THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INDEPENDENT READING ON MINI STORIES IN TEACHING WRITING NARRATIVE TEXT IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL Agita Putri Aisyiah English Education Program, Faculty of Language and Arts, Surabaya State University Email: ag1t.ndutz@gmail.com Him'mawan Adi Nugroho, S.Pd., M.Pd. English Education Program, Faculty of Language and Arts, Surabaya State University Email: himmawan_95@yahoo.com Abstrak Sejak Bahasa Inggris menjadi Bahasa Internasional yang digunakan untuk berkomunikasi, pemerintah Indonesia memasukkan Bahasa Inggris menjadi mata pelajaran wajib yang harus dikuasai oleh siswa SMA. Oleh karena itu, siswa harus menguasai keterampilan dasar yang tidak hanya diucapkan tetapi juga ditulis sebagai teks meliputi mendengar, berbicara, membaca dan menulis. Dari keterampilan tersebut, menulis adalah salah satu keterampilan yang paling sulit karena siswa mengumpulkan informasi sebanyak mungkin sebagai sumber dan mengatur pikiran di atas kertas. Itulah mengapa menulis selalu menggabungkan membaca untuk mendapatkan ide-ide saat mulai menulis. Ide-ide itu sendiri didapat dari apa yang telah dibaca. Krashen di Bray (2003) menyatakan bahwa siswa yang membaca terus-menerus dapat memperoleh kemampuan menulis. Oleh karena itu dengan menggunakan Independent Reading pada cerita-cerita mini, siswa dapat berlatih menulis dan meningkatkan nilai tulisan mereka terutama yang berupa narasi. Djuharie (2008:41) menyatakan bahwa teks narasi adalah semacam cerita yang bertujuan untuk menghibur pembaca. Cerita tersebut dapat berupa cerita fiksi dan non - fiksi seperti cerita mini. Cerita-cerita mini itu sendiri berbicara tentang cerita rakyat. Dalam pengajaran menulis narasi dengan menggunakan strategi ini, guru memberikan enam langkah yang harus dilakukan oleh siswa setelah mereka menerapkan membaca independen. Ada tiga puluh lima siswa kelas XI di kelas XI - A5 di SMAN 22 Surabaya yang menjadi subjek dalam penelitian kualitatif ini yang menggambarkan pelaksanaan membaca independen cerita mini untuk mengajarkan keterampilan menulis teks naratif. Mereka dibagi menjadi tiga kategori; baik, cukup, dan buruk untuk mengetahui kemampuan siswa dalam menulis ulang. Data dari penelitian ini adalah dalam bentuk kata-kata, frase dan kalimat. Kemudian instrumen yang digunakan untuk mendapatkan data adalah lembar observasi dan penilaian menulis komposisi menggunakan rubrik. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, guru meminta siswa untuk membaca cerita di luar kelas sebagai pekerjaan rumah. Kemudian, guru melakukan konferensi, mengulas pemahaman siswa tentang teks narasi, dan menulis ulang di kelas. Dalam melaksanakan membaca independen pada cerita mini, siswa antusias melakukan pembacaan independen di luar kelas, dan ditemukan bahwa sebagian besar dari mereka dikategorikan ke dalam tingkat yang baik dan ada beberapa dari mereka masih dikategorikan ke dalam tingkat rendah. Kemampuan menulis mereka masih dalam kriteria rata-rata. Hal ini ditunjukkan berdasarkan komposisi mereka yang telah dianalisis menggunakan ESL Komposisi Profil rubrik . Akhirnya siswa menikmati membaca cerita Mini di luar kelas, mendapat kesempatan untuk membaca banyak tentang teks naratif, membangun kebiasaan membaca, dan mengorganisir komposisi yang baik dengan menggunakan kata-kata sendiri setelah membaca cerita sebagai praktek menulis mereka. Disarankan kepada guru harus memilih cerita Mini yang menarik yang masih berkaitan dengan tujuan pembelajaran sebagai bahan bacaan, guru harus memberikan siswa komentar yang baik untuk mendorong mereka untuk membaca lebih lanjut dan menggabungkan strategi membaca dengan keterampilan lain selain menulis. Selain itu, disarankan bagi peneliti lain yang bisa dilakukan dalam tingkat yang berbeda dari mahasiswa dan dikombinasikan dengan teknik atau permainan lain atau kegiatan yang menarik. Kata Kunci: pengajaran keterampilan menulis, naratif, membaca independen, cerita mini Abstract Since English becomes an International language which is used to communicate, Indonesian government include English into a compulsory subjects which has to be mastered by senior high school students. Therefore the students have to master basic skills not only spoken but also written texts as listening, speaking, reading and writing. From those skills, writing is one of the most difficult skills because the writer gathers information as much as possible as sources and organizes the thought on their paper. That's why writing always combines reading to get ideas to start writing. The ideas itself were got from what have already read. Krashen in Bray (2003) stated that the students who read continuously can gain in writing ability. Therefore by using Independent Reading on mini stories, the students can practice writing and increase their writing score especially narrative. Djuharie (2008:41) stated that narrative text is a kind of stories which purposes to entertain readers. It can be fictional and non-fictional story such as mini stories. The mini stories itself are talking about folktales. In teaching writing narrative using this strategy, the teacher gives six steps that should be done by the students after they implement independent reading. There are thirty-five eleventh grade students in XI-A5 class in SMAN 22 Surabaya were the subject in this qualitative research which described the implementation of Independent Reading on mini stories to teach writing narrative texts. They were divided into three categorized; good, fair, and poor to know the students' ability in rewriting. The data of this study is in the form of words, phrases and sentences. Then the instruments used to gain the data are the observation checklist and rubric assessment of writing a composition. Based on the result, the teacher asked students to read stories outside the classroom as homework. Then, the teacher did conference, reviewed the students' understanding about narrative text, and did rewriting in class. In implementing independent Reading on mini stories the students were enthusiastic doing independent reading outside the class, and it is found that most of them categorized into good level and there is a few of them still categorized into low level. The ability of their writing is still in average criteria. It is shown based on their composition which has been analysed using ESL Composition Profile rubric. Finally the students enjoyed reading mini stories outside the classroom, got an opportunity to read a lot about narrative texts, built reading habit, and organized a good composition by using their own words after reading stories as their practice writing. It suggests that the teacher should select the interesting mini stories which are still related to the learning objective as reading material, the teacher should give the students good comments to encourage them to read more and combine the reading strategy with other skill besides writing. In addition it is suggested for other researcher that it could be conducted in different level of students and combined with other technique or game or interesting activities. Keywords: teaching writing, narrative, independent reading, mini stories. INTRODUCTION Realizing the importance of English, Indonesian government involves English as compulsory subject that should be taught in formal schools from primary school to secondary school. As stated on 2006 English Competence Standard, the students must be able to understand and produce both spoken and written text. For the eleventh grade of senior high school students, they should master some texts which cover report, narrative, analytical exposition, spoof, and hortatory exposition. Those are the genre of the text which is required to be mastered by them in the end of learning process. Moreover, there are four skills that should be mastered by students. One of them is writing. Writing is very needed to be mastered by the students since it can affect other skills. Writing can be a great tool to help students to learn how to form language, how to spell, how to put together a plot, and how to make a logical argument. Hence, writing is needed to be mastered by the students. Unfortunately, writing is one of the skills that most students are not interested in. It is the most complex skill since every single error is counted and it cannot be easily produced. Bell and Burnaby in Nunan (1991:6) said that: "Writing is an extremely complex cognitive activity that inquires the writer to demonstrate control of several variables at once. At sentences level, they include control of contents, format, sentence structure, vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling and letter formation. Beyond the sentence, the writer must be able to structure and integrate information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts". Teaching learning writing is not easy to do. Dhiasa (2009) stated that the students often face difficulties in learning writing. They are difficult to show their imagination. They spend much time to get the ideas to start writing. They do not have enthusiasm to write. Moreover, they have a few of literary review. These are caused by many reasons such as poor knowledge, and lack of time to practice writing. Finally, they cannot write creatively and well then they get bad score and nasty comments. Hadaway et al. in Diaz-Rico (2004:166) declared that writing can make us reach beyond ourselves. It is truly the most complex of the communication arts that combines reading and oral language. It is meant that writing is not a single activity. It is not only about writing but also about reading. Reading is completely important to start to write. It is impossible to write without having any ideas. The ideas itself can be taken from what have already been read. Reading and writing are connected each other. A new idea might appear after finishing reading, and writing is the patch to put that new idea. It means that they are inseparable activities. Krashen in Kusumawardhani (2006:2) stated that reading can help the students become a good reader, get an adequate vocabulary, master grammar, become a good speller and develop a good writing style. Reviewing the problem mentioned above, it is needed many kinds of methods, techniques or strategies to teach writing. There is a strategy to learn writing which is integrated with reading. It is called Independent Reading. Krashen (1993) in (Bray, 2002) provides an overview of research indicating that learners who read continuously can gain in reading comprehension, vocabulary development, and writing ability. Moreover, Elbow and Belanoff (2000) cited in Day (2004) stated that there is an activity which involves students in free writing. However, they are not asked to rewrite any topic they want; they are asked about what have been read, especially on mini stories. It allows the students a set period of time to think about their texts before they begin to rewrite. Therefore, Independent Reading on mini stories is seen to be the effective way in getting the students' knowledge as literary review about activities in the past before they start writing something. This strategy is applied in Senior High School which is integrated with one genre of texts that eleventh graders have to be mastered. It is a narrative text. Narrative text is a text that tells a story in the past. By mastering this text, the students are expected to be able to express their feeling, thought and ideas about the past activities after they read the mini stories. RESEARCH METHOD This research is design based on descriptive qualitative research. It described the implementation of Independent reading on mini stories in the teaching writing narrative text in senior high school. Charter (1972:78) in Rifa'i (2007) said that descriptive qualitative studies include current condition which concerns the nature group of person, a group of objects, a class, etc. and it involves of inductive, analysis, classification, or measurement. It is meant that the purpose of this study is to describe an event that happens in the society and does not examine any hypothesis. The subject of the study was the English teacher and the students of eleventh graders, XI-A5 class in SMA Negeri 22 Surabaya. This class was chosen because narrative was taught in the eleventh graders. The teacher is also implemented Independent Reading on mini stories to teach writing narrative to the eleventh graders in three meetings. The data of this study are in form of information which is taken by observing the real situation when the teaching and learning happened in the class and collecting the students' rewriting tasks in form of composition after being taught using Independent Reading. Then, the researcher classified the students' rewriting in form of composition based on its organization, content, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Composition Profile. There are two instruments are used in getting the data. They are observation checklist in the form of "yes" or "no" option and students' task to investigate the students' writing ability after being taught by using of Independent Reading on mini-stories. The data for this study are taken by observing the real situation when the teaching and learning happened in the class and collecting the students' rewriting tasks in form of composition after being taught using Independent Reading strategy. The topic was about folklore. Then, the researcher would classify the students' rewriting in form of composition based on its organization, content, vocabulary, language use and mechanic using ESL Composition Profile. This method made the researcher easier to classify and identify the elements of writing that used by the students in their narrative text writing composition. This study was analysed descriptively. There are several steps to analyse the data. The observation checklist was used to check the observed aspect by checking "yes" or "no" in the real activities which happened in the classroom when the teacher applied Independent Reading on mini stories in each step during teaching writing narrative text. The result of observation was described, presented and analysed related to the facts that happened in the class. Then, the students' task in form of composition which has been analysed by using ESL Composition Profile was divided into three groups, good, fair, and poor. It was used to describe the students' writing result after being taught by using Independent Reading strategy on mini stories. Finally all of the data was combined to make a conclusion and suggestion. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Findings The researcher used the data from observation checklist. It was limited to the material, the strategy, and the teaching learning process. Moreover, the researcher used the data from the students' task in form of composition which were collected in three meetings. They were presented through description. Then, the data were analysed and categorized into three different levels; good, fair, and poor. The Implementation of Independent Reading on Mini Stories in Writing The first observation was done on Tuesday, 4th February 2014 in XI IPA 5 class. In this meeting, the teacher introduced the Independent Reading strategy and reviewed narrative text. The students should read a mini story then rewrite it by using their own words. The teacher gave folklore story because it was familiar with the students. The folklore story was given in order to make the students read easily and happily. It is given because the folklore was based on the learning objectives. In pre-activity, the teacher greeted and checked the students' attendance list. Unfortunately, three students were absent. Then, the teacher reviewed a little bit about simple past tense and narrative text which has been taught last semester. The explanation covered the function, the generic structure and the language features of the text. Mostly, the students still remember the elements of narrative text which is shown that they could answer the teacher's questions about it. Moreover, they could analyse the generic structure of narrative text. In introducing the strategy which would be done, the teacher started to discuss about the books or texts that the students have read in their whole life. He also asked the students' feeling after they read. Surprisingly, most students like reading books but they did not read any books or texts in English. They prefer reading in Bahasa Indonesia to English. After that, he asked the benefit of their reading activity. Most students answered that they felt very happy and gave respond enthusiastically. In whilst-activity, the teacher gave the first story about Aji Saka as the reading material to the students. The story is from their English book. This story has already given in the last semester. It is chosen because the students have already comprehended the story very well to make the students feel free to read and rewrite easily. It is the way the teacher used to introduce the strategy which integrated with writing. The students were asked to read the text in the classroom. This text was the easiest and the shortest one which was aimed to make the students enjoy reading. After the students finished reading the story, the teacher asked the students to collect the story in front of class and prepared a piece of paper. Then, he started to do the writing activity. The teacher gave instruction step by step to the students to start rewriting the story they have just read. In post-activity, the teacher asked students to collect their rewriting task. Before the teacher closed the meeting, the teacher gave new stories as the second material. The students should read them at home as homework. Then, the teacher reviewed some tips on enjoying reading. In summary, in the first meeting, the researcher found that the students were lazy and bored to read the story although the story was familiar. It is because the lesson was started after the break time. It was not only that, but there also was no van which made the class hot, so the students could not read with pleasure. Moreover, the students were not sure about the instruction of writing. It is showed when the teacher gave instruction step by step; some students seemed to not understand well what they had to do. They were so confused. It is because the teacher gave the instruction in English too fast. Seeing the students did not know what they had to do, the teacher combined the language he used with Bahasa Indonesia and English slowly. He also analysed the task in order to know the students' shortcoming in rewriting a story in form of composition. It is hoped that the students could realize their mistakes and did not repeat the same mistakes for the next writing tasks. The second observation was conducted on Friday, 7th February 2014. The teacher has already analysed the students' task in rewriting narrative text on the previous meeting, so that, the teacher knew the initial ability of the students. In this meeting the teacher would ask the students to rewrite one of the stories about Jaka Tarub and Nawang Wulan or The King, The Young Poor Fisherman, and The Fish which have already been given on the previous meeting as their homework by using the same instruction. Just like in the first observation, the teacher did the same activities in the class. In addition, in this meeting the teacher asked the students' obstacles during reading, the differences between reading inside and outside the classroom and also the students' feeling after reading. Most students gave their respond after they read the stories. The obstacles that the students had were varied such as they felt sleepy during the reading and they were not interested in the material because there were not enough pictures that made them enjoy reading. However, the students felt better when they read the stories outside the classroom. It is because they did not need to read in rush so they had much time to finish their reading. Therefore they could understand the story well. Then, the students also gave their respond about their feeling after reading. Most of them were excited to read more and more. They enjoyed reading because the material that they read were understandable and the words in the story were very common. After that, the teacher reviewed the previous story for a while in order to correct the students' mistakes that they made in rewriting the story on the previous meeting. Therefore, the teacher knew the students' ability in writing. In summary, in the second meeting, the teacher found that the students have enjoyed reading outside the class and understood what they had to do in writing activity. Therefore teacher used English in giving the instruction of rewriting. It is not only that, the teacher also gave music to make the students relax. They seemed to be more confident on their ability to remind, rethink and rewrite the story than previous meeting. Then the third observation was conducted on Tuesday, 11th February 2014. It was conducted in the same class. In this meeting, the teacher asked the students to rewrite one of the stories they have already read about The Gift of Jackal, The Wicked Magician or Love Conquers Death as reading material. All the process of this meeting was the same as the second meeting. The Students' Narrative Text Result after the Implementation of Independent Reading On Mini Stories in Teaching Writing Narrative Text In this part, it deals with the students' narrative writing result after the implementation of independent reading on mini stories in teaching writing narrative text from the first, the second and the third task. The students' narrative writing were analysed by using ESL Composition Profile; that are organization, content, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. Afterwards, they were divided into three levels. They are good, fair and poor. The result can be showed in the table below, Level Number of the students First task Second task Third task Very Good - - - Good 6 9 13 Fair 8 10 12 Poor 18 16 10 Table 4.1 The Result of Students' Narrative Writing in the first, the second and the third task. In the first task, the teacher used the story about Aji Saka to rewrite. It is because the story was the easiest and the shortest. There are five aspects which have to be analysed in rewriting narrative story in form of composition. The content is the first and the most important aspect. It tells the ideas of the writer which they wanted to write. The second aspect is organization. In this part of writing narrative text, the students should write the story based on the generic structure of narrative. It deals with orientation, complication and resolution. Then, the third aspect in writing narrative text is vocabulary. It is about the words choice and usage of the writer which they want to share. The students applied the vocabulary they have learned while doing independent reading on mini stories to make their own words more different than the original. The next important aspect is language use. This aspect deals with the students' ability in language which include with sentence construction, tenses, word order or function, pronoun, and preposition. The last aspect in writing narrative text is mechanic. The term mechanics deals with convention, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing. Based on the first task in the first meeting, it can be concluded that there were many students who were still confused to develop the ideas, composing the generic structure of the narrative text, making good sentences by using sophisticated range of vocabulary, creating good construction, and also demonstrating mastery of convention. Meanwhile in the second task, it is stated that some students showed a few good changes in writing narrative text. They occasionally made errors in delivering ideas, composing generic structure and mastering convention. However, in choosing the vocabulary and using the correct tenses, the students still got difficulties to practice it into a good story. It is because most students considered