Sur-Sur o dependencia a la vieja usanza?", Nueva Sociedad, N° 207, enero-febrero, pp. 11-22.Shirk, Susan L. (2007): China. Fragile Superpower (New York: Oxford University Press).Truman, Edwin M. (2008): "The Management of China's International Reserves: China and a Sovereign Wealth Fund Scoreboard", en Goldstein, Morris y Nicholas R. Lardy (eds.):Debating China's Exchange Rate Policy (Washington: Peter G. Peterson Institute for International Economics).Wilhelmy von Wolff, Mandfred y Augusto Soto (2005): "El proceso de reformas en China y la política exterior: de Deng Xiaoping a Hu Jintao", en Cesarín, Sergio y Carlos Moneta: Op. Cit.Xuetong, Yan (2006): "The Rise of China and its Power Status", Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 1. Zhao, Min (2006): External Liberalization and the Evolution of China's Exchange System: an Empirical Approach (Final Draft, The World Bank Beijing Office), disponible en «http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INDIAEXTN/Resources/events/359987-1149066 764594/Paper_MinZhao.pdf».

AbstractThe purpose of this research was to adapt Antonak and Harth's (1994) Mental Retardation Attitudes Inventory for the Kuwaiti culture and to investigate its four‐dimensional structure. The study also aimed at identifying a unidimensional subset of items besides examining the quality of the identified items and the overall inventory. The 34 ‐item adapted inventor y was administered to 56 4 college students. Item analysis indicated that 29 items have had good psychometric characteristics. However, the exploratory factor analysis, cross‐correlations of scale and item scores, and correlations among scales did not support the four‐dimensional structure of the adapted inventory. Further, the sample was split into two random halves. A uni‐dimensional subset of 20 items was identified in one sample by iterative factor analyzing the item data and discarding items with small loadings. The other sample was used to cross‐validate uni‐dimensionality of the identified items. Analysis indicated that scores of the 20‐item inventory have high Cronbach coefficient alpha, and high stability and generalizability coefficients. Partial support for the validity of the scores had been ascertained by comparing the scores of male and female students, and by regressing the inventor y scores on indicators of familiarity with individuals with mental retardation. Findings were discussed with reference to Kuwaiti culture.Over the last two decades, inclusion has internationally become a critical part of the reform efforts to improve the delivery of services to individuals with Mental Retardation (MR). This trend focuses on increasing the opportunities for the placement of these individuals in the same social and educational set tings as individuals without MR. The new arrangements for providing services have created challenges to people without disabilities concerning acceptance, integration, and inclusion of individuals with MR into the mainstream of society (Praisner, 2003). Many researchers (e.g. Priestly, 1998; Yazbeck McVilly & Parmenter, 2004) have convincingly argued that these challenges have their roots in the societal norms and values that concurrently developed throughout the unfolding history of the meaning of MR. As Priestly (1998) noted, although people with differences have existed in all societies, the degree to which they were integrated or excluded varied according to predominant cultural perceptions. Yazbeck, McVilly and Parmenter (2004) suggested that people's attitudes toward individuals with MR are socially constructed and are acquired through experience over time.Individuals with MR are often judged by people based on their disability instead of their whole lives and what they may accomplish and experience during their life (Blatt, 1987). Consequently, People may rely on false generalization and develop negative attitudes towards individuals with MR. Makas, Finnerty‐Fried, Sugafoos, and Reiss (1988) noted that for nondisabled persons, positive attitude toward people with disability is usually conceptualized as being 'nice' and 'helpful', whereas for a person with a disability, the attitude would be dispensing with the category of disability entirely. A study of community attitudes in one state of Australia found that up to 86% of respondents reported feeling 'uncomfortable' when interacting with individuals with disabilities (Enhance Management, 1999). Another study (European Commission, 2001) found that 40% of Europeans reported feeling 'uneasy' in the presence of people with disabilities.Attitudes manifest themselves as positive or negative reactions toward an object, driven by beliefs that impel individuals to behave in a particular way (Yuker, 1988). They comprise a complex of feelings, desires, fears, convictions, prejudices, or other tendencies learned through varied experiences that give rise to a set or readiness to act toward a person in a certain way (Chaiken & Stangor,1987). This means that attitude is not behavior, but the precondition of behavior. In addition, Myers, Ager, Kerr, and Myles (1998) identified three types of attitudes that influence how non‐disabled people interact with, and include or exclude people with disabilities: (1) A preparedness to engage with people as consumers, neighbors, or friends; (2) a lack of awareness about individuals with MR; and (3) a wariness or hostility regarding the idea of community integration.Research has shown that the third type of attitudes, which represents negative and non‐acceptance of individuals with MR is commonly observed (Gething, 1994; Schwartz & Armony‐Sivan, 2001). Such negative attitudes in a society may present people with MR as a burden on the welfare system. Moreover, people might not see individuals