that the tenses were too difficult to be understood, and also it is because the teacher usually conducts the test for only the tenses. The teacher used Jaka Tarub and Nawang Wulan and The King, The Young Fisherman and the Fish as the second mini stories as reading material. They are still about folklore. They are also longer than the first. It is because the students had some times to read them outside the class as their homework. The students could choose one of the stories above to rewrite into a good composition. In the third task, the students' writing narrative result was better than in the first and second task. They could deliver the organization of the story, rarely made the same mistakes of using past tense, arrange the story in a good paragraph. The teacher used the stories about The Gifts of The Jackal, The Wicked Magician, and Love Conquers Death as reading materials. The collections of short stories were from Indian folktale. Moreover, those stories were covered in a book which titled as Love Conquers Death and other stories. Discussions From the data through observation checklist, it is obvious that the implementation of Independent Reading on mini story can be integrated with writing in teaching writing narrative text. It is shown that the students more enjoyed reading mini stories outside the class which can be seen from their conference with the teacher before starting to rewrite. It helped the students to build their interest in reading without any forces. It is in line with Harris (1998:3) stated that independent reading refers to the outside reading activity that students do on their own with no help or guidance from the teacher. In addition, it was normal if there were some students got difficulties in understanding the steps of rewriting the story during the teaching process. From this situation, the teacher switched the language to Bahasa Indonesia. By using bilingual which covers English and Bahasa Indonesia, the teacher could know the students' comprehension in steps of rewriting a story. Thus, the students could rewrite the story using the steps of rewriting well. In the process of rewriting narrative text itself; it would need a lot of energy. It is because it had long process and need more times. Therefore, the teacher role was much needed. It is to help the students develop viable strategies for pre-writing (getting started, generating indefinite ideas, and collecting information), drafting (scrawling down the ideas, making rough draft), revising (checking rough draft, adding, deleting, modifying, and rearrange ideas), and editing (attending to vocabulary, sentence, structure, grammar and mechanic) (Gebhard, 1996). On the other side to answer the second statements of problem, which is 'How is the students' writing result after being taught by using of Independent Reading strategy on mini stories?' The data was gathered from the students' task of rewriting a mini story after being taught by using Independent Reading. The data was discussed from the first, second and the third observation in form of a composition narrative text. Based on the first students' task, the students got difficulties to compose text based on the generic structure, to implement the past tenses in the story, and also to develop the ideas more detail. Few of them were confused in using the correct spelling, punctuation, paragraphing and capitalization and selecting the appropriate vocabulary. However, most students have shown changes in their narrative writing in the second and third tasks. It means that the students practiced writing well in term of content, organization, vocabulary, language feature and mechanic from the first task to the second task then the third task and they comprehended the elements of writing well. In the end, the students got better understanding in presenting their ideas to the development of narrative text, providing vocabulary better and richer, using their knowledge of English, implementing the convention rules in their narrative writing and achieved adequate result. It is in line with was stated by Krashen (1993) in Bray (2002) that reading continuously can help the students develop a good writing style. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion It was concluded that by using Independent Reading on mini stories in writing activities, the eleventh graders of SMA Negeri 22 Surabaya have enjoyed reading mini stories outside the classroom, got an opportunity to read a lot about mini-story, built reading habit, reviewed grammar, and have organized a good composition by using their own words after reading stories as their practice writing. Moreover, in the process of doing this strategy, the teacher selected the material according to the criteria for standard competence of curriculum and based on the students' level of difficulty in vocabulary, content and sentence construction. The teacher also gives a model and steps how to rewrite a short story. The last is about the process of writing itself. This is the time when the students were asked to rewrite the story they have already read at home to know the students' result during the implementation of Independent Reading on mini stories in writing activities. The result is found that the students generally grouped as "GOOD" and few of them still grouped as "POOR". It is because the students' ability in that class is still in low level. However, this strategy could help students getting fluency in expressing their ideas in rewriting the story. It could be seen from their result that they rarely made mistakes in their rewriting. Suggestion Based on the conclusion above, it is important to give some suggestion to the teacher and other researcher. This suggestion is pointed to the teacher related to the implementation of independent reading on mini stories. First, the teacher should select the interesting mini stories which are still related to the learning objective as reading material. 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Part two of an interview with Settimio "Babe" Pellechia. Topics include: His children's education. The Italian traditions Babe's family tries to keep. Memories from Lincoln School. How Italians in Leominster were treated while Babe was growing up. Social clubs in the Leominster area. Babe's experience in World War II. His thoughts about September 11th. The Italian Colonial cooperative grocery store. Pride in being Italian. ; 1 SETTIMIO: … did very, very good from the hill. But no, we felt that he lacked the basic knowledge at the very beginning in schooling. The first three years were completely lost. But I think it was no fault of his. He couldn't see, and we didn't know it. We didn't know that he couldn't until one day we had an exam for some reason. He had glasses and he said, "Now I can see the blackboard now." We said, "Why didn't you say that before?" He said, "I thought everybody saw it," you know. So that could have been part of it, too, that he just didn't get it. We believe in education: my daughter had paid for her own education, my daughter went to Smith, and she got a graduate from Harvard. So education is the number one priority. We didn't have it. Isn't that something else? Going through, paying for all that education? LINDA: It is. It's remarkable. So it sounds almost as if it wasn't an option for them to work at the motel or… SETTIMIO: No, no. They had to go to school. They had, definitely. My daughter -- my son-in law -- my daughter always, because she was, she graduated out of Smith with a 3.9, so she just ate up school, and as far as I could -- she just -- I used to help her do her spelling, she insisted. You know, there are three columns of spelling and I'm supposed to bring them down. So what I would do is one night I just went in diagonal and I go back, and she said, "Dad, you missed a word." I said, "Well then, that's enough for me." The only thing that I didn't do with her, which was mean, was on math. She had to struggle for math. And one day she did her homework and she did -- everyone was wrong. 'Cause I always used to help her. So just one night I said, "I'm not going to let her get away with that." So it was all set [unintelligible - 00:02:08]. The next night she comes home crying, she said, "You made me get a zero!" I said, "No, you got the zero yourself. You didn't put anything into it." So then I would help her, but she would check. And if I knew she didn't find [unintelligible - 00:02:22], which was, I think even though that she got a zero, it helped her, I think. 2 LINDA: You were talking about Lincoln Terrace and how people had pigs and chickens and gardens. Did you and your wife do that also? SETTIMIO: My wife? LINDA: You and your wife. Did you keep gardens and chickens? SETTIMIO: With all that we had to do? No. LINDA: I could have guessed. I just wanted to know the different generation. SETTIMIO: Nope. My wife always liked that work that she did out there, and I liked what I did. You know? LINDA: Have you kept many of the traditions alive in your family? The Italian traditions? SETTIMIO: Naturally it kind of falls apart. We do a big Christmas meal. We [unintelligible - 00:03:23] children come over, or if they can't make it, because there are times they couldn't make it, [unintelligible - 00:03:29] Thanksgiving. But [unintelligible - 00:03:32] when my mother-in-law was living, we spent a lot of time with her on weekends and so forth. That was strictly all-Italian, you know. Her mom lived to be 99, and she did all the things like that. She was -- she could crochet a bedspread in one month, she'd do a whole bedspread. [Unintelligible - 00:04:00] doing her own cooking, 99 and doing her own cooking and everything. So that's it, but we've got the tradition with that. We got close to her like that. Actually, my parents were gone. You know, they died long before that. LINDA: Who was your closest friend growing up? SETTIMIO: My closest friend when? LINDA: When you were growing up in Leominster. SETTIMIO: In Lincoln Terrace we were all friends; all the guys were very friendly. We all went together. In fact, being in school, in Lincoln School, when I was in sixth grade, I had all I could do to get Cs in spelling and English and anything like that. You know, I just worked hard and I just gotta get a C. But in math I was always a straight A. So at the end of the year, when the principal would ask who was the smartest one in the class, and by all means, I wasn't the smartest, but all of Lincoln Terrace would vote for me, 3 so she got sort of mad. She said, "Now I know Settimio knows math, but we've got people smarter than him in all subjects. Now, we'll have one more vote. We will not have any election this year," she said. That's how close people were. LINDA: So you were going to school at…? SETTIMIO: Lincoln School. LINDA: So was it mostly Italians there? SETTIMIO: Yeah, that school was. LINDA: Do you remember the teachers? SETTIMIO: Mrs. Blunt was the Principal, Mrs. Taylor was the fifth grade, Mrs. Benz was special. I think the others were the younger ones: Mrs. Heinz and Mrs. Lane was there. I think they had newer ones too. But I have to say I don't think they were fair to the Italian people on different things. I like to see justice and so forth, and I don't think there was any justice in that school for the Italian people. LINDA: Can you give me an example? SETTIMIO: Hmm? LINDA: Can you give me an example? SETTIMIO: Just remarks they'd make and so forth. [Unintelligible - 00:06:25] school system. LINDA: That's right. There's a lot of Italians there. A lot of Italians were in education. So you were giving me an example, or you were about to give me an example of how you thought maybe some of the teachers weren't fair at Lincoln School? SETTIMIO: That's the feeling you'd get. Describing something now would be difficult, but in one case, even my brother, the teacher asked, "What makes a good centerpiece in every Italian home that had a bottle of wine on the table?" And he said that he got expelled for a week. They asked the question, and that was his honest answer. So that the -- that was one case that really stuck out when they did that. 4 LINDA: So it sounds as though the teachers really didn't know anything about the culture or the tradition. SETTIMIO: I don't think they cared either. LINDA: They didn't need to care until one became a principal. SETTIMIO: Like I said, I went there six years, and I'm not talking -- mostly the higher up, two old ladies were what they were by then. So old that you could just see it, remarks, much like my remarks and so forth that they… LINDA: Well, speaking about ethnic differences, did you notice anything in Leominster growing up? SETTIMIO: I noticed while we were growing up that people of Italian descent had a rough deal as far as city hall, the banks, especially. They never got a fair shake. Never during that whole time. The difference today is that almost all of our politicians are Polish or Italian, like when you see almost any principal, all but one is Italian. So that's the biggest difference that I can see that's happened. I had a banker tell me when I was billing up and the president of the bank said to me -- I wanted to get some money, to borrow some money, and he says, "You know, you can spoil a baby by giving him too much candy." I said, "I really didn't come here to get candy. I came here to get money." He said, "Well, you've done well. You should just stay where you are," and let it go like that. That's the banker telling me, so I says, "Well, I didn't come here for your opinion either." I said, "I'm still looking for money." So with that, he said, "Well you've got money in this bank." So while I'm sitting at the time, I just saw the door of the bank had gold leaf at that time, Capital, and so forth, Reserve. So I said, "Could you explain to me why the bank would need a reserve?" He said, "Well, you've got to draw," he says, you know, "on the money," he says we've gotta -- I said, "You're asking me to do something you yourself believe in? You want me to take my reserve of my savings and go with other reserves?" With that, he finally gave me the money. 5 But that's funny with banks, with banks I always find it funny you've got to have an answer for everything because they just try to talk you out of things. That's what they do. When I built the motel, that was the time when -- this is the other bank, Savings Bank -- they said, "We'd like to loan you the money. We feel you can do it, but we don't know about your wife. What would she be able to do?" I said, "My wife is able to -- I can prove to you -- my wife was all upset thinking I'd get the loan." He said, "Well, yeah." But I says I've got so much insurance policy, and the whole loan would be paid up with insurance policy. "Is that good enough, sir?" Security, and I got the money. So you had to play with them at that time, and I still think it was because of who we were. LINDA: When did you see that start to change? SETTIMIO: Hmm? LINDA: When did you see that start to change? SETTIMIO: They started dying off and the Italian population kept increasing. They all knew that group for what it is there. We've got to look at [unintelligible - 00:11:31]. I'm sorry I keep… LINDA: That's okay. SETTIMIO: In 25, 30 years we'll probably learn the same thing with the Spanish people. If they fill out the note they're going to be allowed to do what we did, and I hope they do as well as we did. LINDA: Did you see your children go through any of the hardship that you went through? SETTIMIO: No. No. They don't know what hardship is. LINDA: But they're successful anyway? SETTIMIO: Hmm? LINDA: But they are successful anyway? SETTIMIO: Yeah, yeah. They are, yeah. LINDA: Why do you think that is? SETTIMIO: Well, of course they knew they would always have whatever they need from us, and then we always ingrained in them to go out and do better and 6 keep doing things, like -- my daughter didn't take that much, she absorbs education. She was very, very good at that. My son, we had to kind of push him a little bit, but he's glad now that we did that because he notices a difference. LINDA: So did you feel it was equally important for your daughter to have an education? Did she go to Worcester Academy too? SETTIMIO: No. She didn't need it. She graduated with all these kids [unintelligible - 00:12:56] while we lived in Sterling. So, National Honors Society. She got it all as far as marks. LINDA: Would you like to tell me a little bit about the clubs that you had joined? SETTIMIO: The one was -- we mentioned the Italian Society on there. I'm somewhat disappointed it wasn't what it was supposed to be. I really thought what I wanted was a culture society, where we have -- where they teach Italian, where they have Italian plays and Italian speakers, and it didn't turn out that way. They spent a lot of money and made a big place out of it. It's almost -- which they hardly use it, but you need somebody coming in to pay for the bills. So I just call it a glorified ballroom now. So that wasn't -- I didn't like that too much. LINDA: I didn't take the information. Were there any clubs that you had joined in your younger years, or ones that your father and mother had belonged to? SETTIMIO: No, because they faded out. My father belonged to a couple of clubs but they pretty much starting fading out by the time we would be ready for that. I was really active in a lot of other things, charitable things. I've been Director of the Red Cross. I spent 22 years in a hospital as a cooperator trustee and on the executive board. I was President of the [unintelligible - 00:14:46] Club, which is a men's Rotary Club in Sterling. And then I did my bit as far as charity work and so forth. I felt someone's been very, very good to me, and that's why I got into the charitable end of it, to help out.7 LINDA: You see that continuing with this next generation? Do you see that volunteer, that commitment to give back to the community in the next generation? SETTIMIO: I really don't know. I hope they do. I know I really felt -- and I used to say I like that the hospital I fought for was doing something for the benefit of the people. I would always say so, you know. They were going to do certain things, and I said, "This would be better and cheaper." And that's all I could contribute until it started getting away -- I finally left when we got an administrator that just liked to spend money. So after 22 years I said, "You don't need to spend money. Anybody could spend money." So I resigned at that time. The Historical Society, I've been a Director there for years. I'm still on there right now. LINDA: How did -- has faith played an important part of your life? An important role in your life? SETTIMIO: What was that? LINDA: Faith? SETTIMIO: Absolutely. Absolutely. You've got to have faith, you have to be charitable, gotta be fair to one another. That's all really, really important, I feel. LINDA: Think that's an Italian cultural …? SETTIMIO: I've always thought of it that way, yep. See, but oftentimes you take some of the older people, I say that they probably could have done even better, but because they had to work to get to where they were, they just didn't have time for some of those things. So I think they would have been a lot better off, a lot better. I know that. Yeah. LINDA: Another question: getting back to the banks and maybe how they weren't fair enough, did the Leominster Credit Union play a big part in our helping, let's say, Italians in Leominster? SETTIMIO: Italians in Leominster? They were sympathetic to the Italian calling I'd say, but whether they helped or not I don't know that part. Credit-wise, I know they didn't help us in the building. Nobody had the opportunity to 8 sell them anything. And I said this to [Seth] at the time. He was [unintelligible - 00:17:46] he called me up, said, "Some people want to see you. You've got to make money." So the last time I said, "Do you even realize, Seth, that the only way that people will give you money is they've got to earn it?" He had taken me to this bank in New Haven. Not once did they even entertain taking in a bid from me. I said, "You won't be able to get money anymore." The Credit Union did this. I was a little bitter. But they had the opportunity, which I didn't like. I didn't think that was fair; that was -- probably that's one of the things that bothers me most about as long as you belong to when all our lives you got the big jobs. You work hard to get it. I know that my father, it never bothered him how much time he spent figuring jobs as long as he had the opportunity to bid on it. But when they didn't even give you that opportunity, and if you're high you just say "We can get it done cheaper," and that's the end of it. But don't just ignore them. Or even at the hospital, one time we got some bids for some work and a friend of mine asked, he wanted to bid the job. I said, okay, so I talked to the board, I said, "This, also, would like to bid the job." I says, "He's a low bidder. You'll want to give a job." He became the lone bidder and they didn't give him a job. You know, that night, I told them at the meeting, I said, "I don't think this -- I've done this all my life and I don't believe in it. You shouldn't have had him bid if you didn't want to give him the job, because it takes time and money to do that bid. It just isn't fair." LINDA: Just two more things: what was your hardest experience in your life? SETTIMIO: Three years in World War II. That was quite difficult. LINDA: Would you like to explain a little bit? SETTIMIO: Huh? LINDA: Would you like to explain a little bit or share a story? SETTIMIO: No, we're always a family in our own home, and to be away like that. And then under the conditions that you had to live in that you would think you 9 did. But you said the worst thing, that's doing that, although it turned out, I came back, no problems. But even then I worked -- I had to fight to get -- to the top. Now, I was in heavy artillery and, my job was handling 96-pound shells, and of course I just felt that there were better things in life than handling 96-pound shells. There was no future in it. So I hung out with the boys in the survey section, there were eight of them. They did the computing, running the transits, computing for these -- because we had this survey, anything you did on it. And I learned anything that there was to learn on it, and when OCS came, that's officer's training, they get anybody to go that likes to go, and of course the survey is supposedly the brains of the battalion, there's six of them that left for OCS. So I asked permission from -- through the first sergeant and my captain that I'd like to get on survey. And he was nice to me, real nice. He took me a bunch of papers like this here, and they had all these on all circled around, and then they put parts between them. And he said, "I'm going to shake this, and all the cards that fall out, if your name's in there, you can get on survey." My name didn't fall out. And he said, "Now let's see why." Ninth grade -- you have to be a minimum of a high school graduate to get on it, because it required trigonometry and you don't get trigonometry in the ninth grade. You get algebra but you don't get trig. So I said, "But I can do it." He said, "I can't promise you nothing." He said, "You stay with your shells." I still kept there, I started doing it, and I became the -- I became the chief computer -- the [unintelligible - 00:22:24] operator, which wasn't all too good with all the shell people in back now that I'm on the front-line. If we can see the enemy, they can see us. So the payoff. LINDA: I just want you to end with asking you about how you feel about September 11th, what's happening in the country now. SETTIMIO: Terrible, the whole thing is real, real uncalled for. I don't know why you'd have to do something like that. You know, it's murder -- it just gets 10 me that they, that they [unintelligible - 00:23:05] for the world and shelling them and killing civilians. What did they do? Kill 10 people, there's a big [unintelligible - 00:23:16] about it. They killed almost 6,000, let alone the damage. The damage can always be fixed, but lives -- life is gone, you know. Once it's gone, it's gone. So I don't know what the -- what's going to happen. We got to do something to -- somewhere along the line though we've changed. We used to -- every year, immigrants had to register at the post office. Why did they discontinue that in this country? I don't know if you remember that, do you? Every year you had to go to the post office if you were an immigrant, your address, what you're doing and so forth. So they actually were [unintelligible - 00:23:59] they knew where all -- if they still had that, they would know that these guys, number one, that their visas had gone past and so forth. LINDA: I often wonder what the veterans of let's say World War II feel about the men going to fight now, because at least you knew who the enemy was. SETTIMIO: You don't know who the enemy is in this. This is what they -- you have to fight their game, which isn't -- there again, it's not fair. [Unintelligible - 00:24:37] we fought the Germans. We knew what they did. They were in front of us, we were on one side, you knew what you were doing. But to have somebody you can -- somebody in your home and you got terrorists and just get information, the next day you could be gone. LINDA: Anything else you'd like to share? SETTIMIO: Huh? LINDA: Is there anything else you'd like to share with us? SETTIMIO: One of the other things I thought is -- you see that package right there? That little one right there? You organize this; you're at the grocery store. He closed his grocery store so the Italian Colonial could start. LINDA: What was the Italian Colonial? SETTIMIO: Huh?11 LINDA: I don't -- what was the Italian Colonial? SETTIMIO: A grocery store. LINDA: A grocery store? SETTIMIO: [Unintelligible - 00:25:28] be one up there and they became a cooperative. They all bought shares, and he moved his grocery store right next to the other one with all the stuff that we had, you know. We wanted to leave once they start that. LINDA: Well… SPEAKER 3: They were all Italians that got together and formed this cooperative, Colonial -- SETTIMIO: [Unintelligible - 00:25:54]. SPEAKER 3: And when they finally disbanded, they all formed their own little corner stores [unintelligible - 00:26:03]. LINDA: So what was they -- where did they get -- would they be growing their own produce and bring it in, and… SPEAKER 3: Some of them did that. SETTIMIO: Oh no, they bought it. They bought everything, like a legitimate store [unintelligible - 00:26:20] -- I keep moving this don't I? LINDA: That's okay though, that's not important. SETTIMIO: Yes it is, or you wouldn't have it. LINDA: Or I wouldn't touch it. You're right. SETTIMIO: No, but the -- he was very instrumental in helping on getting this Italian Colonial, because he -- number one, if he can close his store, [unintelligible - 00:26:40] but… and then the other thing was bringing the Italian Colonial, you know, the Lincoln Hall in Leominster, which is now Saint Anne's Church, they started the Lincoln Hall, I believe, when -- in 1926, I believe it was. And it was -- the main purpose of it was to naturalize as many Italians as they could. They wanted to move their building because at that time all the different Italians that come from different parts -- Italy was not unified at that time. 12 It wasn't unified until I think in 1961, '56 or something like that, but all these people -- if one club was running the hall, the other clubs wouldn't go. One of those things that they -- that's why the Lincoln Hall failed, contrary to what their remarks they made in the book in the office at Saint Anne's. They said they foreclosed on them -- they foreclosed because none of them would join it. They shouldn't have lost that, you know. LINDA: So why is it they wouldn't join? SPEAKER 3: Parts of Italy, [Forgia, Saladini, Graphinio] had their own [unintelligible - 00:28:05]. SETTIMIO: You could almost [unintelligible - 00:28:08] Boston and then New York and then somebody in Chicago. If the guy in Chicago is on the organization we don't want nothing to do with it, and New York we don't if we're doing it, they don't want to, and that's what happened to that Lincoln Hall, which we can't -- that was one of the bad things the Italian Colonial let go. We don't -- otherwise we wouldn't have Saint Anne's now. So everything turned out pretty well. LINDA: Like who was Lincoln Hall -- who was affiliated with Lincoln Hall, which group? SETTIMIO: All the Italians. LINDA: Oh, so it was a mixture. SPEAKER 3: The functions they would hold there, if one little group was holding a dance or a social event, the other groups stayed away. SETTIMIO: [Unintelligible - 00:28:51]. This is a letter that was written in 1929, as much of it is in Italian, I don't know if you can understand it. But what it is that unless the people joined and paid their dues, they're going to lose the hall. They didn't do it, so… SPEAKER 3: Sounds like your brother, your brother. SETTIMIO: [Unintelligible - 00:29:24]. LINDA: So you said they were trying to naturalize as many Italians as they could. So Italians from any region? SETTIMIO: [Unintelligible - 00:29:34].13 LINDA: In Leominster or any region? SPEAKER 3: Yes. Danny [Cato]? SETTIMIO: Huh? SPEAKER 3: Danny Cato was on this Italian American [unintelligible - 00:29:45]. SETTIMIO: This is the bleeding Italian Americans in Massachusetts. LINDA: Oh, that's an honor. That's your father, right? SPEAKER 3: Mm-hmm. LINDA: So Ann, do you have anything to add? Can you think of anything? SPEAKER 3: Oh, you were speaking about that cooperative grocery store. Is that where some of the people, when they sold out, they would open up their own store like Chet's Grocery, [unintelligible - 00:30:24], all those little stores? SETTIMIO: Nemo had a little store too. SPEAKER 3: Who did? SETTIMIO: Nemo also. SPEAKER 3: Nemo? SETTIMIO: Yeah, it was very lucrative. You hear [unintelligible - 00:30:35]. I'll just tell you a little story about that. My father wanted to get it going good and at the time [unintelligible - 00:30:43] made cash registers, and he had six-drawer cash registers, so each clerk would have to punch their own if they bought it. So my father suggested that the salesmen should go there and sell it, and maybe it would keep them honest, you know, they'd have their own cash box. So at the last minute, my father told the salesman the night of the meeting, he says, "Now don't get alarmed, I'm going to vote against it." He says, "You called me, and now you're going to vote against it?" He said, "If I vote for it, they won't buy it." They bought it, they never used it. LINDA: So the coop -- did different people sell different things? SETTIMIO: Oh no, it was all -- it was a regular store but it was just owned by a cooperative. SPEAKER 3: It was owned by all of them.14 SETTIMIO: This is interesting too, nothing to do with Leominster, but [unintelligible - 00:31:33] they had in Boston in 1492 when Columbus -- it was unbelievable what they did [unintelligible - 00:31:43] try and list it on that. But you see where they -- just the parade and all -- look the way they decorated their buildings. LINDA: Wow, this is to celebrate Columbus Day? SETTIMIO: Yeah, it's unbelievable. It's all parades and all that. There's a state house. It's so unusual. There were no Italians -- I went through this. I couldn't find an Italian name, but it was a big deal for Columbus. Now, in 1992, nothing was done. LINDA: Wow. I know with my children in school, nowadays there's a big discussion whether or not you should even celebrate Columbus Day. SETTIMIO: [Unintelligible - 00:32:28], mm-hmm. SPEAKER 3: But October is the Italian Heritage Month and they have functions going on almost every day, either here or in Boston or some other place where there are Italians. LINDA: That brings up something interesting though. Did you -- when growing up, did you feel proud of Christopher Columbus and that he was an Italian? Do you remember? SETTIMIO: We felt proud of anyone that was Italian. [Unintelligible - 00:33:00] proud of any American that's done unusual things. I don't feel too proud when they name a building for some politician that got paid all his life and had to -- 15, 20, 30 years they name a building after him. What did he contribute actually as far as for the benefit of the people? But we still keep doing that, you know. SPEAKER 3: There are a lot of things -- there are a lot of Italians that have contributed to the world as we see it today, as we know it today, in the arts and the music, and… SETTIMIO: Did you read the one that I had -- the Italian [unintelligible - 00:33:45]? Did you ever see that one? Yeah? LINDA: No, no… where did this come from? From an Italian American?15 SPEAKER 3: I think I saw this on the board at the Italian Center in Leominster. LINDA: Do your children consider themselves Italian American? SPEAKER 3: Oh yeah. SETTIMIO: I hope so. I know my daughter; she spent more time in Italy than she does here now. Sabbaticals and so forth. In fact she's going there for -- she just got a grant to go there with the grade eight students, give a lecture over there. [Unintelligible - 00:34:30] also, you know, different parts of Rome and Florence and [unintelligible - 00:34:36]. SPEAKER 3: She has a doctorate in Italian. She has a doctorate in Italian History. SETTIMIO: She can read even the old script Italian. She's really -- she spent a lot of time there. She spent six years in Florence, so she can really -- in fact my daughter's very thin and so forth. We went up to visit her one day and went to the grocery store, and I saw my daughter do something that she never did. She literally, with her little frame, pushed a big Italian lady in the line. I said, "Linda, where did you learn that?" She said, "Dad, I'll be at the end of the line all day if I didn't do that." That's what they do. So she learned she's got to get in there. SPEAKER 3: Make her way. LINDA: Where does she teach? SETTIMIO: University of Delaware. LINDA: Oh. SETTIMIO: Yeah. LINDA: Have you -- you ever gone back to Italy? SETTIMIO: Oh yeah. I've been there three times. My wife keeps going, but she goes a little more than I do, because women like to travel more than men. My wife likes to travel. She's been to Jerusalem three times. She's been to Kenya; we both went to South America. LINDA: Did you ever go back to the village of your father? SETTIMIO: Went back up to where my mother was born and where my father was, and also where she was born. You know that. LINDA: Well, thank you.16 SETTIMIO: That's all? We're done? LINDA: It was a long time, two hours. Aren't you tired? It's tiring. SETTIMIO: I just tried to accept what I'm going to do every year what my father did from 19-, from when he came here up until he passed away. I want to make it complete. [Unintelligible - 00:36:47] yeah. That's one project I got to do. The other project I got to do is I got a lot of movie pictures that I took, and I want to put those on VHS and break them down. I got the floods of '38, and I got parades and all that sort of stuff, and I got also Saint Anne's -- the opening of Saint Anne's dedication. SPEAKER 3: Very good history. SETTIMIO: I have a library, and I'm a collector [unintelligible - 00:37:23] stuff. I'm proud of a lot of it too. I got all the directories going back -- that's why it was so easy to do this. I have all these downstairs, these books. I also have it on Fitchburg, I go back Fitchburg 1880, and I keep buying local history, whatever I can get, or anything that originally was made in Leominster, so forth. [Unintelligible - 00:37:51] LINDA: It's interesting. SETTIMIO: The only thing is time is running out. LINDA: Oh, it seems like you come from a long line. It seems like people live a long time in your family. SETTIMIO: Well, they try to do it. Whether they make it or not, I don't know. Time will tell. LINDA: Well, don't give up. SPEAKER 3: Don't give up. SETTIMIO: Oh, no. SPEAKER 3: You have a lot of good work here. SETTIMIO: Huh? SPEAKER 3: You have a lot of good things here. LINDA: Did you mention to me that you had your mother's -- maybe your grandmother's wedding dress? SETTIMIO: Yes, I have it.17 SPEAKER 3: Your mother's or your grandmother's? SETTIMIO: My mother's. SPEAKER 3: Your mother's wedding dress. LINDA: Wow. SPEAKER 3: That was 19 -- what? What year? SETTIMIO: They got married what would be the year 1902, I think, or something like that. LINDA: Wow. SETTIMIO: Would you like to see it? LINDA: I'd like to. SETTIMIO: I think it's in the closet. LINDA: Okay, hold on. This is the end of the interview. /AT/pa/rjh/es
Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors. ; Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors.
Issue 8.6 of the Review for Religious, 1949. ; ¯ A.M. D~G. Reviewfor Relig°ions NOVEMBER 15, 1949 Roman Con.grecjations :. ¯ ¯ ¯ . JosephCreusen How Often Must We Pray? . Gerald Kelly Acjes of the Interior Life .". G. Augustine Ellard "We Are His Members!" . M. Raymond Questions Answered Books' Reviewed Annual Index :h VOLUME VIII NUMBEk 6 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS VOLUME VIII NOVEMBER, 1949 NUMBER 6 CONTENTS THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS-~3oseph Creusen, 8.3. . . . 281 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY?--Gerald Kelly, S.J . 289 THE THREE AGES OF T'HE INTERIOR LIFE-- G. Augustine Ellard, S.J . 297 "WE ARE HIS MEMBERS!"--M. Raymond, O.C.S.O . 317 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 40. "Reform" of Cloistered Communities . 323 41. Religious Wears Graduation Pin . 324 42. Sister as Organist in Parish Church ." . 325 43. "Class Money" for Personal Needs . ' . 325 BOOK REVIEWS-- The Day with Jesus and Mary; She Who Lived Her name; The Happi-ness of Heaven . 326 BOOK NOTICES . : . . 328 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 331 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 332 ANNUAL INDEX . . . ." . " . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, .November 1949, Vol. VIII, No. 6. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July. September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street. Topeka, Kansas,. by St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Adam C. Ellis, S.J., G. Augustine Ellard, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J. Editorial Secretary: Alfred F. Schneider, S.J. Copyright, 1949, by Adam C. Ellis. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 2 dollars a year. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing to us, please consult notice on inside back cover. The Roman Congregat:ions Joseph Creusen, S.J. gO,~ religious who, have not made a study of canon law the terms Roman Curia' and "Sacred Congregation" will not suggest a clear picture or ide~. Superiors, of course, know that recourse "to Rome" is necessary in order to obtain certain permissions or dispensations and that their petition will be forwarded to the Sacred Congregation of Religious by their local ordinary o~. by the Apostolic Delegate. Eventually an answer will arrive from the Sacred Con-gregation through the same channel, signed by a cardinal prefect or by the secretary, and there will be a fee to pay. And that is about the extent of their knowledge. Hence the purpose of the following pages is to introduce our readers to this ancient and important institution. Name and Oflfce of Cardinals The early popes like other bishops had their particular clergy, consisting of clerics of both lower and higher rank, among whom priests and deacons held a special place. They were attached to the principal churches of the diocese of Rome, and therefore to the "title" of the church, being attached to it as :it were by a "'cardo'" or hinge. Hence, they were said to be "'intitulati'" or "'incardinatL'" On account of their higher rank the deacons and priests of the Roman diocese so connected with a special church were called "'cardinales'" (cardinal priest, cardinal deacon). Little by little the term "'card[nalis'" (cardinal) was restricted to designate the first priest or deacon of the main churches of Rome. When freedom was granted to the Church by the conversion of the Emperor Constantine, the popes began to call the bishops of the " neighboring dioceses to assist them in certain solemn ceremonies and to ask their advice in more important matters. This was done par-ticularly in provincial Roman councils. Thus it happened that the bishops of the nearby dioceses, who were summoned more frequently to assist the pope, were also called cardinals, or "cardinal bishops." The evolution of this institution of ca~rdinals took a long time. By the end of the fifth century the city of Rome had been divided into seven districts each under the authority of'a "cardinal deacon" 281 JOSHPH CRHUSHN Reeiew ~or Religious who cared for the economic condition of that district and especially for the welfare of the poor. The "cardinal priests" were at the head of the great basilicas and the other principal churches of Rome. From the twelfth century on the "cardinal bishops," called "'suburbicadi'" or "suburban" .(of the cities adjacent to Rome), numbered six. Plus V. (Const. Feb. 17, 1568) for the first time reserved the tide "cardinals" to" his councillors. During the early centuries of the Church the right to choose the new pope was exercised exclusively, or at least partially, by the clergy of Rome, by the citizens of that city, by the noble families, and by the Emperor. Finally, when it became possibIe for the popes to reserve this important right to the cardinals, their dignity and influence were much increased. They were then entrusted with the most important offices of the Roman curia. Those who resided in Rome were more or less frequently gathered in a "consistoriurn'" and became, as it were, the senate of the pope. The legates sent to vari-ous parts of the world by the Holy Father were chosen from among the resident cardinals. With greater centralization of Church government, the number and the difficulty of matters submitted to the Holy See became con-siderably increased. In imitation of civil governments, the pope was obliged to establish "offices" (boards of cardinals, councillors, and clerks) to assist in making new laws and in governing the extensive organization which was required to handle the great volume of business relating to such things as financial affairs, faculties of bishops and their relation to regulars, the struggle against heresy, the interpretation and the introduction of the decrees of the Council of Trent--~to m~ntion only the more important ones. Sixtus V is regarded as the real founder of the Roman congrega-tions. He fixed the number of cardinals at seventy--six cardinal bishops, fifty cardinal priests, and fourteen cardinal deacons1. He also reorganized the sacred congregations, incre.asing their number to fifteen (January 22, 1588). Reform of Pius X From the very beginning of his reign Dius X determined to revise the law of the Church. He made a start with the constitution 1A cardinal deacon is, of course, at least a priest, but his "title" is a church which in early ages belonged to a deacon. Many. of the cardinal priests are bishops, but they have a °'presbyteral ~itle." 282 Nouember, 1949 THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS Sapienti consilio, dated June 29, 1908, by which he reformed the Roman Curia. This legislation was incorporated latei: on, almost without change, into the new Code of Canon Lau), which was promulgated in 1917. According to the. reform of Plus X the Roman Curia now consists of fifteen sacred congregations, three papal tribunals or courts, and five offices, such as that of the secretarg of state.In this article, however, we shall confine ourselves to the sacred congregations and make practical applications of what is said to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Roman Congregations A Roman congregation is a board of ~ardinals who have a very accurately defined part in the government of the Church. They are assisted by a group of major and minor officers, and by a body of councillors called consultors. At the head of every congregation we find a cardinal prefect, except in the cases of the Holy Office, the Congregation for the F~astern Church, and the Consistorial Congre-gation. The pope himself is the head of these three congregations, and the cardinal who would otherwise be the prefect takes the place of the secretary and is called assessor. All the other congregations have a secretary and a subsecretary. The secretary of a congregation plays a very important part in transacting its business. Consultors To assist in the study of difficult questions proposed to the con-gregations, each one of them has a board of councillors who are called consultors. They are chosen from among the diocesan clergy and from among religious, are specialists in their field, come from various countries of the world, and most of them reside in Rome where they are engaged as professors or hold a post in.the curia of their order or congregation. Some of these consultors are Roman prelates. Minor Ot~cials To help the secretary and the subsecretary in the solution of the ordinary problems and cases which are presented to a congregation, we find a group of monsignori and priests who are called "'aiutanti di studio." These are internal councillors as contrasted with the consultors mentioned above, who may be termed external councillors since they do not ordinarily meet for consultation in the congrega-tion. Then another group called "'minutanti'" are in charge of 283 JOSEPH CREUSEN Review for Religious summing up the petition.s, while the "'protocolist'" (one or more~ takes care of the documents and puts them in order. Finally, each congregation.has a bursar, an archivist, and a group of lay helpers who are called ushers. The Sacred Congregation of Religious Let us now pay a visit to the Sacred Congregation of Religious. This will be the best way of explaining what a Roman congregation is and what it does. Pius XI built a modern office building to house the Sacred Con-gregations. It is called the Palazzo delle Congregazioni (palazzo meaning any large, ornate building),, and it is situated in the Piazza San Callisto near the old church of S. Maria Trasteoere (across the Tiber). Nearly all the congregations have their quarters in this modern building, and the two upper floors afford lodging for many officers of the congregations. Entering a courtyard we have an immediate view of this imposing edifice. On the right, as we pass along we see a beautiful fountain flanked by a statue of Plus XI, a memorial to the founder of this new home of the congregations. In the driveway immedi-ately in front of the building, we may see several autos with the legend "S C V" (Servizio Cittd Vaticano) in lieu of license plates. This indicates that one or more cardinals are already in their offices. We enter the building at a door marked "Congregation of Religious'" and find ourselves in a long corridor with high windows and ceilings. Going to the end of this corridor, on the left we find a large assembly room where various committees and consultors meet under the chairmanship of the cardinal prefect or the secretary of the con-gregation; then comes a series of smaller waiting rooms for visitors. On the right we find a waiting room and the office of the cardinal prefect and that of the secretary of the congregation. Smaller offices house the roinutanti, protocolist, bursar, and archivist. This latter is the antechamber to a very large room which has a balcony all around, and is used to keep all the documents of the Sacred Congre-gation. These are contained in steel files, in alphabetical order of the diocese in wh.ich the mother house of an institute is situated. To the right of the entrance we find another series of offices-- subsecretary, various business offices for religious men, for teaching and nursing sisters, and for the past two years an office for the secretary and committee in charge of secular institutes. 