with disabilities as possessing a valuable social role or possessing the same abilities and characteristics that the majority of people possess. Tus, individuals with MR may not be accepted or included in society and may often be treated badly. In turn, Wolfensberger (1988) indicated that individuals with MR, being in a devalued position, would behave badly as they think that this is what is expected of them.As integration of persons with MR is increasingly becoming a global reality, Kuwait has designed social policy aimed at promoting acceptance and inclusion of people with disabilities into the mainstream of society. To implement the policy of integration, the Kuwaiti government is continually forming inclusive services for individuals with MR. The recent policy of inclusion (law 13/96), which has been adopted in 1996, asserts that people with disabilities have a fundamental right to live and grow within their local communities. This law has spawned an expanded system of services to encourage people with disabilities to live like people without disabilities. Inclusion policies give individuals with MR the right to be involved in the same situations as people without MR. For example, more individuals with MR, for example, are being employed. Moreover, most children with Downs syndrome now attend Kindergarten and are included in social programs for children in the general population. The general goal of all types of services provided for individuals with MR is to improve their participation in society.Although the Kuwaiti government has shown a growing interest in the integration of individuals with MR, the chances of these individuals being able to integrate into mainstream society would depend on the attitude of others, such as students, teachers, coworkers, social workers, professionals, towards them. These attitudes, as found in many Western studies (Antonak & Harth, 1994; Gordon, Tantillo, Feldman & Perrone, 2004) are, for the most part, negative, which may contribute to negative outcomes on the part of individuals with MR (Byon, 2000). According to Wright (1983), disability situations are vulnerable to fundamental negative attitudes, and this would seem to be even truer in the culture found in Kuwait.In Kuwaiti culture, disability has stigmatizing effect on members of the immediate and extended family; families tend to keep members with MR out of the sight of other people. This contributes to social exclusion of people with MR. There is also the traditional common belief that disability is related to (1) God's willing that the parent should have a child with a disability, (2) God is punishing the parent, (3) God is testing the parent, or (4) God is selecting the parent for an unknown reason. Commonly, persons with MR have been considered burdensome and shameful, because they are incapable of contributing to traditional social obligations and roles.While those traditional beliefs still exist, the law 13/96 was legislated to support the integration of persons with MR into various aspects of life. Consequently, we expect that people in the society would react to this trend with frustration, anger, or refusal. Usually, people in Kuwait have little or no information about individuals with MR; thereby uninformed determinations, such as stereotypes, reflect their attitudes toward these individuals. According to Blatt (1987), a stereotype will fill in the cracks and unanswered questions in a situation with which people are not familiar. Langer (1989) in her theory of 'mindfulness' also shows that stereotype is 'premature cognitive commitments' that leads people to make judgments without enough information and reflection.Moreover, the society labels given to individuals with MR are often accompanied with stigma and negative connotations. This situation makes it difficult for those individuals to be included into society and be accepted for what they actually are and not for what others assume them to be. According to Biklen and Bogdan (1977), this type of discrimination is called 'handicapism' and is defined as'…a set of assumptions and practices that promote differential and unequal treatment of people because of apparent or assumed physical, mental, or behavioral differences' (p.206). These perceptions may prevent individuals with MR from being accepted, and they might be viewed, based on Erikson's theory, as a pseudo species, or as less than human (Smith, 1981).Furthermore, professionals', leaders', and students' views and beliefs about the integration of individuals with MR into society may result in slowing the process of inclusion and discouraging people from accepting these individuals as what they are. For example, though senior staff in Kuwait's Ministry of Social Affairs succeeded in including children with Downs syndrome into public kindergarten, no other effort has been made since 1996 to integrate other children with disabilities into inclusive educational settings. More critical is that, while leaders make efforts toward inclusion, they continue to support the permanent residence of individuals with MR in social welfare institutions and urge the government to provide free health, social and educational services for the residents. Ahmad (2004) found that between 1992 and 2002, there was an increase in the number of children, and males and females adults with MR who live in the Social Welfare Institution for permanent care. The number of residents with MR has increased from 223 to 296.According to Philips (1992), leaders' and professionals' beliefs about individuals with MR could have commenced with the industrial revolution that brought with it the practice of classifying people who were different, and who were not able to pursue personal dreams or act as the industrial society required. Leaders