284 Nooember, 1949 THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS The offices of the congregation are open to the public for business from 9:00 A.i~, to 1:00 P.M. During these hours the waiting rooms are filled'with religious priests, Brothers, and Sisters, who wear various habits, some ~f which would appear strange to us. Some are dressed in civilian clothes and have no religious habit. These are members of the recently established secular institutes. During office hours the officers and employees are kept very busy, and during an interview with the secretary one will ordinarily be interrupted two or three times in twenty minutes by an usher who brings a document to be signed. The Congregation of Religious is competent to handle almost any matter which concerns religious. When necessary, the secretary will send a petition to another congre-gation or ask for special faculties from the Holy Father. The subject matter of petitions sent to the Sacred Congregation of Religious covers a great variety of things of greater or less importance. For ordinary dispensations the cardinal prefect or the secretary have habitual faculties, and they will grant directly the dispensation requested. Thus, by way of example, we may mention: permission to change a last will and testament, to remain outside the religious house for more than six months, to leave papal cloister in order ~o undergo a surgical operation. For all petitions which require some discussion, a meeting called a congresso is held at least once a week. At this meeting the car-dinal prefect, the secretary, and the subsecretary are present. Som~- times one or more consultors are asked to be present to give their opinions or to discuss the report ("ootum") they have written on the subject. According to an ancient practice all questions of some importance were submitted to the "congregation," that is, to the cardinals who form the Congregation of Religious; but Pius XII has enlarged the competence of the "'cor~gresso pieno'" (full meetings)', that is, when some consultors are called to discuss questions with the cardinal prefect, the secretary, and the subsecretary, and sometimes one or other members of the congregation. The cardinals who are members of the Congregation of Religious gather in the Vatican Palace every Friday for a meeting which is called "'plenaria.'" There are twenty-three cardinals who are mem-bers of the Congregation of Religious at present, but only eleven of them reside in Rome. The others may sit in at a meeting when they happen to be in Rome for their "'ad limina'" visit, or on some other occasion. The cardinals who live in Rome are called "Cardinals in 285 ¯ .JOSEPH CREUSEN Revieto [or Religious Curia." A week before the meeting, each one receives a copy of printed documents regarding the case or cases to be ~.iscussed. These will ordinarily consist of a copy of the petition to be heard, the ,doubt to be solved, and the report (called "'votum") of one or more consultors. One of the cardinals is designated to explain the case to the assembly. He is called the Cardinal Ponens. Instructions or decrees to be issued by the Sacred Congregation, the approval of new religious institutes, difficult juridical questions, are examples of mat-ters discussed in the plenary session of the congregation. Every second and fourth Monday of the month, the cardinal prefect is received in private audience by the Holy Father who makes the final decision-~either approving the results of the plenary session or requesting a further study of the question. In the Congregation of Religious there are five boards or "com-missions" made up of various consultors according to their special competence. Among the more difficult tasks of the congregation is the preparation of instructions and decrees. These require long and arduous study on the part of the higher officials and of certain con-suitors. Our readers may be familiar with some of th~ more recent ones such as the following: the decree on military service for religious (January 1, 1911) ; the instruction on the second year of novitiate (Noyember 5, 1921); on the papal cloister 6f nuns (February 5, 1924); on secular institutes (March 19, 1948). Only canonists can. appreciate how much time and work are consumed in the preparation of such documents. Usually the preparatory work is entrusted to a board of consultors tinder the direction.of the secretary or subsecretary. The final meetings will be presided over by the cardinal pre.fect himself. Ordinarily one or two consultors prepare a draft which will then be discussed by the entire board. Being canonists themselves, many of the consultors realize how accurately terms must be chosen to avoid criticisms of the text and doubts which might arise as to the meaning of this or that word. Even the,non-canonists contribute useful suggestions. Since the consultors come from various 'countries, they look at the matter in the light of the special conditions in their own countries. Hence no one will be surprised to learn that some instructions are discussed for one, or two, or even three years before they are ready for publication. 286 Nouember, 1949 THE ROMAN CONGREGATIONS Procedure in the Congregation A simple example will give us an idea of how ordinary routine business is conducted by the Congregation of Religious. A superior general with the approval of his council decides to ask the Sacred Congregation for permission to contract a debt of $100,000 to enlarge or to equip a school or hospital. The petition must be writ-ten in Latin, Italian, or French. The petition is usually addressed to The Holy Father according tO a well-known form: "Most Holy Father: The undersigned N.N., superior general of the congregation of N.N. (mother house in the diocese of X), pros-trate at the feet of Your Holiness, sets forth the following." ' Then come~ the petition itself: "With the approval of my gen-eral council I ask for permission to contract a debt of :;100,000 to equip on a more modern scale, a hospital, school . . ." ~ Then the need for the improvement will be briefly and clearly exposed. If the congregation has other debts the superior is obliged to mention them also. It is very important to assure the Sacred Congregation that the religious institute will be able to pay the interest regularly fiom ordinary income and, after not too long a time, to retire the capital debt. The petition ends with the form: "And may God, etc." without finishing the clause. Then a final "Your Holiness' most humble servant in Christ," followed by the signatures of the superior gen-eral and his general councillors. If the approval of the general coun-cil is not required, the councillors do not sign the petition. If the congregation has a cardinal protector, the petition may be sent to him, and he will forward it to the congregation with his recommendation. For less important matters it will be sufficient to have the document signed and sealed by the local ordinary and by tbe religious major superior. It should be addressed directly to: ."His Eminence, Cardinal Lavitrano, Prefect of the S. Congregation of Religious, Piazza S. Calli~to, Rome, Italy." According to the importance of the matter, the favor will be granted immediately by the cardinal prefect or by the secretary, with or without having been examined by a consuhor. Certain matters are frequently discussed in the congresso; and if it be something still more important or difficult, it will go through a "plenary session" of the cardinals and will finally be submitted to the pope in private 287 ,JOSEPH CREUSEN audience by the cardinal prefect. For many indults a printed form is used, and the clerk has only to fill in the name of the petitioner and perhaps add a brief remark. If the petition was not presented by the cardinal protector, the indult will have to be claimed at the treasurer's office by an agent. Small religious congregations which have no agent of their own in Rome usually send in their petitions through the diocesan chancery of the mother house, and then the local ordinary's agent will take care of them. In such cases the favor is frequently not granted directly but faculties are given to the local ordinary of the mother house (general or provincial) to grant the favor "if he finds the motives and the circumstances alleged to be true." On the back of the indult are.indicated the various fees to be paid. The first is an alms to be given the Sacred Congregation on the occasion of the granting of the favors; the second is a tax in compensation for the expenses involved (work of the clerks, report of the consultor, and so forth); the third is an alms for whoever executes the indult; the fourth fixes the sum the agent may ask for his work and expenses. Conclusion Perhaps one of my readers will ask me in a low voice, "Why does it occasionally take such a long time to get an answer back from the congregation?" I could igive many reasons. It is not always the fault of the officers of the congregation. Let me remind my readers of what I said above, that the Sacred Congregation has general com-petency for practically all matters concerning religious. Now, according to very incotnplete statistics, published in 1942, the reli-gious congregations with papal approval number about 111,000 religious men and 587,000 religious women. These figures do not include the numerous members of diocesan congregations, nor the r~ligious orders; hence, no mention at all of the hundreds of monas-teries of religious nuns. To give but one small example of the num-bers of diocesan religious, a Belgian bishop once told me that he had ii/:ty (yes, I mean i/fry) smaller or larger mother houses in his dio-cese. This being so, it will not be useless to have a friend in Rome who can go to the Sacred Congregation and inquire of some employee about your business. 288 l-low Orq:en Must We Pray? Gerald Kelly, S.J. DURING the years I have.been teaching religious, particularly Sisters, I have often been presented with this problem: "Exam-inations of conscience sometimes contain the.question, 'Did I miss my morning and even!ng prayers, and my grace before and after meals?' Does this question mean that such daily prayers are obliga-tory? And if they are not obligatory, how are we to explain the question to children?" The problem, be it noted, concerns obligation. It pertains there-fore to moral, not to ascetical, theology; and it is as a moral problem that I intend to treat it. But before I touch upon the actual ques-tion, I should like to make some preliminary observations that may prevent misuntterstandings. Preliminary Observations I lay claim to no special knowledge, acquired or infused, natural or supernatural, concerning the teaching of catechism to children. In fact, I may state quite frankly that at the end of the one year of my Jesuit life in which I had the duty (or privilege) of teaching cate-chism to third-graders I was thoroughly convinced that I had not reached their minds with a single idea. As a fellow Jesuit once put it to me when we were returning home after a catechism session, "Every time I leave that class, it's with a feeling of having been thwarted." Despite that year of frustration, I still retain certain notions concerning what ought and what ought not to be taught to children. For one thing, I believe it is much better to show children (and per-haps adults, too) the fittingness, the loveliness, and the beauty of the various acts of prayer than to try to make precise distinctions con-cerning their obligation to pray) If they love prayer, they will pray; and thus they will fulfill these obligations even though they cannot define them. This seems to be in keeping with the common opinion of theologians to th~ effect that Catholics who lead a devout lFor material on the fittingness and beauty of some of the acts of prayer mentioned in this article confer, among other things, these articles in REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS: Moral Beautg in Our Duties toward God (I, 244-52) ; The Life of Faith (II, 41- 51); and Are You Sorrg for Your Sins? (III, 335-48). 289 GERALD KELLY Reoiew /~or Religious life need never worry about failing to fulfill their various duties to pray. Nevertheless, it is not right, merely in order to encourage children to do good, to foster an erroneous notion concerning their obliga-tions. Consequently, when any book or statement gives them the impression that they have a strict obligation though in reality they do not, that impression should be tactfully corrected. As regards daily prayers in particular, I might observe before discussing the main question that, even if there should be an obliga-tion to pray every day, there is certainly no duty to pray at definite times of the day, for example, in the morning or evening. Evidently these are fitting times. Yet pious Catholics who humbly confess that they did not say (heir morning prayers but said them later in the day surely have a false conscience if they think that in so acting they sin. Moreover, even if there should be an obligation to pray daily, there is clearly no obligation to say the prayers in some definite posi-tion. Some people seem to think that if they do not kneel when they pray they are doing wrong. A notion of this kind should be ~orrected--or, better still, prevented. Now for the question: is it obligatory, at least under pain of venial sin, to pray every day? Official pronouncements of the Churcl'i do not answer this question. A casual reading of Sacred Scripture seems to answer it in the affirmative. For instance, we are told: "Pray without ceasing" (I Thess. 5:17); "We ought always to pray" (Lk. 18 : 1) ; and "Be instant in prayer" (Col. 4:2). Texts like these appear to demand at least daily prayer; yet we know, from the traditional teaching of approved theologians, that such texts need not be taken in their full literal force. In part, at least, they express a counsel, not a command. To know the extent of the Obligation we have to turn to the writings of the moral theologians. Meaning of Prayer What do theologians mean by prayer? In general they distin-guish between prayer in the strict sense and prayer in the wide sense. In the strict sense prayer refers to petition, and it is defined as the "asking for becoming things from God." In the wide sense itmeans "any lifting of the soul to God," or any attual "communion with God." In this latter sense prayer includes acts. of faith, hope, love, adoration, petition, thanksgiving, praise, contrition, and so forth. It seems unquestionable that when we consider the problem of 290 November, 1949 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY? daily prayers we are referring not merely to the prayer of petition but to prayer in the wide sense. To determine the exact obligation of praying, therefore, we ought to study what theologians have to say about the necessity of each of the acts mentioned in the previous paragraph. As a matter of fact, with reference to the necessity of prayer, moralists do not treat all these acts; but they do treat the principal ones: faith, hope, charity, contrition, and petition. These five acts, as treated by theologians, are primarily considered as inter-nal acts; though at times, of course, as when we speak of the neces-sity of certain acts with reference to confession, some external expres-sion is understood. Besides these various internal acts, theologians also treat of the necessity of social worship, which might include in some way many of the prayers not specifically treated elsewhere. A brief survey of these various sections of moral theology will give us all the background we need for a correct answer to th~ question: are daily prayers of obligation? Various Acts The Catholic life is a supernatural life: and faith is the founda-tion of supernatural living. It is evident, therefore, that faith must play an important part in the Catholic life. In fact, a truly devout life undoubtedly includes many acts of faith, at least implicitly, every day. But the fervent life is not the measure of obligation. Obligation refers to the minimum. And. when tbey speak of the obligation of making acts of faith, theologians are very conservative in estimating the required frequency. Treating of the necessity of making acts of faith, moralists first consider the nature of faith itself and its importance in the Christian life. From this consideration they conclude that every Catholic must make an act of faith at the beginning of his conscious moral life when he first realizes ~hat God has revealed certain truths to be believed. Another occasion that calls for an act of faith is had when the Church solemnly defines a certain doctrine and thus imposes upon us the duty of accepting it as divinely revealed. Besides specifying these two occasions, the most that theologians can say about the precept of faith in itself is that we must make acts of faith "at times" during life. Some have tried to define this obligation more accur-ately in terms of years, months, or weeks. These opinions are der-tainly worth reading; but they are merely opinions, not binding on anyone. 291 GERALD KELLY Review for Religious In the preceding paragraph I have indicated duties imposed on all Catholics by the precept of faith itself. Besides these, there are certain occasions when some other precept or special circumstance includes at least implicitly the necessity of making an act of faith. For instance, the duties of making acts of hope, charity, and contri-tion include the duty of making implicit acts of faith because such acts are impossible without faith. So, too, the duty of making a good confession or a good Communion. But in all these cases faith is not necessarily a separate act. Also, if one is facing a strong temptation which he cannot overcome without an act of faith, this act is obligatory. And if one has denied his faith by the sin of heresy or by apostasy from the true religion, he must, in reparation, make a new act of acceptance of the revealed truths he bad denied. The theol6gy on the necessity of acts of hope follows much the same pattern as I have outlined with regard to faith. From the dog-matic and ascetical points of view it would be difficult to e~aggerate the importance of hope. It must be present in the repentance of the sinner, in the heroism of the saint, and in the salutary perseverance of all the just. But concerning its prescribed frequency one must be cautious. Like faith, an act of hope is required at the beginning of one's moral life and "at times" during life. And like faith., it is at least implicitly required in certain other acts, for example, in an act of contrition, in a good confession, and in any effective prayer for grace. Also, an act of hope is required in reparation for a sin. of desperation. We next consider the best of all prayers, the act of love of God. That there are certain special occasions when an act of charity is imperative, is evident. For example, if a man is dying in the state of mortal sin and cannot receive a ~acrament, he can save his soul only by making an act of perfect contrition, which includes an act of charity. Also, if a person is in the state of mortal sin and must receive one of the sacraments of the living but cannot go to confes-sion, he is bound to regain the state of grace by means of perfect contrition. Even apart from these special occasions, one must at least occa-sionally during life make explicit acts of charity. This is the con-stant and universal teaching of eminent theologians, and the only teaching that the Church wilI'tolerat~. Absurd opinions such as these: it is enough to make an act of charity once in a life time, or once every five years--have been condemned. How anyone cc~uld* 292 Nooember, .I 9 4 9 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY? hold opinions of this nature in view of the facts that the very ~ssence of the New Law is ~harity and that Sacred Scripture. urges us again and again to love God is somewhat of a mystery. Yet it is one thing to say that we must make acts of charity occa-sionally or even frequently; it is quite another to say how often they must be made. There is nothing defined on this point; and the theologians cannot determine it. All that can be said with certainty is that acts of charity should be made occasionally, or perhaps rather often, during life. In the preceding paragraphs I have made some references to the act of contrition. These were merely passing references. A sum-mary of the approved teaching concerning the necessity of this par-ticular act would run somewhat as follows. It is a conditional obli-gation; it depends on the fact that one has sinned. The Blessed" Virgin, for instance, could not make an act of contrition--and therefore could have no obligation to do so--because she never sinned. But for one who has sinned, contrition of some kind is an absolute requirement for forgiveness. For one who has committed a mortal sin, this clearly means that he has a serious obligation to make an act of contrition (perfect or imperfect, according to circum-stances) on the following occasions: when he is in danger of death; when he makes his yearly confession; when he is 'obliged for some special reason to 'acquire the state of grace (for example, when he receives a sacrament of the living). Venial sin does not require con-fession and is not an obstacle to the fruitful reception of the sacra-ments of the living; hence it seems that there is no definite occasion when contrition for venial sin is absolutely called for. Confession. of course, would make it conditionally necessary: that is, if one who has only venial sins wishes to go to confession, he is obliged to make an act of contrition. We come now to prayer in its strictest theological meaning, peti-tion. This kind of prayer may be considered under a twofold aspect: it is an act of worship of God, and it is a means of helping ourselves. As an act of worship, petition expresses our reverence for and dependence on God. Understood in this sense, prayer is certainly of obligation for all men, independently of their personal sanctity and of their special personal needs. Yet, if we limit our consideration of prayer to this sense, we can say no more about the frequency of the obligation than we said about the necessity of making acts of" faith. hope, and charity. We can simply say that every man, even the least 293 GERALD KELLY Review ?or Religious tempted, even the most perfect, even one confirmed in grace must pray occasionally. His very nature demands that he express his dependence on God in this way; but neither reason nor revelation tells clearly just how often he must so express himself. Prayer, however, is not merely a means of honoring God; it is also a personal necessity. In the providence of God, humble petition is the ordinary means of obtaining His blessings, particularly His grace, and grace is a necessity both for salvation and ~anctification. Since man is obliged to do at least what is required for his salvation, he is certainly obliged to pray. But how often must we direct our petitions to God? Must it be every day, or every time we need help? Theologians, having care-fully considered the data afforded by Scripture and Tradition, do not feel justified in giving an unqualified "yes" to such questions. The most that they can give as a general rule is that we must pray "very often." Beyond this, the answer is~ relative; some need to pray more frequently than others. As regards the prayers we have considered in the preceding para-graphs, one difficulty in estimating the obligations is that this must be done almost entirely without the help of definite statements by the Church. The case is different with reference to social worship; hence we need but mention this ~opic very briefly. The Mass is our principal form of social worship; and the Church.has stated quite definitely that we must assist at Mass on all Sundays and on clearly determined feasts of obligation. Conclusions I suppose that up to this point my discussion sounds m?re mathematical than religious. If it does, it is unintentional; I have not been inspired by any love of mathematics. I have no desire to urge people to count their prayers or their obligations. And I earnestly recommend for the comfort of all the common opinion of theologians to which I referred earlier in this article: namely, that those who lead a good Catholic life need not be concerned about any possible failure to fulfill their various duties to pray. Nevertheless, mathematics has its place; and one place is right here, in this conclusion. We have to ask ourselves whether all the duties to pray that have been outlined in this article add up to an obligation to say daily prayers. The answer is negative. If we prescind for a moment from the relative duty of praying for the 294 November, 1949 HOW OFTEN MUST WE PRAY ? graces we need, it seems that all the other duties can generally be fulfilled by the devout attendance at Mass at the prescribed times. The necessity of prayer for personal needs might increase this some-what, but there is no evidence that it is a daily duty for everyone. Do all moral theologians agree with the conclusion that daily prayer is not of strict obligation? The answer seems to be "yes, and no." They agree with,the conclusion ir~ theor~t; but many prefer to give a qualified answer for practice. These moralists would answer the questi6n concerning the duty of saying daily prayers somewhat as follows: "Theoretically, there is no obligation to pray every day. But in practice there is usually a sin in the omission of these prayers, because when daily prayers are omitted without a sufficient reason this is often due to a small fault of laziness, sensuality, or human respect." This formula, or one somewhat similar, is sponsored by eminent theologians; and catechists who wish to follow it in explaining the duty of praying are certainly justified in doing so. But I would not recommend it. I find it confusing. It says, on the one hand, that daily prayers are not of obligation; yet, on the other, it demands a sufficient reason under pain of sin for omitting them. This seems to beg the entire question. For if there is no obligation to say daily prayers, why should a reason be required under pain of sit~ for omitting them? As for the statement that failure to say these prayers could be a sin of laziness, this seems to ignore completely the distinction between imperfection and venial sin.2 For laziness is not a sin in the strict sense; it is an inordinate disposition or tendency, and it becomes sinful only when it leads to the neglect of some duty binding under pain of sin. In other words, laziness is an imperfec-tion when it induces one to'act against a counsel (e.g., to break a rule which does not bind under pain of sin), and it is a sin when it leads one to violate a precept (e.g., to miss Sunday Mass in whole or in part).8 And what I have said of laziness is similarly true of such things as sensuality and human respect. 