and professionals may perceive individuals with MR, as Blatt (1987) stated, blessed innocents or surplus population that is unnecessary and expendable. These beliefs may never give the individuals with MR an adequate opportunity to present themselves and their abilities to others.Praisner (2003) suggested that leaders' attitudes are the key factor in successful inclusion. Due to leadership position, leaders' and professionals' attitudes about inclusion either could result in increased opportunities for individuals with MR to be served in different settings or increased efforts to support the segregated special education services. According to Goodlad and Lovitt (1993), leaders and professionals have the decision to develop an inclusive setting, if they (1) make and honor commitments, (2) do what they say in formal and informal settings, (3) express interest in inclusion, (4) act and make their actions known, and (5) organize their staff and their physical surroundings to implement inclusive programs. As Praisner (2003) stated, the success of inclusion depends on how leaders exhibit behaviors that advance the integration, acceptance, and success of individuals with disabilities in general settings.Researchers (e.g., Horne, 1985) have also shown that students' positive attitudes may increase their willingness to work with individuals with MR, and lead to removal of barriers to integrate them into society. The positive attitudes of students may help to encourage the establishment of policies and the allocation of resources to increase the integration of individuals with MR into different settings in the society (Yazbeck, et al., 2004).To enhance the policy of inclusion in Kuwait, society needs to evaluate some of its structures and change people's attitudes to fit the needs of individuals with MR instead of making these individuals fit society's structures. Helping individuals with MR to be included into society and establish socially valued roles would not be difficult if the attitudes of society are less restrictive and less resistant to change.As Kuwait continues to develop social and educational policy about inclusion, researchers must pay attention to the connection between integration and attitudes. The provision of educational and social opportunities for individuals with MR can be legislated by Kuwait's government, but acceptance from other people cannot be ensured without knowing people's beliefs and thoughts about persons with MR.Developing an understanding of the attitudes that is predominant in society, which in turn influences the actions of its members, is critical if we plan for social changes and for evaluating the effectiveness of public policy on promoting an inclusive society (Schwartz & Armony‐Sivan, 2001). Given that there are negative attitudes toward people with MR, particular care must be taken to monitor changing social attitudes toward these individuals to identify any serious impediment to the progress of their inclusion in different settings: schools, workplace, and the wider community.Research that is relevant to individuals with disabilities (e.g. Geskie & Salasek, 1988; Antonak & Harth, 1994) has revealed the need for researchers to investigate the attitudes of people toward MR. Wolfensberger (1983) suggested that the key to changing how people are valued socially is to change the perceptions people have about individuals who may differ from the norm. Research, however, has indicated that the investigation of attitudes toward individuals with MR requires a psychometrically sound instrument. It is crucial to conduct research to gather accurate information about these attitudes; it would clarify people's awareness of persons with MR, and assist in evaluating intervention programs and developing appropriate course work for special education fields. Further, it would inform public policy decisions, funding priorities, and service delivery, which in turn, enhance the likelihood of achieving successful integration and improving qua lit y of life for persons with MR (Antonak & Harth, 19 94; Schalock, 1990). Accurate measurement of attitudes could also lead to early detection of negative attitudes, such as personal prejudices, misconceptions, and irrational fears of professionals, social workers, and teachers when they first get involved in disability work settings. Furthermore, it would help in providing a baseline for monitoring changes in their attitudes over time (Byon, 2000).Changing attitudes would help in supporting efforts of individuals with MR to become autonomous (Philips, 1992), and help to decrease the resistance of others to allow people with MR to make decisions about their own lives and to be independent (Schalock, 1990). As the history of the deinstitutionalization movement has shown, becoming autonomous and independent are not as simple as releasing people from state facilities and hoping they survive on their own. Autonomy and independence are based upon choice‐making, and choice‐making must be taught to people with MR, as they have never been allowed to make their own choices and do not know how to rationally choose for themselves.However, as Crutcher (1990) noted, personal choice is based on opportunity, and opportunity is accessible only when society decides it should be. Therefore, in order for individuals with MR to have the opportunity to make their own decisions and be successfully included in society, special effort must be taken to change peoples' attitudes towards them.Moreover, a psychometrically sound instrument of attitudes helps researchers to assess with known precision respondents' feelings about individuals with MR (affective aspect of attitudes), and their conceptions about them (cognitive aspect of attitudes). On the affective side, there are