2Some authors hold that a positive imperfection is a venial sin. These men might logically defend.the formula I am here criticizing. But many moralists who pro-pose this kind of formula also hold firmly to the distinction between positive imperfections and venial sins. aEven here, when we speak of the "sin of laziness," it is not a specific kind of sin, but merely the source of sin. This is obvious from the fact that when ones misses Mass through laziness, all that he is obliged to confess is the fact that he missed Mass. 295 GERALD KELLY Because of these difficulties, I would not personally recommend the formula. I prefer the practical explanation given by Father Tan-querey m his moral theology, which may be roughly translated as follows: "The faithful are to be urged to pray daily, especially in the morning to ask the graces they need for the day, and in the evening to thank God for benefits received, to make .an act of contrition for their sins, and to commend their souls to God before going to sleep. Those who omit their morning and evening prayers do not sin directly by this omission; but experience proves that, all other things being equal, those who do not say these prayers fall into sin more frequently than those who. do.TM One final point. In view of all that has been said, what is a catechism teacher to do when the examination of conscience for children includes the question: ':Did I miss my morning and evening prayers, and my grace before and after meals?" Before I answer, let me recall my own experience in teaching third-graders. With this experience in mind, I have not the temerity to suggest the precise method of illuminating young minds. All that I dare suggest is that the teacher try in some way to convey the following ideas to the children : "This question does not mean that you would commit a sin every time you omit these prayers. The question is put there to remind you that all of us must often p~ay and that those times are especially fitting times for prayer. If you do not pray at these times, there is a good chance that you won't pray at other times, either; and this would mean that you do not pray even when you really need it, and that would be a sin. So, keep the habit of saying these daily prayers, and when you go to confession check up on yourselves to see whether you have been saying them. If you find that you often miss your daily prayers, you will know that you are getting a bad habit, and you ought to correct it." 4Cf. A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Tbeologiae Moralis et Pastoraiis, II (1936), n. 861. 296 The Three Ages of the Interior Life G. Augustine Ellard, S.J. WITH the publication of the second volume of T~e Three Ages of the Interior Life1 the work is now. complete in English. The first volume was considered in this REVIEW, VI (July, 1947), 249. In what follows the work as a whole is discussed. I. Content As the title suggests, spiritual development is conceived and pre-sented after the analogy of organic growth. Corresponding to the periods of childhood, adolescence, and maturity in natural human life, there are in the supernatural life also three stages of spiritual evolution, namely, progress along the purgative, illuminative, and unitive ways. Moreover in both the natural and the supernatural orders each of the three periods is ushered in by a crisis. Of these the first is birth for one's physical life; corresponding to it there is justifi-cation, or the beginning of one's interior life. Adolescence is intro-duced by the second crisis, puberty; and, analogously to it, with "the night of sense" a person enters upon the illuminative way. Finally, the third natural crisis consists in attaining one's majority or reaching maturity; the spiritual correlate is "the night of the spirit," which is followed by the transforming union, the state of full super-natural maturation. It will be noticed that two of the three ages are mystical. In case one should fail to make sufficient progress, or grow up, one would become a dwarf or midget. In an elaborate arrange-ment, summarized diagrammatically on page 245 of volume I, degrees of the virtues, the functions of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, various purifications, and the grades of prayer are assigned to each of the three ages. So much for the general idea indicated by the title. The second volume covers the second and third ages, that is, the illuminative way of proficients and the unitive way Of the perfect. Treatment of the illuminative way is introduced with a discus-sion of "the second conversion" and the necessity for it. Here, 1THE THREE AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE, Prelude of Eternal Life. B~ The Rev. R. Gattigou-Lagrartge, O.P. Translated by Sister M. Timothea Doyle, O.P., Rosary College, River Forest, Illinois. Volume Two. Pp. xiv -b 668. B. Herder Book Co., St. Louis 2, Missouri, 1948. $7.50. 297 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious besides Father Lallemant, who originated the expression, St. Cath-erine of Siena, Suso, and Tauler are drawn upon. Then the passive purification of the senses is handled; for this the great authority is St. John of the Cross. The principal characteristics of proficients are pointed out. After a chapter in which with the aid of a drawing the virtues and gifts of persons in this stage are fitted together into an imposing "spiritual edifice," the virtues, both moral and theo-logical, are taken up separately. There follows a section on docility to the Holy Spirit, ohe of the supernatural traits peculiarly empha-sized in this' work. Next the discernment of spirits, the Sacrifice of the Mass, Holy Communion, and devotion to Mary are dealt with inasmuch as they pertain specifically to this second age. After some pages on "the universal accessibility of the mysticism of The Imita-tion," we come to what in all this matter seems to be the author's leading preoccupation, namely, a series of chapters on contemplation. The author professes-to describe the passage from acquired prayer to initial infused contemplation in accordance with the teaching of St. Francis de Sales, St. Thomas, St. Teresa, and St. John ot: the Cross. In the official condemnation by the Church of the errors of the Quietists Father Garrigou-Lagrange finds a confirmation of his doctrine on the beginnings of infused prayer. Then there follows a more cbntroversial discussion of certain questions ~elative to infused contemplation; how, for instance, it should be defined, what its intimate nature is, what forms its progress takes, what it does not require, what the call to it is, and so on. Finally, the treatment of the illuminative way and of the third part of The Three Ages is concluded with a consideration of the agreements and disagreements between St. Teresa and St. John. The one is not a theologian and the other is. Part Four is concerned with the mature age and the unitive way of the perfect. In particular, it describes the passive purification .of the spirit, the habitual union of perfect souls with God, "the way of spiritual childhood" constituting a special form of the perfect life, the heroic degree of the virtues, and lastly different forms and degrees of the unitive life. Under this general heading come the perfect apostolic life, advanced reparation, the influence of the Holy Spirit in those who have reached this period, arid mystical union and ecstatic union according to St. Teresa, and then at last the trans-forming union, prelude to the union of heaven. At this point by way of appendix the author does a most unusual thing: he inserts a whole article by another writer who shares the same opinions on the 298 Not~ember, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE mystical problems that have been much debated in recent years. The fifth part deals briefly with extraordinary graces, that is, those miraculous favors which sometimes accompany high sanctity. The differences between facts of divine origin and morbid phenomena are pointed out. The diabolical manifestations of possession and obsession are also considered. The "Epilogue" returns again tb controversy. The first part is on "the axis of the spiritual life and its unity," the axis being faith, hope, and charity, and is made up mostly of a discussion about the distinction between ascetical and mystical theology. The second part deals with "the beatific vision and its normal prelude." One might think that this prelude, mentioned so often, would be a high degree of purity or virtue. Rather it is infused contemplation, especially as it occurs in the transforming union. The great raison d'etre of this whole large work, treating the spiritual life from beginning to end, seems to be to propound the thesis that infused contemplation comes within the normal develop-ment of the interior life and is morally necessary for the full perfec-tion of Christian life. Everything appears to be centered around that thesis. Over and over again it is indefatigably reiterated. On this more than on anything else will probably depend the permanent value and importance of the work. According to the author beginners meditate, that is, practice a discursive method of prayer, though their meditation may become simplified. Of course they receive help from the gifts of the Holy Spirit, present in all just souls, but this influence is latent and is not characteristic of their kind of prayer. If they advance as they should and if no special obstacles intervene, they will be given the grace of. infused contemplation. All contemplation practically, or at least contemplation as "the great masters" understood it, is infused. It is so called because it is due to a special inspiration coming through the gifts and is not at our disposal, like, for example, the ability to meditate, It proceeds from living faith illumined by the gifts of wisdom and understanding. Ordinarily the first form of infused contemplation granted by , the Holy Spirit is that described by St. dohn of the Cross as "the night of sense.". Then, if one be faithful and continue to make sufficient progress, one will also go through all the mystic ascensions as set forth by St. Teresa and St. 3ohn and finally come to rest in the transforming union or mystic marriage. Here the full perfection both of contemplation and of the Christian life are attained. More- 299 G.AUGUSTINE F~LLARD for Religious over, to this happy state all are called. As a matterof fact it is rare, but that is only because men are not generous enough in accepting the graces that would bring them to it. Thus a magnificent prospect is opened out before one who undertakes to pursue the spiritual life in earnest. I[. Merits Among the special values of The Three Ages would be included, I should say, these points: it is the latest and best expression of a very eminent theologian's doctrine; it is an excellent presentation of the spirituality of the present-day Dominican School; one can learn a considerable amount of theology from it; and, most of all, it has great inspirational power and force. Father Garrigou-Lagrange has long been a theologian of great distinction. In the Thomist school he has been among the first and foremost for a generation. To his credit there stands a long list of learned works in philosophy and dogmatic theology. For a number of years he has also taken a very keen interest in ascetical and mysti-cal theology and here too he has written very much. Altogether he is said to have published more than two hundred articles or books. His influence, in spiritual matters and ideas is very great, and any-thing that he proposes is apt to be taken up and propagated by numerous lesser authorities. The Three Ages sums up, completes, and puts in convenient form most of the ideas which be has pre-viously taught in his other spiritual writings. Hence it is now, and very probably will remain, the definitive expression of his thought in ascetical and mystical matters. It is also an admirable presentation of the general spiritual doc-trine of a group of Dominican Fathers, and in varying degrees also of others who agree with them. In other words, it gives the teaching of a certain school of spirituality within the Church, and one, too, which in our time enjoys special favor and exerts great influence. The simplest way now to indicate the substance of their doctrine is to say that it is just that which is set forth in The Three Ages. No other work synthesizes it so well. One could also say that it is that sys-tem of spirituality which is proposed in France by La Vie Spirituelle, in Spain by La Vida Sobrenatural, and now in this country by the new Cross and Crown. Now that several of Father Garrigou- Lagrange's spiritual books have been translated into English, he is by all means the chief representative of this school in our language as well as in his own. 3OO November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE From what has been said it will surprise nobody that from n careful reading of The Three Ages one could learn much theology. The author is nothing if not a theologian; not, for instance, a psy-chologist. But one would have to remember carefully that it is the-ology of the Thomist school, not always simply Catholic theology. Throughout this work, from the first page to the last, St. Thomas is quoted over and over again; consequently one can learn much of the Saint's doctrine from it. An example of how theology enters into this second volume: the first chapter is concerned mostly with the language of spiritual writers as compared with that of the theo-logians. It is concluded that the language of the mystics, expressing infused contemplation, is the loftier of the two. Naturally those parts of theology are drawn upon most which relate to the practical living and development of the supernatural life: ~he inhabitation of the Blessed Trinity, sanctifying grace, the virtues, both moral and theological, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, the nature ot? Christian perfection, the Sacrifice of the Mass, Holy Com-munion, prayer, and contemplation. There is a chapter on the errors of the Quietists about contemplation and pure love. On this latter Father Garrigou-Lagrange wrote at great length in L'Amour de Dieu et la Croix de des.us. Of all the excellences of this work, the principal one, I should say, is its inspirational value. Eminent theologian that he is, the author keeps reminding his readers of the grand dogmas of Chris-tianity, their "infinite elevation," their implications for our affective and practical lives, and the supreme motive power that they could and should have for our wills. One who is looking for something on a favorite minor devotion will not find it in The Three Ages; but one will be treated therein to a wealth o1: dogmatic material that makes an unsurpassed background for the spiritual life and subject matter for ennobling reflection and mental prayer. From the way and manner in which Father Garrigou-Lagrange handles such important doctrines as the inhabitation of the Blessed Trinity, the worth of sanctifying grace, the superiority of the infused virtues, the humility and magnanimity of Christ, the values of faith, hope, and charity, the Sacrifice of the Mass, reception of the Holy Eucharist, the fruits of devotion to the Blessed Virgin, and so on, a reader feels his heart warmed and his enthusiasm enkindled for these great truths. III. Demerits On the debit side some deficiences are observable in The Three 301 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious Ages. It is all the more necessary and important to point them out-- and this is the reason for these criticisms--inasmuch as the work will most likely be read very widely and exert a very great influence. To many readers, less conversant with modern mystical controversies or less critical in accepting what a noted theologian writes, the book could easily be misleading in certain matters. The greater an author's reputation and the more excellent his work, the worse may be the consequences of its defects. The Three Ages is theoretical rather than practical; it is one-sided and narrow; an essential part of it, namely, its doctrine on the gifts of the hoIy Spirit, is uncertain; and its main thesis is not after all really so significant. 1. For a work that is directed to interior souls generally and has the professed aim of inviting them "to become more interior and to tend to union with God" (II, p. 8), The Three Ages has overmuch that is speculative and controversial. It inclines rather to stress the-ory than practice, metaphysics than psychology, contemplation than life, and the gifts of the Holy Spirit rather than the virtues. From the practical point of view, there are some surprising omissions. The particular examination of conscience seems not even to be mentioned, although surely it is one of the major techniques in modern Catholic asceticism. For the general examination no precise method is sug-gested. What is more strange, for all those who do not as yet enjoy infused contemplation--and surely, they would, be-numerous-- only 19 of the 1162 pages are given to mental prayer. Those who" struggle with the difficulties of meditation will not find much help or consolation. No definite method of: meditation or of any other form of mental prayer is offered. The well-known methods used in the Church are not even named. Of the little written on method a con-siderable part is rather in disparagement of it or against the abuses of it. A beginner might well ask what he is to do until.the time comes --and that may be in the distant future--when he is favored with mystical contemplation. In another and more general way The Three Ages does not seem to be as practical a work on spirituality as most people could rightly desire. Throughout, the emphasis is on the gifts of the Holy Spirit in contrast to the virtues. The "special inspirations" of the gifts are quite beyond our reach, except that indirectly by co-operating with previous graces we can dispose ourselves to receive .them. A practical-minded person bent on applying what he reads to his life might ask: "What can I do about the gifts that I am not doing anyway in culti- 302 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE vating the virtues? Wait for their, inspirations? Then, when they come, how shall I recognize them?" It would appear, both on theoretical and practical grounds, much better to emphasize the vir-tues, at least the theological virtues, faith, hope, and charity. The gifts are supposed to be subordinated to these latter. In general it is true of the whole work that it does not get down, except by way of inspiration and motivation, to the everyday details of actually living the good life. 2. The Three Ages is a very splendid exposition of one concep-tion of the spiritual life, but it is only one, and not simply the Cath-olic view. Nor does it make this fact sufficiently clear in its text. Consider, for example, the division of three ways, fundamental in this work. A leading contemporary spiritual author, whose doc-trine is on the whole very much like that of Father Garrigou- Lagrange and to whom this latter seems to be much indebted, is Msgr. Saudreau, the author of The Degrees of the Spiritual Life and other books. Saudreau, who also makes much use of St. John of the Cross, assigns infused contemplation to the unitive way (see the whole second volume of The Degrees) ; Garrlgou-Lagrange assigns it to both the illuminative and unitive ways--a great difference indeed. The manual now most widely used in ascetical and mystical matters is the Sulpician Tanquerey's The Spiritual Life. He has the three ways without any necessary inclusion of infused contemplation at all; it may or may not come within the unitive way (pp. 301, 461, 606, 736). The last Carmelite to write a full systematic treatise on ascetical and mystical theology is Crisogono del Jesus Sacramentado, Compendio de Ascetica ~1 Mistica (1933). He provides for a double set of three ways: one without infused contemplation, the other with it (pp. 53, 156). So does Naval, of the Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart, in Tbeologiae Asceticae et M~tsticae Cursus (p. 32). On contemplation also there is a difference. Among all the schools of spirituality in the Church, the one which has, so to speak, specialized most on contemplation is that of the Carmelites, and of course they glory in presenting the teaching of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross. Their doctrine, or at least the expression of it, is not the same as what we find in The Three Ages. The leading representative now of the Carmelites is Father Gabriel of St. Mary Magdalen, professor of spiritual theology in the International Col-lege of-St. Teresa, Rome. He has written much on acquired contem-plation. Half of his work, St. John of the Cross, recently published 303 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious in English, is devoted to it. Besides, in Ecole Teresiene et Problems M~lstiques Contemporains, he writes: "By their doctrine on the con-templation that belongs to beginners, the Carmelite authors of the first generation gave the first indication of the doctrine of acquired contemplation that soon became one of the characteristics of the Carmelite School. They teach in fact the existence of a contempla-tion that follows meditation, that proceeds from it, though one may easily find in it some infusion of celestial light. Does not a con-templation which is the fruit of our activity in meditation merit the name 'acquired'? (p. 79) . It is certain . . . that this teaching on acquired contemplation is one of the characteristics of the Carmelite School" (p. 86). Very recently, at the end of a study on Thomas of Jesus and acquired contemplation, Father Gabriel writes: "Nothing that we have found contradicts, rather on the contrary everything favors, the traditional teaching of the Teresian school which sees in the doctrine of St. John of the Cross on the transition from meditation to contemplation the origin of the doctrine of acquired contempla-tion, and we need not fear to give to him whom that school names its Mystical Doctor the title also, more humble indeed but still impor-tant, of 'the Master of active contemplation' " (Revue d'Ascetique et Mystique, 1949, 17). In Father Garrigou-Lagrange's view of how mental prayer develops there is hardly any place for acquired contemplation. Con-templation, as "the great spiritual writers, especially St. John of the Cross and St. Teresa" understood it, is infused, and "ordinarily" (II, p. 337) it follows meditation. Quite fundamental to The Three Ages is the general interpreta-tion which it takes of the whole system of St. John of the Cross. According to one of the foremost contemporary Benedictine authori-ties on mysticism, it is not at all the right one. In commenting upon Garrigou-Lagrange's previous book, Christian Perfection and Con-templation, identical in this matter with the present work, and after saying that he presents in an incomparable way the doctrine of St. Thomas on Christian perfection, he adds: "but the conception that St. John of the Cross had of mysticism and contemplation entirely escaped him" (Mayer, M~stik als Lehre und Leben, p. 225). Other scholars also who have specialized in mystical studies take a very different view of St. John; for example, Marechal (Etudes sur la Ps~lcbologie des Mttstiques, v. II, especially pp. 321-359), and 304 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE Crisogono del ,)esus Sacramentado, San Juan de Ia Cruz, su Obra Cientitica g Literaria. 3. Next we come to the gravest defect that I find in The Three Ages, namely the uncertaintg of much of it, and the fact that this uncertainty is not sufficiently acknowledged by the author. Making a clear-cut distinction between recognized Catholic dogma or doc-trine and the conclusions or theological speculations that he shares is surely not one of Father Garrigou-Lagrange's excellences. This has been true of his writings in general. The whole vast construction presented in these two large volumes stands or falls with the special doctrine on the gifts of the Holy Spirit which forms as it were the supporting framework of it. How fully it enters into the whol~ system can be seen at a glance by consulting the diagrammatic outline on page 245 of volume I. And still this particular theory is proposed without any adequate indidation of its speculative and uncertain character. As a matter of fact there is very little in the theology of the gifts that is certain and commonly acknowledged as such. After quoting Leo XIII, Father Garrigou-Lagrange himself thus summarizes the papal teaching: "Encyclical Divinum illud munus (May 9, 1897), circa iinem. This text shows: (1) the necessity of the gifts ('has need of') ; (2) their nature: they make us docile to the Holy Ghost; (3) their effects: they can lead us to the summit of sanctity." (Vol. I, p. 70.) There is a great difference between these three simple points and the whole theory that forms the skeleton, so to speak, of The Three Ages. There never has been and is not now any consensus among theo-logians as to how the gifts of the Holy Spirit are to be conceived." Scotus denied the very existence of the gifts as distinct entities. Apparently his whole school, especially the Franciscan theologians, still does. From a recent Franciscan publication: "The doctrine of the Franciscan school and especially that of Scotus, tends to a simpli-fication of the spiritual life. The supereminence of charity and its effectiveness in the Christian life as stressed by our school show the unity of that life very clearly. This same trait in the teaching of Scotus is seen in his doctrine on the nature of the gifts of the Holy Spirit . Here again Scotus insist~ that entities must not be multi-plied without necessity. And once more we are impressed with the marvelous synthesis and unity in these various phases of the spiritual life as explained by the Subtle Doctor .Scotus maintains that the 305 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious gifts are not distinct from the virtues. He points out that there is no necessity for distinct habits, since the three theological virtues and the four cardinal virtues perfect man sufficiently for even the most heroic and very highest action." (The Virtues according to Franciscan School, Franciscan Clerics, Old Mission Santa Barbara, 1946.) In this denial Scotus was followed by the great doctor of the Church and master in spirituality, St.' Francis de Sales, who also is one of Father Garrigou-Lagrange!s preferred authorities. On the gifts St. Francis says: "Now they are not only inseparable from charity, but, all things well considered, and speaking precisely, they are the principal virtues, properties and qualities of charity. For (1) Wisdom is in fact no other thing than the love which relishes, tastes and experiences, how sweet and delicious God is; (2) Under-standing is nothing else than love attentive to consider and penetrate the beauty of the truths of faith, to know thereby.God in Himself, and then descending from this to consider Him in creatures; (3) Science, on the other hand, is but the same love, keeping us attentive to the knowledge of ourselves and creatures, to make us reascend to a more perfect knowledge of the service which we owe to God"; and so on, through the other four gifts. (The Lot~e ot: God, XI, 15.) Again, in a later chapter: "So that, Theotimus, most holy charity is a virtue, a gift [in the context clearly a gift of the Holy Spirit], a fruit and a beatitude . As being a gift, charity makes us docile and tractable to interior inspirations, which are, as it were, God's secret commandments and counsels, in the execution of which the.seven gifts of the Holy Ghost are employed, so that charity is the gift of gifts." (XI, 19.) One of the few works in English on dogmatic theology has the following to say on the gifts: "Thesis III: The seven gifts of the Holy Ghost are also infused with sanctifying grace. This proposi-tion may be qualified as "probabilis' . . . . Are these seven gifts (or some of them) really distinct from the infused moral virtues? Are they habits or habitual dispositions, or merely transient~ impulses or inspirations? What are their mutual relations and how can they be divided off from one another? These and similar questions are in dispute among theologians." (Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, p. 369.) In the Catholic Encyclopedia, over the signature of Forget, pro-fessor of dogmatic theolqgy in the University of Louvain, we find: 306 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE "As to the inner nature of these gifts of the Holy Ghost, theologians consider them to be supernatural and .perinanent qualities, which make us attenti,~e to the voice of God, which render us susceptible to the workings of actual grace, which make us love the things of God, and, consequently, render us more obedient and docile to the inspira-tions of the Holy Ghost. But holy do they differ from the virtues? Some writers think they are not really distinct from them, that they are the virtues inasmuch as the latter are free gifts of God, and that they are identified essentially with grace, charity, and the virtues. That opinion has the particular merit of avoiding a multiplication of the entities infused into the soul. Other writers look upon the gifts as perfections of a higher order than the virtues; the latter, the.y say, dispose us to follow the impulse and guidance of rehson; the former are functionally intended to render the will obedient and docile to the inspirations of the Holy Ghost." (Vol. vii, p. 413.) Among contemporary dogmatic theologians who propose the basic doctrine on the gifts as only probable or more probable one could cite the following: Van der Meersch, De Gratia, p. 215; Parente, De Gratia, pp. 26.7, 283: Diekamp-Hoffmann, O.P., Tbeologiae Dogmaticae Manuate III, 19, 155; Van Noort, De Gratia, (brd ed.), p. 155. Father De Guibert gave much attention to a stu~iy.of the gifts, and in particular he made a special effort to determine what is certain and what probable concerning them. His conclusion was that we could hold with certainty, or at least very great probability, that there exist in the souls of the just habitual infused dispositions of docility toward the inspirations of the Holy Spirit. This appears to him to be the basis upon which rest the speculative conclusions of theologians about the gifts (Revue d'Ascetique et Mgstique, 1933, 1-26). Father De Guibert's finding is indeed a long.~ay from Father Garrigou-Lagrange's coflception of the gifts. Among the best and most important studies on the gifts pub-lished in recent years seems to be a long article by Father De Blic, Pour l'Historie de la Tbeotogie des Dons. He judges that Father De Guibert went too far and that still less even can be said in favor of the prevailing theory of the gifts (Revue d'Ascetique et Mystique, 1946, 117-179). Of the theologians of this century who are special authorities on the gifts the outstanding one by far is the Dominican Father A. Gardeil. In the Dictionnaire de Theologie Catbolique he writes: 307 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reoieto for Religious "In our days the debate still goes on among theologians over the dis-tinction between the infused virtues and the g!fts. If the distinction is debated, much more are other and" lesser points in the doctrines" (IV-2, 1778.) The Dominican Joret, in a good-sized work on the mystical theology of St. Thomas, points .out that it was .not until the thir-teenth century that the distinction between the gifts and the infused virtues was well worked out. "St, Thomas seems to have made .pre-cise and definitive the theory of the gifts of the Holy Spirit." Then, after a brief passage in which he gives St: Thomas's general idea of the gifts (divine inspirations as opposed to human, reflections), he writes: "In speaking thus we leave altogether the domain of faith to enter theological speculation. And we are going to remain there in the course of the following'paragraphs which will only set forth the teaching of St. Thomas." (La Contemplation M~tstique d'a~r~s Saint Thomas d'Aquin, 1927, p. 39,) ~ Among the most eminent Dominican theologians of the twen= tieth century is Hugon. On the gifts he writes: "There is a dispute as to whether the gifts differ from the infused virtues objectively and essentially or only after a fashion (secundum quid). This last is defended by a number of theologians, following the leadership of Scotus; but the Angelic ,Doctor and the Thomists teach that the gifts are specifically distinguished from the virtues as perfections of a superi-or and higher order by which a man is easily moved by, the Holy Spir-it." (Italics in the original: Tractatus Dogmatici, Ed. 10, II, 4~8.) Father Garrigou~Lagrange himself, in the, epil~gue to his French work,2 Perfection Cbretienne et Contemplgtion (Vol.II, [89]), after discussing "the minimizing conceptions of the gifts of the Holy, Spirit and the oscillations of theological eclecticism" and then "the superiority of the doctrine of St. Thomas o'n the gifts," concludes: "Thus there are four notably different theories of the gifts. Two are manifestly minimizing, but opposed to each other; one is eclectic and tends to rise higher; and finally the one which seems to us to be at the culminating point of truth. These four theories can be summed up as follows [italics as in the original French] : "The gifts, distinct from the virtues, are something normal and eminent and grow With charity. 2This epilogue does not appear in the English Christian Perfection and Contemplation. 308 Not~ember, 1949 AGES OF: THE INTERIOR LIFE "The acts of the gifts take place sometimes according to an ordinary human mbde; sometimes they are extraordinary. "'The gifts are distinct from the virtues and are principles of extraQrdinary acts. "'The gifts are not distinct from the oirtues.'" In The Three Ages there is little indication of any,other "the-ory" of the gifts than the one which the author himself adopts. So much for the existence and distinction of the gifts. . If now one should inquire into the number of them. there is much .less cer-tainty. To quote the Dominican Joret again: "The Septuagint version followed by the Vulgate gave seven characteristics to the Spirit of God resting upon the Messias: the spirit of wisdom . Thus one obtained seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, just as there are seven virtues, theological and moral¯ But neither in the one case nor the'other should we regard this number as limitative. For the sacred writers, as we know,.it rather designates the pleriitude of the divine operations. The single light of the sun divides into seven principal colors which can then have an infinite variety of shades. So it is with the Holy Spirit and His gifts." (Op. cir., p. 36.) Less certain than the number is the general function of the gifts, that is, the kind of work that they perform in the process of sancti-fying a person. A glance at the relevant places in different theo- .logians would readily convince one of this fact¯ Much less certain still are the functions of~, the particular gifts. Consider for a moment the case of St. Thomas. In a recent scholarly work devoted entirely to his mystical theology and wholebeartedly in sympathy with it, the author points out four ways in which at successive times St. Thomas endeavored to classify the workings of the different gifts, and then he conclude~: "The question, taken up four times, has resulted in four different constructions; once even with an explicit disavowal of what St. Thomas bad previously estab-lished. Who will assure us that the last is perfect?" (L. Roy, Lumiere et Sagesse. La Gra~e Mystique dans la Theologie de Saint Tho'mas d'Aquin, p. 185.) Father Garrigou-Lagrange's.conception of the various function~ of the gifts seems to have been developed from a combination of elements in three of St. Thomas's ways (The Three ~Ages, I, 76; III, 68, 4 and II II, 8, 4; 3 D. 34 q. 1 a. 2) His correlation of the virtues and gifts (I, pp. 51, 76) is ¯ 309 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Retffew for Religious criticized by De Guibert as not being quite in accord with St. Thom- ¯ as's (Theologia Spiritualis, 1937, p. 135). Of all these ways, and others too which could be cited, of assigning specific functions to each of the gifts, not one seems to agree :with the exegetes when they comment on and explain the original Scripture text (Isaias 11:2-3) that is the first foundation for all the doctrine on the gifts. Moreover there are two different forms of the modern Thomistic theory of the gifts. Besides the one which Father Garrigou- Lagrange espouses (that with the virtues one acts in a human way and with the gifts in a superhuman way), there is another one, defended in our time especially by Cardinal Billot. "The gifts have two modes, that is, an ordinary and an extraordinary one according to the differences in the many operations of the Holy Spirit, who freely breathes where He wills and apportions to all as He wishes . There is another way and one that is quite extraordinary; although it is not td be said to be at all necessary, even for high sanctity, it is'nevertheless as a rule found in those whom the grace of God calls to the supreme heights of perfection. Moreover this mode i~ concerned mostly with extraordinary contemplation, that is, with the prayer of quietude, simple union, ecstatic union, and consummate union." (De Virtutibus Infusis, Ed. 4, pp. 169, 173.) A contemporary mystical theologian in whose system this idea of two modes, ordinary and extraordinary, is most important is the Carmelite Father Crisogono. de Jesus Sacramentado. For him this is the true thought of St. Thomas himself, and also of some at least of his best commentators (La Perfection et La Mystique selon Led Prin-cipes de Saint Thomas, p. 44). Another point about the present-day Thomistic hypothesis of the gifts that will make many people pause is this: it appears to be indissolubly bound up with the contention that grace is intrinsi-cally efficacious. "We do not find anything in his system [Suarez's] corresponding to the idea, dear to St. Thomas, of actual operating grace, understood in the sense of instrumental prevenient and pre-determining motion, by which the Angelic .Doctor characterized the special nature of the gifts of the Holy Spirit" (Dictionnaire de The-ologie Catholique, in thd article Dons du Saint Esprit, A. Gardeil, 1778). "This interpretation [the doctrine of St. Thomas on grace and the gifts as understood by the great interpreters Cajetan, Bannez, John ~f St. Thomas, and the Carmelites of Salamanca] is for us the 310 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE only true one, the only one which safeguards the two great, prin-ciples of the intrinsic efficacy of grace and the specification of habitus by their formal object" (Garrigou-Lagrange, Perfection Chretienne etContemplation, II, [99]; see also [54], [59-62], [95]). From ail that has been said, especially in the form of quotations from leading Thomist theologians, on the uncertainties attaching to our knowledge of the gifts ot: the Holy Spirit, it would seem abun-dantly clear that no elaborate, doctrine about them should be pro-. posed as more than a theory or hypothesis. Nor should any major practical norm based on such a doctrine be set up as more than prob-able. I have made a special effort to find indications of these uncer-tainties in The Three Ages, I found very little indeed. The princi-pal' one seems to be implicit in this sentence: "The great majority of theologians hold with St. Thomas that the gifts are really and spe-cifically distinct from the infused virtues" (I, p. 73). Therefore it ¯ .is admitted that not all theologians agree on this particular funda-mental point. On the other hand a reader might expect that he is being treated to something that is especially reliable. Under the heading, "The Aim of This Work," the author announces that he will try to avoid the danger of "many pious books that lack a solid doctrinal foun-dation" (I, p. 9). In the Preface he writes: "We insist far more on the principles ge.nerall~ accepted in. theology!, by showing their value and their radiation, than on the variety of opinions on one particular point or another proposed by often quite secondary authors . The complexity of certain questions ought not to make us lose sight of tb~ certitude of the great directive principles that illuminate all spirituality" (I, p. xi; italics inserted). "For a clear understanding of the nature of the mystical union, we must treat of the influence of the Holy Ghost in the perfect, soul by recalling the most indisputable and lofty principles commonly taught on this subject" (II, p. 511) ,, The fact remai.ns, unfortunately, that much of The Three Ages is uncertain and questioned by perfectly orthodox Catholic authori- .ties. 4. To come now to the great central thesis of The Three Ages, namely, that infused contemplation comes within the normal devel-opment of the supernatural life. It is after all much less significant than one might at first think. (1) It embodies no great new dis-covery nor corrects any old error; (2) the attenuated-infused con- 311 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Review for Religious templa.tlon which it holds out in prospect for all whose supernatural life evolves normally is not, considered as a form of human action or experience, very different from mental prayer that is acquirable; (3) the thesis suffers from being so closely associated with a ques-tionable theory of the gifts; and lastly, (4) various e~ceptions to it are admitted. (1) Father Garrigou-Lagrange writes: "In contradistinction to acquired prayer, infused contemplation is generally defined as a simple and loving knowledge of God and His works, whicFi is the fruit, not of human activity aided by grace, but of a special inspiration of the Holy Ghost" (p. 310). Contemplation "proceeds . . . from living faith enlightened by the gifts of the Holy Ghost, especially by those of understanding and wisdom, which render faith penetrating and sweet. "Supernatural contemplation thus conceived, supposes the special inspiration of the Holy Ghost, which His gifts dispose us to receive with promptness and docility, as the widespread sails on a boat receive the impulsion of a favorable wind; then the boat advances more easily than by the labor of the rowers, a symbol of discursive meditation united to the practice of the virtues. From this point of view, contemplation, because of the special inspiration which it supposes, deserves to be called, not acquired but infused, although at the beginning it may quite frequently be prepared for. by reading, affective meditation, and the" prayer of petition. The soul thus actively prepares itself to receive the special inspiration of the Holy Spirit, which will at times be strong enough so that discursive medi-tation will no longer be necessary . These acts of love and 6f penetrating .and sweet faith are said to be infused not only because they proceed from infused virtues, in this case from the theological virtues, but because they suppose a special inspiration of the Holy Ghost, and because we cannot move ourselves to them with the help of common actual grace. In this case God mov.es us, not by inclining us to deliberate, but to acts above all discursive deliberation." (II, 281--2.) If this is all that is meant by infused contemplation, wh~ would deny the thesis, and what has all the argument been about?. Some. would quegtion what is said about the gifts, but hardly anybody would directly and categorically contradict the thesis itself. Since all acknowledge some sort of doctrine, at least as probable, about the gifts, who would not admit that in accordance with the providence and designs of God the mental prayer of all should be enlightened 312 No~emb~r, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE and enhanced as much as possible by special inspirations coming from the Holy Spirit through the gifts? Certainly this is not the essential analysis which certain theo-logians have had in mind in denying that infused contemplation comes within the regular development of the interior life. For Father Poulain mystical contemplation consists essentially in an experimental perception of God's presence (The Graces of Interior Pra~ter, chapters V and VI) ;and for Farges, in "an experimental sen-sation of the divine, that is, in an immediate intuition by the con-sciousness, more or less clear o~ obscure, of the presence in our souls of' God or a supernaturai object, the essence whereof remains unknown, which produces a sentiment of admiration and love, suspending more or less the powers of the soul" (Mgstical Pheno-mena, p. 57). According to Father Crisogono del Jesus Sacramen-tado, "infused contemplation is an affective intuition of divine things, resulting from a special influence of God in the soul . This actual grace is received in the habits of the gifts of understanding, knowledge and wisddm, which, at receiving it, are actuated according to their extraordinary operation . This operation of the gifts, which takes place in a superhuman way, is the act itself of infused ¯ contemplation." (Compendio de Ascetica g Mistica, pp. 164-5.) Father Crisogono holds that all are called to the perfection of the gifts working in their ordinary, but not in their extraordinary, mode. The two great doctors of the Church, St. Francis de Sales and St. Alphonsus de' Liguori, specialists also in spirituality, and, one would presume, cognizant of tradition, surely would have advocated for all a form of mental prayer that is full of inspirations from the Holy Spirit. If highly developed gifts and the resulting graces had been sufficient in their opinion to entail infused contemplation, they could hardly have written as they did. Thus St. Francis wrote: "Blessed are they who live a superhuman and ecstatic life, raised above themselves, though they may not be ravished above themselves in prayer. There are many saints in heaven who were never in ecstasy or rapture of contemplation. For how many martyrs and great saints do we see in history never to have had any other privi-lege in prayer than that of devotion and fervor." (The Love of God, VII, 7.) And St. Alphonsus: "The aim of the soul here ought to be single, namely, union with God; but that the soul should attain to perfection, there is no necessity of passive union. It is sufficient for 313 G. AUGUSTINE ELLARD Reuiew for Religious it to arrive at active union . Active union is perfect conformity with the divine will, and in this certainly the whole perfection of divine love consists. 