feelings of approval or disapproval of individuals with MR in the society. On the cognitive side, there are beliefs, knowledge, and expectations that affect people's behavior towards individuals with MR. The affective and cognitive aspects affect the respondents' opinions of what services should be provided for individuals with MR and what policy should be adopted. These also assist in the design, implementation, and evaluation of social intervention program and strategies geared toward removing barriers to integration (Geskie & Salasek, 1988).The present study focused on adapting, for use in Kuwait, the Mental Retardation Attitude Inventory‐Revised (MR AI‐R) of Antonak and Harth (1994). The MRAI‐R was chosen because of the limitations of the MR attitudes' instruments in the Gulf States, and in particular the lack of such an instrument in Kuwait. After reviewing literature, it seemed that there was only one measure of attitudes; an inventory developed by Qaryauti (1988). Despite the claimed appropriateness of Qaryauti's scale, we decided to use the MRAI‐R of Antonak and Harth for several reasons. First, Qaryauti's scale was based on Western instruments that Antonak and Harth criticized and motivated them to construct the MRAI‐R. In contrast, Antonak and Harth constructed the MRAI‐R based on a review of more than 50 years of the attitude literature, and developed their inventory on the most available valid instrument.Second, by reviewing the items of the MRAI‐R and Qaryauti's scale, it was clear to us that the MRAI‐R is more consistent with the requirements of the law 13/96 that was mandated in Kuwait to assure the right of individuals with MR to be included into public schools, workplace, and the wider community (see Table 1). Third, the MRAI‐R, unlike Qaryauti's scale, incorporates several components of attitudes: (1) the integration‐segregation of individuals with MR in various school programs, workplace, and community; (2) the willingness of people to be associated with individuals with MR (Social Distance); (3) the rights of individuals with MR to be included in schools, communities, and the workplace (Private Rights); and (4) the derogatory beliefs of people about the moral character and social behavior of individuals with MR. Of the 22 items in Qaryauti's scale, 13 were related to derogatory beliefs, six to social distance, and only three to private rights and integration‐segregation.Fourth, many transcultural researchers have used the MRAI‐R in populations as diverse as the United States, Australia, and Korea. In the US, Ward (1998) used the MRAI‐R to explore relationships between empathy and attitudes among 200 parents and adult consumers with developmental disabilities. Also, Yozwiak (2002) utilized the MRAI‐R to examine the beliefs and attitudes of 210 community members toward a child with MR who was a witness to a sexual abuse case. In an Australian study, Yazbeck and others (2004) used MRAI‐R to examine differences in attitudes between students and professionals in disability services, and persons in the general community (N=492). In Korea, Byon's study (2000) used the MRAI‐R to investigate the effect of social desirability on attitudes toward MR, and to compare the relationships between attitude measures (both direct and indirect measures) and behavioral outcome indicators. Obviously, findings from a large number of studies using the MRAI‐R contribute to its validity. In contrast, we failed to find any study in which Qaryauti's scale was used.Based on the above arguments, it seems that the MRAI‐R would be useful in needs assessments, especially in schools and mental health clinics. For example, when the ministry of education decides to implement the inclusion policy in schools, there would be a need to assess attitudes of teachers and students towards students with MR. The results of such assessment would help in designing programs that improve attitudes as needed. The MRAI‐R can also be useful for social workers, professionals, and researchers who work in a variety of primary social welfare settings. It helps them to identify and target those people who are the most in need of training and preparation to change their attitudes toward MR. In a wider scale, non‐profit organizations can use results of assessing attitudes in advocating the rights of those individuals.In general, the primary usage of the MRAI‐R could be: (1) screening for early identification of negative attitudes; (2) assessing attitudes of specific groups toward persons with MR; (3) pre‐ or post‐ measurement in intervention studies; and (4) helping researchers who aim at studying the effects of attitudes on different variables in the life of people with MR (i.e. job satisfaction, life satisfaction, family relationship, social support), or the relationship between attitudes and demographic variables (i.e. gender, age, marital status, employment, educational status, familiarity with individuals with MR).Following the recommendation of Antonak and Livneh (1988) that researchers should use the existing instruments and stop creating new ones, the purpose of the present study is to develop an Arabic inventory of attitudes toward individuals with MR by adapting the MRAI‐R to be suitable for use in Kuwait. Specifically, the study aimed at: (1) revising the MRAI‐R items to make them suitable to Kuwait's culture; (2) investigating the suitability of the four‐factor‐structure of the MRAI‐R for measuring attitudes toward individuals with MR in Kuwait; (3) selecting a uni‐dimensional subset of items, if the four‐factor‐structure was not confirmed; and (4) examining the psychometric characteristics of the adapted inventory.We decided to carry out this study on college students for various reasons: (1) college students are prospective educators or professionals who will be either dealing with people with MR or making decisions that affect their lives; (2) college students in Kuwait play an active role in social change and in changing public opinions;(3) they are representative cross‐section of Kuwaiti society; (4) a sample of college students is more easily acquired than a sample from the general population.