'Perfection,' St. Teresa says, 'does not consist in ecstasy; on the contrary, true union of soul with God is union of will with the divine will.' This union is necessary, but not the pas-sive; and those souls that have only the active, the same saint says, 'can have far greater merit; because they suffer greater toil, and the Lord directs them like strong men, and the consolations which they do not have in this life are reserved for them by God and will be given by Him in the next life.' Cardinal Petrucci says that without infused contemplation the soul can indeed well arrive, with the benefit ¯ of ordinary grace, at a~nnihilation of its own will and at transforming it into God's, willing nothing else than the will of God . Whence he adds that since in this is the whole of sanctity, nobody ought to desire and seek from God anything else than to be directed by Him and with His help to accomplish His will."(Praxis Confessarii, Num. 136 ; italics as in the original.) , .Similarly, Pope Benedict XIV in writing his famous standard work De Servorum Dei Beati~icatione attributes infused contempla-tion to "a special favor of God" (XXVI, 7). Moreover he observes that a number of perfect persons have been canonized although in their processes nothing was said about infused contemplation (Op. cir., XXVI, 8). From the foregoing we may safely conclude that besides infused contemplation understood as prayer characterized by the gifts of the Holy Spirit there has also evidently been another concept of it in quite orthodox Catholic authorities. If in interpreting the thesis it be added also that prayer consti-tuted by the influence of the gifts (II, 313) is essentially just what the mystics and in particular what Saints Teresa and John describe, a critical reader might interpose: "Do you propose this analysis of fact and this theory of the gifts as certain or as probable? If prob-able, .very well; no objection. But if certain, on what grounds? What is the evidence?" (2) The infused contemplation proposed as coming within the normal development of the spiritual life is not, in terms of what is humanly noticeable, very different from the highest form of acquired prayer. Neither at its inception nor in the course of its progress nor at its culmination does it appear to be a strikingly different phenome-non in consciousness. Whatever is to be said metaphysically about 314 November, 1949 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE the nature, formal objects, and so forth of the virtues, the gifts, the various kinds of mental prayer, and so on, psychologically and morally and practically there may be no observable difference oetween this infused contemplation and the prayer which just pre-cedes it. Into the two forms both the virtues and the gifts enter. If it be (according to the theory) the influence of the gifts which "constitutes" (II, 313) infused contemplation, the change need not be great enough to be discernible in consciousness. The author fully admits "that the transition from the last acquired prayer to initial infused prayer is not so clearly distinguished" (II, 328-330). Repeatedly he suggests that it may take "an experienced director" to notice that the one has succeeded the other. "A simple and loving.attention to God . . . cannot, in fact, be prolonged without a rather manifest intervention of the gifts" (Christian Perfection and Contemplation, 329). In this case it would seem that nothing but the prolongation calls for infusion. This quotation is taken from a context in which "the nature of the mystical state" is being explained. Moreover even in the course of the acquired prayer of recollec-tion the~e will be isolated acts of infused contemplation (I, 245). So much for the beginning of infused contemplation considered as a conscious experience. If now in the ulterior stages of it, espe-cially as they are described by St. Teresa, one separate the accidentals from the essential, surprisingly little will be left. "The degrees of contemplative prayer are chiefly those of the growing intensity of living faith, of charity, and of the gifts of the Holy Ghost which correspond to them" (II, 299). It seems that nothing is essential~ beyond "only an infused light: the special illumination of the gifts of understanding and wisdom" (II, 317). It even appears that ecstasy is not essential t(~ the stage called "ecstatic union" (II, 344). By what criterion the distinction between essence and accidents is made does not stand out very clearly. Not even the supreme and rare state of the mystical marriage is very marvelous as an experience. "According to St. John of the Cross, the essential basis of this wholly eminent state is in no way miraculous; it is, says the Saint, 'the perfect state of the spiritual life,' being here on earth the culminating point of the development of the life of grace and of the love of God . In the transforming union the higher faculties are drawn to the innermost center of the soul where the Blessed Trinity dwells." (II, 529.) The gift of 315 AGES OF THE INTERIOR LIFE Review for Religious wisdom, which exists also in the most stupid soul possessing grace, is, when fully developed, sufficient to account for it. One might well wonder whether the great mystics who vehe-mently lamented their utter inability to describe (heir absolutely ineffable experiences would recognize them in the results of Father Garrigou-Lagrange's analysis. (3) Nor are the force and significance of the central thesis 'increased by having it lean so heavily for support upon the author's uncertain theory of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In itself the thesis is quite independent of that particular doctrine and need not stand or fall with it. But as a matter of fact it is proposed as in part a consequence of the theory and from this point of view it cannot lay claim to greater probability than the theory upon which it is based. (4) Lastly, the doctrine that infused contemplation comes within the normal development of the spiritual life is rendered still less significant by a rather liberal admission of exceptions: "Infused contemplation is,. in principle or in theory, in the normal way of sanctity, although there are exceptions arising from the individual temperament or from absorbing occupations or from less favorable surroundings, and so on" (I, x). If, therefore, to return again to the general import of the central thesis of The Three Ages, it be taken to mean merely that contempla-tion marked or constituted by the "special inspirations" of the gifts comes within the evolution of the supernatural life, hardly anybody will simply deny it, but some careful thinkers will have doubts about the theory of the gifts, and some may ask: "But what does it mean in terms of human experience or action? What noteworthy difference does it make in one's substantive kn6wledge and love of God?" If the thesis be interpreted also to signify that these effects of the gifts and what is essential in the experiences, say, of St. Teresa and St. John of the Cross are one and the same reality, then there is the problem of determining what in empirical terms that essential is (the conclusions of others differ very widely from Father Garrigou- Lagrange's), of adequately accounting for it with the uncertain theory of the gifts, and thirdly of showing that it is in store for everyone whose spiritual life evolves as it should. The thesis is not that St. Weresa's or St. John's experiences in their integrity are part of the regular spiritual growth. Whether the principal contention of the work be true or not, 316 November, 1949 "WE ARE HIS MEMBERS !" it will, I think, because of the way in which it is presented, be mis-understood by many devout people and lead to much disillusionment and discouragement. Thus it seems, to conclude very briefly, that The Three Ages of the Interior Life is a great work, great in its faults as well as in its excellences. "We His Members!" M. Raymond, O.C.S.O. When men shall say to you: "'Lo, Christ is bete! Lo, Christ is there!'" Belieue them! And know that thou art seer When all thy crging clear Is but: "'Lo, here! Lo, tberet. Ah, me. Lo, everywheret."" --- ~RANCIS THOMPSON. IWANT every priest of God and every religious vowed to Him to be unalterably happy.I i know that they can be so if they will become rightly self-conscious and consequently acutely Christ-conscious. There is the ~vord that spells beatitude here as well as hereafter; for there is the ~vord that means sanctity. It was the great St. Francis de Sales, I believe, who said that one motto lived is enough to make a saint.IrvMay I suggest as a life-line and as a saint-making motto the thrilling truth that "We are His members!" To see any baptized person sad has always given me pain, but when that person wears the livery of Jesus Christ that pain becomes acutely agonizing; for it is so simple a matter to develop a Christ-consciousness that will preclude forever all possibility of real sadness entering the center of our souls! Now do understand me. I am not saying that there is a short cut to sanctity. There isn't. The road winds up hill all the way. But there are means of simplifying life, of unifying our efforts, of integrating our personalities ,~0 that the uphill climb is less difficult, our complex existences become intelligible wholes, and our every act or omission conspires to our grand objective. One such means is that 3!7 M. RAYMOND Review [or Religious offered in our day by Divine Providence--the doctrine of the Mysti-cal Body; or, as I put it above: living conscious of the fact that "We are His members." What happiness does not this consciousness bring to self! It tells you your dignity as an individual in a d;iy when individual dig-nity in every sphere of life from the economic and political to the military and social is utterly denied. It tells you, you are a member of Him who is Might and Majesty, Meekness and Marvel,' true God and true man. It tells you that you have been lifted from the insig-nificant to a position wherein you mean much to the all-independent Divinity. It tells you that you have a work to do for the Almighty, which, if not done by you, will remain undone forever. In letters that shine like gold against black velvet Plus XII made this truth real in his Mgstici Corport's when he wrote: "The Head needs His members." How can you be unhappy when you realize you mean so much to God and have so important a work to do for Him? The Cur~ of Ars once said: "Even if there were no hereafter, ' it is Heaven enough to work for God on earth." No religious, conscious of his calling, will question the Cur~'s statement. But that does not mean that you will not know difficulty. That does not mean that humiliations will not come your way; that you will not fail in many an enterprise; know shame, ignominy, defeat. That does not mean that you will not suffer both physically and mentally. It does mean that you will know what to do with all these things when they do come your way. It means that you will be happy not only in the midst of sufferings but precisely because you are suffering. For you will ever live conscious of the fact that you are to "fill up what is wanting to His Passion," as St. Paul so joyously states it; conscious of the fact that you can now "rejoice that you, in some slight degree, resemble your Lord and Master," as St. Ignatius so pointedly puts it; conscious of the fact that it ill becomes you to be a "weak member under a Thorn-crowned Head," as St. Bernard so boldly and beautifully expressed it. Let the "slings and arrows of outrageous fortune" batter and pierce you through and through, you can't be unhappy so long as you are con-scious of the fact that you are His member. And oh! how your attitudes toward all others change once you have this truth in your blood and being. How you love every human being just because he or she is an actual or a potential member of 318 Nooember, 1949 "WE ARE HIS MEMBERS !" your Christ; has a part to play in the Great Drama of the Redeem-ing; can complete the Passion of your Savior; has a work to do that no one but be or she can do; is dear to your Father, God; beloved of your.Mother, Mary; is, further, part of the same Body as you! How can jealousy, envy, bitterness, enmit3~, antipathy enter your soul? "The eye cannot say to the hand: I need not thy help; nor again the head to the feet'" (I Cot. 12:21). Your hand does not envy your eye because it caffnot see. Your. ear is not jealous of your tongue because it cannot taste. Then why should you be jealous or envious of some other member of Christ because he or she can do things you cannot do? You won't be. You can't be. Rather you will rejoice if this one has ten talents and you only one. You will exult over such a one's ability to do so much more for your Head than you are capable of doing. Yes, all smallness leaves your life as soon as you live the truth that "We are His members." And how kind you become! The great Flemish mystic, Ruysbroeck, once said: "Be kind. Be kind. Be kind. And you'll be a saint." Here's a motto that makes kindness not only easy but an urge. In times past, some of us have been unhappy because of the work assigned us. Had we been living the doctrine of the Mystical Body we should never have known anything but blessed content-ment, even exul~ant joy; for we would have realized that our every act done "through Him, and with Him, and in Him" was powerful beyond all expression! "Actions," philosophers tell us, "belong to the person," not to the members. We pay the typist, not the typist's fingers. We honor the hero, not his eyes, hands, or feet. For we know actions belong to the person, not to his members. Think, then, of your every act when you act as a member of Christ's Mysti-cal Body. Think of your tiniest deed: sweeping a floor, making a bed, washing a dish, dusting a chair--they are acts of.the Mystical Christ! Can any assignment, then, be a cause of unhappiness? Do you see how this doctrine covers everything: Yourself, others, your works, your sufferings, your triumphs and defeats. Will you allow me one short example of how it works? Last 2anuary I was out of my monastery for the first time in thirteen years. 2ust what such a strange experience would mean to others, I do not know, but I do know that for me it was something in the nature of a "vision." I saw Christ. For over a month I saw Him suffer, agonize, and die in a hospital called St. Joseph's Infirmary. 319 M. RAYMOND "Review t:or Religious I saw Christ in old Brother Hugh whose sight was dim, hearing gone, and power of speech paralyzed. In him I saw Christ agonize as cancer gnawed his vitals away. I saw Jesus even more clearly in an infant of two months whose rapidly growing brain tumor would soon bow that head in death, and Innocence would once again have "given up the ghost" because of sin. I saw our suffering, sacrificing Savior in two nurses, one just about to graduate, the other a gradu-ate of two years, who, standing star-eyed and eager, ready for life, learned that they had better make ready for death, since creeping paralysis had made its first appearance in one and cancer of the lymph had doomed the other. From dawn to dusk and from dusk to dawn that hospital breathed for me, and it was the breath of Jesus Christ. For over a month I was witness to the Great Drama of the Redeeming as I saw Christ paying for sin in bodies that were His by right of baptism. I saw Salvation being won for the world; for that hospital appeared to me as a chalice and every pang of pain as so much blood being poured into it. How could I view it otherwise when I know that we are the "pIeroma of Christ" who are to fill up what is wanting to His Passion? (Cf. Col. ~:24.) . How could I or anyone else fail to see the crucifixion when I stood staring at bap-tized human beings on the cross? Yes, I saw Christ; for "we are His members'!" Do you see how easy it is? Do you see what a different outlook it gives, on life and all things in lif~, The late Archbishop Goodier, S.J., gave a formula for happiness in his brochure A More Excellent Wa~1. It is to "crawl in through the wound on Christ's side, go down deep into His Heart, then look out on the world and all things in the world with His eyes." Had we not the doctrine of the Mystical Body that formula might se~m impossible of fulfill-ment. How does Jesus look upon human beings? Does He not see them as either actual or potential members of His Body? Can't we see them in the same light? How does Christ see the "feeble" and "less honorable members"? St. Paul tells us. "Those that seem to be the more feeble members of the body, are more necessary" (I Cor. 12:22). Don't you see the utter impossibility of ever looking dgwn on anyone? of ever despising a single human being? of ever having a low or mean opinion of anyone who breathes? So long as I am Christ-conscious, I love; so long as I love, I am like God. The Archbishop's formula is possible of fulfillment, else God the 320 November, 1949 "WE ARE Ills MEMBERS !" Holy Ghost would never have commanded us through St. Paul: "Put ye on the Lord, Jesus Christ" (Rom. 13:14). Nor would He have told us to "Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus" (Phil. 2:5). Hilaire Belloc has rightly said, "A man is his mind." If we would be what God made us to be and our deepest instinct craves to be, we will acquire the mind of Jesus; for Dietrich yon Hildebrand stated truth truthfully when he said, "The essence of sanctity is transformation into Christ." Sanctity is made relatively easy, then, by the development of Christ-consciousness: for nothing is better calculated to work this transfo.rmation than the constant appreciation of the fact that "We are His members." There is not a true religious who does not long to "radiate Christ" pedectt~l. But that longing will be like the barren fig tree--a thing Of beautiful foliage but bare of fruit--until the Light of the World glows in the very core of our beings, until the last feature of.the Face iaf Christ is sealed into our souls, until every beat of our hearts synchronizes with the pulse of His great Heart. Baptism sufficed for incorporation in Christ, but it does not suffice for transformation into Him. No. For that we need to be im-mersed, absorbed, lost in Christ Jesus. All of which is possible by living the truth of the Mystical Body. But by living I mean living. Look!. There is not one of us who does not know that the life of Christ pulsates in the person of every-one who is in the state of grace; that down in the depths of those souls the Holy Trinity dwells; that thelight in their eyes tells the same tremendous truth as does the flickering flame of the Sanctuary Lamp: God is here. Yes, we all know that. .But how many of us live conscious of those facts? Which of us does not know that the Holy Ghost is the soul of the Mystical Body? that, being the soul, He is present "'totus in toto, et totus in qualibet parte'" ("entire in the whole, and entire in every part of the whole")? Who does not know that the soul elevates, unifies, identifies, and vivifies? But bow many of us make the appli-cations and draw the consequences? My fellow priest, my brother or sister in religion has been elevated to a dignity that astounds. He or she can not only be defined as a "creature composed of body and soul," but also may be described as "body, soul, and Holy Ghost!" He or she is more than human; has been made so by God the Holy Ghost. What respect, reverence, awe, and admiration I should have 321 M. RAYMOND ~evieu~ [or Religious for my fellow! But besides elevating, the soul identifies and unifies. The Holy Ghost unites all the cells of the Mystical Body to the Person whose Body it is. How close my fellow is to God! How close he or she is to me!. We know these mind-staggering truths. We even teach these marvels and mysteries to others. But how often do we live conscious of these facts? The rod of Aaron is in our hands. It is in beautiful flower. But we . May I suggest a plan whereby you can become wide awake to these joy-filled and joy-producing realities? Why not integrate your life by-means of this marvelous doctrine? Let your meditations for an entire year be on nothing but this wondrous truth. You know, M. Anger has proved in a masterly thesis that this doctrine is the white heart of the Kohinoor which is Dogmatic Theology. He shows that every light that leaps from those mahy facets has its origin in Christ who is the Light of the World. Our meditations should be on nothing that is not ioundly dogmatic. - But to make these meditations fruitful we needs must read. Thanks be to God, whole shelves can now be devoted to literature on the Mystical Body. After Anger-Burke one could read Emile Mersch, S.2., then John Gruden, and Edward Leen, C.S.Sp. Fol-low'these with Fulton Sheen, Raoul Plus, S.J., Daniel Lord, S.d., Carl Adam, and William McGarry, S.d.,--to name but a few. There is more than a year's reading matter for any religious, and reading that will make meditations throb. To integrate our lives we must add examen to our readings and meditations. Couldn't we spend a year--or even two--with this doctrine as our particular examen? The development of this Christ-consciousness would be a main objective. We could practice it in so many different ways: conscious of my own membership; of my neighbors; of all men; conscious of the soul of the Mystical Body throbbing in me--in others; conscious of the dignity and worth of my actions when done "through, with, and in Hfm." Variety would not be wanting and unity would be assured. If reading, meditation, and examen go together for a year promise a consciousness that will have you "looking out on the world and all things in the world with the eyes of Christ." I promise you an integration that will effect a transformation. I promise a happiness the world canfiot give"or take away. I am sure that most of you will see how this simplifies the spit- 322 Noaernber, 1949 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS itual life since it is a system that includes all other systems. In it abandonment, trust, detachment, purity of intention, presence of God, union with the Divine Will are all contained. I cannot be Christ-conscious without being or having all the others. It is a system that will unify one's entire existence; for there is nothing that I can think, do, or say legitimately that cannot be thought, done, and said "through Him, with Him, and in Him." It is a system from which all movements derive and to which they'all lead; for what is the Liturgical Movement if it is not centered in the Mass; and what is the Mass if not the Sacrifice of the Mystical Body, as Pius XII has so insistently