Background of the research This study intends to analyses the involuntary resettlement of an indigenous Dayak community due to the implementation of the Bakun Dam Project in Sarawak, Malaysia. The significance of this research is that it raises important questions on the impact of development imposed by the state government of Sarawak on the indigenous people who have been regarded as in need of change and to be brought closer to urbanization vis-à-vis modernization through resettlement. Involuntary resettlement due to development projects or infrastructure improvements is not a singular phenomenon and in this context it is often argued that development projects provide employment to the local population and enforce development. However, a dam project also displaces local people from their homes and traditional livelihood. This research focuses on the forced displacement of the indigenous communities at Sg. Asap resettlement because of the implementation of the Bakun Hydro-electric Project (BHP). It is viewed as an involuntary resettlement as the indigenous communities who were residing within the area of the planned BHP had no choice but to move to the resettlement. Their villages and native lands were claimed by the state government for the implementation for the BHP. Thus, the whole problem is focused on the question of why is the resettlement that is promised as a development program for the people by the state government of Sarawak being regarded as forced displacement. In this research, forced displacement is observed at three different levels. First, prior to resettlement, potential settlers are faced with the critical decision of abandoning their homes and livelihoods, causing emotional distress. Secondly, after moving to the new settlement, settlers are often confronted with inadequate compensation for their loss of natural resources, social heritage and land, adding misery to their already distressed situation. Thirdly, resettling people into an area without any supportive resources, i.e. resources whose, purpose is to improve the lives of the settlers compared to their previous situation, fails to accomplish the very purpose of such resettlement. Research objectives and Questions This research utilizes Michael Cornea's analysis, the Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction (IRR) Model (2000), which brings to the main objective of this research that is to examine the outcomes of involuntary resettlement of the indigenous people. This research compares the situation confronted by the settlers in Sg. Asap resettlement to that definition of "involuntary population resettlement" advanced by Michael Cernea (1998). In this definition, there are two sets of distinct but related processes: displacement of people and dismantling of their patterns of economic and social organization, and resettlement at a different location and reconstruction of their livelihood and social networks. Other than that, the objectives of this research are: to observe if involuntary resettlement planned for meeting the labor needs for the oil palm estates is a catalyst for socio-economic development for settlers. And for policy recommendations, the sub-objectives are: •To subsequently evaluate the problems of accessing resources. •To study to what extent the involuntary resettlement has affecting the social and power structures. •To show the level of changes in social and power structure influencing livelihood strategies. •To examine the most effective network that has provided the people a platform to generate their livelihood. This research details the process and impact of the forced and involuntary displacement faced by the settlers. Factors highlighted include the indigenous people's coping mechanism and strategy in dealing with various issues related to land rights and usage, disagreement and differences in the new social structure, competition over limited natural resources and changing power structure and relations. Issues such as the problems within the household because of the changing family structure and changing role of elderly, men and women in the domestic unit are also highlighted in this research. Most important, this research focuses not only at the displacement issue but also illustrates how settlers rebuild and restructure their life and livelihood. Therefore, based on important concepts, livelihood, coping strategies and power structure, research questions raised are: 1.How do settlers cope with the fact of being involuntarily resettled and what do they do to deal with unanticipated consequences of the social changes that occur? 2.How do settlers manage the new social structure, conflict over limited resources and changing power structures and relations within their own community? 3.Which strategies currently used by these settlers have the potential to build a sustainable livelihood in the new settlement? Theoretical background This research takes the approach of regarding resettlement first and foremost as a catalyst for social change. However, resettlement in the context of 'force' or 'involuntary,' certainly does not ensure positive changes. Dessalegn (1989) defined resettlement in a different context: land settlement, colonisation, or transmigration, all referring to the phenomenon of people distribution, either planned or 'spontaneous'. Accordingly, 'resettlement as in Ethiopia implies moving people or people moving to new locations; colonization as in Latin America implies opening up or reclaiming lands for utilization; and transmigration is favoured by those writing on the Indonesian experience and the word suggests cross-ocean or cross island relocation' (Dessalegn, 1989:668). Palmer refers to resettlement as 'a planned and controlled transfer of population from one area to another' (1979:149). Tadros (1979:122), in analyzing resettlement schemes in Egypt, applied the United Nations definition of human settlement as: 'development of viable communities on new or unused land through the introduction of people' and further defined resettlement in two models: spontaneous and paternalistic. The spontaneous model leaves full scope for individual initiatives, and no support is provided by national or international organisations. No attention is paid to the proper place and function of the settlement within the national context. In the paternalistic model, technical support such as education, tools, equipment and other assistance is provided to the settlers (Tadros, 1979:122). The above definitions can be used in a different fashion for this research, thus the term 'forced' or 'involuntary resettlement'. In reality, despite the good intentions for developing communities, resettlement can also 'under develop' communities in the sense that such communities face greater hardship compared to life before resettlement. To this extent, the working definition of 'resettlement' in this research is a poorly planned resettlement through a forced, involuntary relocation of communities onto unused land that is inadequate for communities to develop a productive and fully functional socio-economic system. This research has adapted the concepts proposed by Michael Cernea (1998), looking at involuntary resettlement in general. The concept of involuntary resettlement (in this research also termed as forced resettlement), which is the comprehensive concept most often used in the current social science literature, integrates 'displacement' and 'resettlement' into one single term, in which the emphasis on involuntariness directly connotes the forced displacement. The usual description of 'involuntary population resettlement' consists, as mentioned earlier, of two sets of distinct but related processes: displacement of people and the dismantling of their patterns of economic and social organization, and resettlement at a different location with reconstruction of their livelihood and social networks. Resettlement refers to the process of the physical relocation of those displaced, and to their socio-economic re-establishment as family/household micro-units and as larger communities. Displacement implies not only physical eviction from a dwelling, but also the expropriation of productive lands and other assets to make possible an alternative use of the space. This is not just an economic transaction or a simple substitution of property with monetary compensation. Involuntary displacement is a process of unravelling established human communities, existing patterns of social organization, production systems and networks of social services. Overall, forced displacement of communities causes an economic crisis for most or all of those affected, entails sudden social disarticulation, and sometimes triggers a political crisis as well (Cernea, 1998:2-3). This research investigates the implications of resettlement and the reconstruction of the livelihood of the affected settlers. Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction Model (IRR) provides important variables to explore these issues further. Several important variables in the IRR model are utilised to create an independent framework for this research, and is explained in the following section. As Cernea explained, the IRR is a model of impoverishment risks during displacement, and of counteractions to match the basic risks where the multifaceted process of impoverishment was deconstructed into its fundamental components. The components are: landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalisation, food insecurity, increased morbidity and mortality, loss of access to common property assets, and community disarticulation. This analytical deconstruction facilitates understanding of how these sub-processes interlink, influence, and amplify each other. Reconstruction, then, is the reversal of the impoverishment processes, and can be understood and accomplished along the same variables, considered in a holistic, integrated way (Cernea, 2000:5; 2003:40). IRR focuses on the social and economic contact of both segments of the process: the forced displacement and the re-establishment. The model captures processes that are simultaneous, but also reflects the movement in time from the destitution of displacement to recovery resettlement (Cernea, 2000:18). There are three fundamental concepts at the core of the model: risk, impoverishment and reconstruction. Each is further split into sets of specifying notions or components (as mentioned above) that reflect another dimension, or another variable of impoverishment or reconstruction (for example, landlessness, marginalisation, morbidity or social disarticulation). These variables are interlinked and influence each other; some play a primary role while others play a derivative role in either impoverishment or reconstruction (largely as a function of given circumstances). The conceptual framework captures the disparity between potential and actual risk. All forced displacements are prone to major socio-economic risks, but they are not fatally condemned to succumb to them. Cernea further explains that in this framework the concept of risk, as stated by Giddens (1990), is to indicate the possibility that a certain course of action will trigger future injurious effects – losses and destruction. Following Luhman (1993), the concept of risk is posited as a counter-concept to security: the higher the risk, the lower the security of displaced populations (Cernea, 2000:19). The model's dual emphasis – on risks to be prevented and on reconstruction strategies to be implemented – facilitates its operational use as a guide for action. Like other models, its components can be influenced and 'manipulated' through informed planning to diminish the impact of one or several components, as given conditions require or permit. That requires considering these variables as a system, in their mutual connections, and not as a set of separate elements. The model is also flexible as a conceptual template, allowing for the integration of other dimensions, when relevant, and for adapting to changing circumstances (Cernea, 2000:20). This model can be linked with other conceptual frameworks, to achieve complementary perspectives and additional knowledge (Cernea, 2000:21). There are four distinct, but interlinked, functions that the risks and reconstruction model performs: A predictive (warning and planning) function A diagnostic (explanatory and assessment) function A problem-solution function, in guiding and measuring resettlers´ reestablishment A research function, in formulating hypotheses and conducting theory-led field investigations For this research, the function falls under the third function, the problem-resolution. As Cernea explained, the problem-resolution capacity results from the model's analytical incisiveness and its explicit action orientation. The IRR model is formulated with an awareness of the social actors in resettlement, their interaction, communication, and ability to contribute to resolution. The model becomes a compass for strategies to reconstruct settlers´ livelihoods (Cernea, 2000:22). The IRR model clearly points out the results of social change and social disorganisation caused by involuntary resettlement. For the purpose of analysis, the two major variables used for the framework are: loss of access to common property assets and; social and community disarticulation, give a crucial foundation to exhibit the implications of forced displacement. Both of the major variables have been linked to understand the problems that are occurring in the community and households (shown as dependent variables - the coping mechanisms, the way settlers manage risks and the type of resources that people engage to strategise their livelihood). Each component respectively points out the results of change caused by involuntary resettlement i.e. competition over forest resources, state land and living space, and; dismantling of traditional power structure, communal structure and family structure. Although the central theme of the theoretical framework is forced displacement, the framework is expanded to the investigation of coping mechanisms, power structure and relations, and the way settlers strategize their livelihood. The research framework has aimed clearly at the impact of involuntary resettlement which is concluded in this research as causing the changes and social disorganization in the social structure of the settlers. However, the framework also extends to another level for the investigation of the strategies of rebuilding and restructuring of settlers. Main research findings With regard to the perspective to develop the indigenous people through resettlement program, as shown in this research, there are more losses than gains being achieved especially on the settlers' side. What they have left behind (history, livelihood, rights and identity) at their natural environment cannot be retrieved, and uncompensated. And it is also a fact, as proven in this research that the uncompensated losses continue to be the sole grievances of settlers and the factor of causing continuous displacement amongst settlers. This research concludes that as much as the involuntary resettlement has brought many new challenges to the Kenyah-Badeng, many of these challenges are beyond their capability to manage. The underlying problem is settlers were not actively involved in designing their future in the new settlement from the very beginning the project was proposed. The settlers were receiving diminutive information about the resettlement program, and very limited public platform for them to participate or to voice out their concerns and suggestions before its implementation. The factor that causes their continuous displacement is the non-existence of natural resources and land (other than the three acres given to them as part of the compensation) for them to generate income (remember that most of them are farmers without any skill useful to work in non-agricultural activities). Their life in the former village was hard but they were free to explore as much resources as possible, and they owned their native land. In the resettlement, they are as much strangers to the place as to the way of life they are faced with at the new settlement. In other words, settlers simply do not know how to behave appropriately in radically changed social situations because they are not equipped with necessary living tools. The study of the displacement of the Kenyah-Badengs is concluded in three important aspects as follows: Power structure and relations - In power structure and relations, kinship has always been an important aspect that became the reference for any struggle over leadership issue. Kinship is viewed on a larger scale that includes not only blood relation, but also aspects such as others who came from the same root, indicating that kinship in that term was very much related to sharing of the same history of settlement, migration and culture. It has been proposed that kinship was one crucial aspect that binds this community together, but not likely to be true at the new settlement. The power structure in the Kenyah-Badeng community at the resettlement stand as a separate system, failed to bind the people together, no orders from the leader and not accepting orders by the people. However, they carry out the norm of being as peaceful community, as they have always been. Coping through family network – Because of the failure of power structure and relations, the Kenyah-Badeng become family/household oriented in their livelihood strategies. The family network proves to be the most important coping mechanism for such challenging social environment. The family network provides a platform for its members to generate income, employment, social and moral support, education, and security in general. Livelihood strategies – With the absence of promised resources, settlers are faced with many problems with regards to economic aspects at the new settlement. Their agriculture knowledge is insufficient to success them for employment in town. They mainly work on their allocated three acres of land with other problems tagged along as the lands are located at sloppy and slumps area, as well as faced with low grade soil. For their agriculture productions, they are faced with marketing problem because of the established sellers who refused to allow them to get into the network. This research also humbly suggesting an alternative for settlers to improve their livelihood based on the available resources at the resettlement with the assistance of the state government, at least to initiate strategies for marketing. Settlers need "retooling" in many aspects of agriculture knowledge as that is what they have known best to build their livelihood. Government agencies should assist in terms of skill training related to effective methods to produce quality agriculture productions on their three acres of land. Horticulture should be encouraged on their three acres plot and this method has been carried out by the settlers in their swidden agriculture (slash and burns) at their former village areas. At the new settlement, the prospect of horticulture on pesticide free and organic food can be very encouraging. Methods The information and data for this research were obtained through formal and informal interviews, household survey, household in-depth interviews, and secondary data from available sources in prints, documents and internet. Questions for the interviews were formulated first based only on the research questions. At the field site, questions were expanded and added after numerous trial interviews with key informants to improve the questions before the real interviews were conducted. There were 55 household surveys, and from this survey, 20 households were selected randomly for the household in-depth interviews. The head of households were both male and female. Outline of the thesis This research is organized in chapters as the following summary: Chapter 1 provides the background information of the research area i.e. descriptively introduces Belaga, the region where Bakun Hydroelectric Project (BHEP) was implemented, the implementation of BHEP and the reaction of the local inhabitants. The resettlement in Sg. Asap, and the composition of the settlers are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 2 touches the historical perspective of the Kenyah-Badeng focuses on their livelihoods at Long Geng, their former village before they resettled at Sg. Asap. This chapter also includes a brief history of their migration and settlement to Long Geng, and also the political structure in Long Geng. Chapter 3 discusses the power structure and relations of the Kenyah-Badeng. This chapter draws on the first stage of displacement i.e. processes of losing common property and space with prominent issues such as compensation, land rights and the expected involvement of local leaders in the whole process of the resettlement as highlights of the discussion. Brief history of land legislation in Sarawak based on the interpretation of Native Customary Land and native's rights over ancestral land based on literature reviews is illustrated in this chapter. The purpose of this illustration is to understand the background and general problems of land identification within the Kenyah-Badeng community prior to payment of compensation. Chapter 4 focuses on the discussion of the coping mechanisms employed by the settlers in handling crucial issues pertaining to their livelihood at the resettlement. In fact, this chapter continues the discussion of the stages of displacement highlighting the other two stages by discussing in-depth the situation of "loss of access to common property and space" and "social and community disarticulation". The headings of objectives outlined by State Planning Unit, Sarawak in the development plan of the resettlement are utilized as the base to explain the cause of the displacement and to illustrate the reality at present life of the Kenyah-Badeng. Chapter 5 focuses on the livelihood strategy in which family network is important as the platform for pooling resources. Departing from forced displacement, this chapter illustrates the emergence of coping reaction amongst the settlers by analyzing the family network discovered within the households interviewed in this research. Chapter 6 highlights the changing livelihood of the settlers highlighting the significant of wage employment where remittance is crucial to support their family who are living at the resettlement. The current perspective of settlers towards education and their willingness to invest into their children's education is also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 7 summarizes the research findings and concludes the research.