proved in his Mediator Dei. What is Catholic Action if not begun, continued, and ended through, with, and in Christ 3esus? That is why I have dared to offer the motto and to say: "Try it and see if it doesn't simplify, unify, integrate your life, and make you what God made you to be and what I long for you to be--verd happy!'" The rod is in your hand. It is flowerin!! Ques Jons and Answers What is to be thought about the followlncj statement which appeared in the pubffe press last August: "Plans for a profound reform . . . likely the most drastic the cloistered monasteries and nunneries have undergone since the Council of Trent ended in 1563 . . . are in an advanced stage ¯ . . and are planned for promulgation in 19S0. The reform is designed in large part to make inmates of cloistered convents more effective as agents of the Church in its current world-wide struggle." Lik~ so many newspaper reports concerning religious events, this one, while having a foundation in fact, is grossly exaggerated. For-tunately an answer to the above statement was given by Father Arcadio Larraona, undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation of Reli-gious, on August 22, 1949. He explained that there is no question of a vast reform of cloistered orders, but of certain mitigations, required by the ~xigencies of modern times. He mentions two such mitigations. Modern conditions require that a mitigation in. the rule of cloister be made to allow nuns to leave the enclosure for medical and dental treatment, and for similar purposes. Again,.in the after- 323 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Revieu~ [or Religious math of the war, some monasteries of nuns are literally starving because they can no longer support themselves aft they did before the war. In such cases the Holy See has advised a modification of the rule of enclosure to permit the nuns to engage in activities providing an income for the communities, such as conducting schools, orphan-ages, and the like. However, in such cases, the essentials of the con-templative life must always be maintained. Father Larraona also indicated that there exists a tendency toward confederating cloistered communities of religious women in countries where economic reasons or a reduction in the number of cloistered nuns indicate the need for such a trend. There is however, no ques-tion of any imposed reform, but the spirit of the autonomous insti-tutions is always considered and preserved. Such federations are on a purely voluntary and very limited basis. In conclusion Father Larraona explained that papal directives to religious institutes, urging them to organize their activities in accord-ance with the changes in the social conditions of the world, do not signify any impending reforms to be imposed by the Holy Father. May a Sister on nursing duty in a hospital wear a gold and silver graduation pin on the religious habit? Is this contrary fo article 67 of the Normae of 1901 which forbids ornaments of gold or silver to be included in the rel~glous dress? Let us first quote article 67 of the Normae in full before answer-ing our question. It reads as follows: "With the possible exception of a small and simple cross or medal of silver, no gold or silver orna-ments should be worn. In those ornaments which are allowed new images or inscriptions not as yet approved by the Church are not to be tolerated. Silk garments are not allowed, nor silk ornaments or others which betray vanity and cause complaints or laughter." Generally speaking, graduation pins are not to be worn by reli-gious women except on special Occasions such as alumnae reunions and the like, provided superiors think it well to let the Sisters iden-tify themselves as alumnae. It can happen in a hospital that graduate nurses are required to carry on their person some sign of identification. In that case the superior could allow the Sisters to wear their graduation pins. But no Sister should take it upon herself to wear such a pin without the permission of her superior. What was forbidden by the Norroae was 324 Nooember, 1949 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS the wearing of ornaments as sucli, f~)r vanity's sake. The wearingof a graduation pin for purposes of identificationwould not come under that head. It may not be out of place Norrnae of 1901 were not laws a set of ideal constitutions for Sacred Congregation set up for constitutions submitted to it for article 67 of the Norrnae found tions during the course of the article 67 of the Norrnae, but as approved by the Holy See. here to remind our readers that the binding religious directly, but rather a religious congregation which the itself as a guide in approving new the approval of the Holy See. Thus its way into many sets of constitu-years. It obliges religious, not as an article of their own constitutions ~2-- Is there any ecclesiastical regulation that prohibits Sisters from holding the position of organist in parish choirs that have both men and women members.'; While there is no express prohibition to be found in the Code ot? Canon Law nor in the Councils of Baltimore, still anumber of diocesan statutes forbid Sisters to function as .organists in parish churches. To give but one example, Statute 184 of the Fourth Pro-vincial Council of Portland in Oregon (1934) reads as follows: "We forbid religious women to act as organists or choir directors, except in the case in which boys and girls still attending school make up the choir." Moreover, we think it is not in conformity with the general spirit of the religious life for a Sister to act as organist for a mixed adult choir and it may be a source of disedification to the faithful. In practice, no Sister should undertake to play the organ for a mixed choir of men and women without theexpress permission of the local ordinary and of her own higher superior. ---43-- May a religious teacher who has "class money" in his keeping, or extra-curricular funds, use these in whole or in part for personal reasons? Is his superior at liberty to give him such a permission? Or must such funds be used for the purpose for which they were collected, or for things to be used by the students for their betterment, such as charts, reference-books, and the I~ke? If we understand this question correctly, the "class money" 325 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious referred to is money that actually belongs to the class: not to the school as such, nor to the religious community. In o~her words, it is a common fund to which individual students have contributed with the understanding that the money be used for certain specific pur-poses. A religious superior has no power to give.permission to use such money for personal reasons; and neither the superior nor the teacher should use the money for any but the specified purposes unless the class freely consents to this. 1 oo1 Reviews THE DAY WITH JESUS AND MARY. By the Dominican Sisfers. Pp. 143. The Bruce Publishing Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1949. $2.50. This book seeks to help one develop a consciousness of God's presence during the day through recalling the fifteen mysteries of the Rosary. The hour from five to six is dedicated to the Annunciation, from six to seven to the Visitation, and so forth. At the beginning of each hour one offers his own work bf that hour in union with the work of Jesus and Mary suggested by the mystery of that hour. And with the discussion of each mystery, this book gives'a few biographi-cal facts about two saints (one Dominican and one other) who were outstanding in the virtue suggested by this mystery. For instance, upon awakening in the morning, one recalls the Annunciation and offers the coming hour in union with the joy of all the saints, espe-cially St. Dominic or St. Philip Neri, in the blessings of the Incarna-tion. The moral reflections are the standard ones, the saints chosen are appropriate enough, the style of writing very plain. The value of the book will lie in the appeal of the idea of dedicating each hour of the day to a mystery of the Rosary. For those to whom it does appeal it has a double advantage; it makes the Rosary a living thing, and it gives one a clear center or focus for his spiritual thought~ of that hour. For how many would such a plan work? The Holy Spirit has many ways of aiding our growth; one way of finding out whether any plan will suit me is to give it an honest trial. That God wishes us to recall His presence habitually, that He wishes us to model our lives upon the mysteries of the Incarnation, that the hourly recollec-tion method has worked for some--all this is clear. It: the number 326 Not~ember, 1949 BOOK REVIEWS is comparatively small, I think the chief reason is that the number of those who have made persevering effort to live in God's presence is also comparatively small. God certainly wishes all religious to have a spirit of recollection through the day; theref6re He wishes us to use what natural means we find at hand to develop this spirit. The end is valuable enough to urge us to try various means until we find one suitable to us. This book could help many in this searching. --2T. N. JORGENSEN, S.d. SHE WHO LIVED HER NAME. By Marie Rene-Bazln. Pp. 208. The Newman Press, Wesfm~nsfer, Maryland, 1949. $3.00. "The ways of Providence are, as a rule, of a marvelous sim-plicity, but they are made intricate by man's timidity and blindness. When, however, God finds a soul childlike enough to trust Him unflinchingly and eager to follow wherever He leads, He enfolds it in the unity of His plan and mirrors in its depths something of His unique simplicity." Thus opens the biography of the Foundress of the Helpers of the Holy Souls. Mary of Providence, or as she was known in the world, Eugenie Marie Joseph Smet, was born on March 25, 1825, at Lille, France. Reared in a good Catholic home, she was struck by two important teachings of the Church: Divine Providence and purgatory. A woman of action, an enthusiast and organizer, she was driven by a spiritual life dominated by these two truths to found a congregation which by prayer and suffering would make its principal aim the release of the suffering souls from purgatory. Fearful of illusion on her part, Eugenie set up several "signs" by which she would know that her plan was pleasing to God. Among them was that the Holy Father would send her his blessing on the venture, prior to the sanction of the bishop of the diocese. All the "signs" were fulfilled. The Cur~ of Ars, when asked his advice, told her to found the order whenever she pleased. On July 1, 1856, the Helpers of the Holy Souls had their motto, "Pray, Suffer, Labor" (for the souls in purgatory), their name, their motherhouse, and not much else. By" 1867, they .were landing in China to establish the Seng-Mou-Yeu house near Shang-hai. At the same time in Paris, Mary of Providence was suffering much. The Helper of the Holy Souls felt that she was being con-sumed by fire herself. While Prussian shells whistled over the house-tops during the siege of Paris, she lay dying of malignant cancer. ,327 BOOK NOTICES She had always had a dread of five things: leaving her family, founding a community, seeing her daughters in want, getting into debt, having cancer. "Well, by the grace of God," she said, "all five happened to me." The heroic foundress died February 7, 1871, at the age of 46. The author of the biography, daughter of the late novelist Ren~ Francois Bazin, has written the work carefully enough, quoting heavily from the d, iary and writings of Mary of Providence. One could wish, however, for the personality traits, the telling touches which make a holy person flesh and blood.-~R. A. RUDOLF, S.J. THE HAPPINESS OF HEAVEN. By a Father of the Soclefy of Jesus. Pp. 372. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 1949. $2.50. After. having been hidden aw~y nearly eighty years in convents, monasteries, and novitiates, this gem is now dusted off and presented once more for the enjoyment of the Catholic reader. The author, Father Isidore Boudreaux, was a master of novices in the Jesuit novitiate at Florissant, Missouri, but his name was withheld from most of the early editions. The present edition is planographed and is presented without revision of the original. Besides. discussing the essence of heavenly happiness, namely, the beatific vision, Father Boudreaux also answers many little questions of interest to the earthbound. Is there a social life in heaven? What will our bodies be like? Will all be equally happy? Answering these and many other queries, the author has covered practically all that we can know about the next life. The subject matter, due to the its very sublimity, is quite diffi-cult. Father Boudreaux witl~out abandoning sound theology has treated heaven in.a way that should make The Happiness of Heaveb required reading for all priests and religious, and a source of great comfort and courage to Catholic laymen.--M. HAGhN, S.J. BOOK NOTICES Fatima is truly of great importance to us today. The passage of the "Pilgrim Virgin" through our country has led many hundreds o.f thousands to a deeper consideration and understanding of this importance. Wherever the statue went, great crowds flocked to venerate it and to fulfill Mary's desires by confessions, Communions, Masses, and rosaries., One of the highlights of the trip was the. week at St. Meinrad's Abbey, Indiana. A detailed history of the careful 328 Noeember, 1949 BOOK NOTICES preparation for the week and of the complete success of the celebra-tion is given in the book FATIMA WEEK SERMONS. A sixteen page introduction by. the Abbot (Rt. Rev. Ignatius Esser, O.S.B.) tells of the pre!barations, of the handling of the crowd of 125,000 that attended, and of that crowd's devout spirit. The thirty-eight sermons given in the book are the Marian talks delivered during the week. They treat of Fatima and of the Marian virtues most closely associated with the Fatima message. These talks were given by thirty-eight different priests and naturally vary in value, but a judicious assigning of topics to the speakers kept repetition of thought to a minimum. This is a valuable book for one studying the history of the Fatima devotion and for one who plans any big Marian celebration. (St. Meinrad, Indiana: The Grail, 1949. Pp. 170. $1.00 [paper].) THE MYSTICAL ROSE, by Father Hubert, O.F.M.Cap., is a small book of scarcely more than pamphlet size treating of Mary's hidden beai~ty and love through a discussion of her fullness of grace, her virginity, and her divine maternity. The style is fluent and poetic, but the book is often repetitious and verbose with a wordi-ness that hinders rather than heightens clarity. Despite this fault of style, the book has merits which lead one to a meditative reading and rereading of many passages which tease one to further thought. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Bookshop, 1948. Pp. 79. $1.75.) FAITH AND A FISHHOOK, by Sr. M. Charitas, S.S.N.D., is a book of thirteen chapters presenting in chatty style selected anecdotes from the lives of our Lgrd, eleven saints, and the Archangel Raphael. "It is unfortunate that the author attempts to attract youthful readers to the religious life by telling them that this life "asks far less sacrifices than any other state"! In fact, the religious life is so easy that "it takes huge courage not to become a religious" (p. 122). Not only are such statements false, but they are apt to dissuade, rather than to encourage prospective postulants. (Milwaukee: ~Fhe Bruce Pub-lishing Company, 1949. Pp: ix q- 164. $2.50.) HOT EMBERS, by Sister M. Charitas, I.H.M., devotes most of its short twenty-eight chapters to narrating and devoutly commenting on various episodes of our Lord's Infancy, Passion, and Resurrection. A special section makes observations on the lives of St. Theresa of .329 Book NOTICES Review for Religious Lisieux, St. Theresa of Avila, St. John of the Cross, St. Angelus, Simon Stock, Elias. The remaining chapters treat of the Scapular Feast, the Good Shepherd, the Blessed Sacrament, the Sacred Heart, and the Feast of the Immaculate Hea.rt of Mary. (New York: The Scapular Press, 1948. Pp. 205. $2.75.) LITURGICAL ~VIEDITATIONS (Volume I: From Advent to the Ascension; Volume II: From Ascension to Advent), by the Sisters of Saint Dominic, Adrian, Michigan, provides daily meditations for an entire year. Each is in some way connected with the liturgy of the day. Three short points tie Scripture, meditations, and Mass together. The Sanctoral Cycle is naturally devoted to the Saints and. Blessed of the Order of Preachers, as. the work was originally intended by the anonymous writers for the members of their own Order. (St. Louis: B. Herder Book Company, 1949. Pp. viii + 533: 479. $10.00 [set].) THE CURE D'ARS, by Abb~ Francis Trochu, is a reprint of the "standard" life of the great Cur~. The author drew upon the volu-minous records of the process of canonization for his. material. The life was done into English by Dora Ernest Gra.f, O.S.B., and was first published in 1927. As hagiography it is in the older analytical style with the saint's every virtue described in its own chapter. This is "bad" for the plot--but the wh6le plot here is the boundless love of God. (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1949. Pp. xxiii -ff 586. $5.50.) TRANSFORMATION IN CHRIST, by Dietrich yon Hildebrand, will give many a new self-knowledge, a new surehess, and some "know-how" in their efforts at Christlikeness. The book has a solid, earnest, inspiring message for all who admit that "before all else, it is necessary for us to grasp the 'height, breadth, and depth' of our vocation, and fully to comprehend the message of the" Gospel which invites us not merely to become disciples of Chris't and children of God, but to enter into a.process of transformation in Christ." The somewhat technical vocabulary of the book will at times make heavy reading for those who have not enjoyed the opportunity of a classicaI education or philosopical training; but
[eng] Innovative tools have been applied in this research work, such as Advanced Radar Interferometry techniques and rockfall simulation software in order to analyse the dangers of landslides in the Tratamuntana Range of the Island of Mallorca. The precise application of both techniques have good baseline data such as: the detailed inventory of ground movements, knowledge of the determination factors of instabilities (geology, geomorphology, material resistance, slopes etc.), the analysis of triggering factors (precipitation, temperature, sea and torrential erosion) and other parameters relating to the impact caused by these natural hazards, such as damage to homes and infrastructure, and economic losses concerning both direct and indirect costs generating from this. From previous work focusing on the landslides in the Tratamuntana Range (Mateos, 2001), relating to the data provided by the Department of Highways Mallorca Island Council and Emergency Department of the Balearic Government, together with the field work and aerial photography analysis conducted for their project, 934 landslides have been logged and characterized in the eighteenth century. This inventory includes the following types: rockfalls, landslides (rock and soil), flow, lateral spreading and nature karstic collapse. The points logged in GIS have enabled the study of distribution along the mountains and a detailed analysis of factors affecting movements has been carried out. This has shown that 65,5% of the movements in the mountains correspond to rockfalls and 25% due to landslides. 54% of inventoried events are located in the coastal strip of this mountain range. The rockfalls mainly take place (52% of cases) with hard materials 'Lias' (mainly limestone and dolomitic breccias) associated with the main escarpments of the range, and especially the fronts of thrust that make up the geological structure of the Tramuntana. Landslides in soil mainly affect the soft Keuper sediments (clays and gypsum) and the Quaternary colluvial deposits, which are mainly concentrated in the southwestern half of the Range. The cold and rainy period in 2008-2010 triggered an unusual number of landslides (14 rockfalls 1 rock avalanche, 15 landslides and 4 karstic collapses) has allowed a detailed analysis of the triggering factors to be carried out . Thus, rockfalls occurred after the occurrence of heavy rain, with values above 90 mm / 24h or saturated rock mass (accumulated rainfall> 800 mm / 3 months) with several cycles of freeze-thaw on previous days. Soil landslides occurred after heavy rainfall, moderate to extreme, and high levels of accumulated rainfall (> 850 mm / 3 months). Undoubtedly, one of the main engines of the process is the intense gravitational dynamic coastline of the northern coast, as reflected in the high distribution movements registered along the coastal strip. The collaboration of different social agents of the island (municipalities, departments of local and regional administration etc.,) has allowed the assessment of economic losses caused by landslides during that period 2008-2010, which affected many homes and infrastructure, and especially the road network of the range. The economic losses(direct and indirect) during that period amounted to 11 M €, which represents 0.042% of the Balearic islands GDP. The spatial distribution of damage shows that the southwest sector of the Range is the one that has endured greater economic losses, especially the municipalities of Andratx (losses of € 2,072,457) and the municipality of Calvià (€ 1.7 million). Advanced Radar Interferometry techniques (DInSAR) have been applied in order to detect hotspot ground deformations. To this end, many processed radar images have been obtained by several satellites: ALOS, ENVISAT, ERS, COSMO SKY- MED, covering a temporal space of 20 years (1992- 2012). The set of images were selected corresponding to PALSAR ALOS satellite sensor (14/17 images with an interval in the sequence of 46 days), as its L-band allows for greater density of points in adverse areas, and also its temporary coverage covers the humid period 2008-2010. The processing method used has been Advanced Differential Interferometric processing technique Persistent Scattering (PSI) developed by Arnaud et al. (2003); Hard et al. (2005). In order to correct geometric distortion generated by the mode of acquisition of satellite data, it has projected the estimated deformation in the line of sight of the satellite (VLOS) along the steepest slope (VSLOPE ). Deformation thresholds established in the study area have been: ± 3 mm / year for VLOS deformation speed, and - 5 mm / year for the deformation speed VSLOPE. Overlapping data strain rate and inventory map, along with the geomorphological observations (DEM, topography, orthophotos) and in field tests, have identified the active landslides. The results are: (1) 22% of mapped landslides are active; (2) they have been 5 new landslides identified, (3) the geometry of 5 existing landslides have been redefined, and (4) the identification of new potentially dangerous areas. Throughout the Ma-10 highway, which is the main infrastructure of the Range, the radar has identified 18 active areas which have an average value of VSLOPE exceeding 10 mm / year damages threshold proposed by Masour et al. (2011). From the SAR images it has also been possible to quantify deformations related to lateral spreading processes identified in the southern sector of the Tramuntana. The obtained strain rates lower than -16 mm / year, confirm the slowness of these movements, although in areas takeoff speeds soar to 3 cm / year, which shows the danger of these movements. Thanks to the high number of inventoried rockfalls (103) of variable frequency and magnitude, it has been able to calibrate and validate the STONE Code (Guzzetti et al., 2002) in the Tramuntana Range. This software requires 5 ASCII input maps (digital terrain model, source areas, normal restitution energy coefficient, tangential restitution energy coefficient and dynamic friction coefficient). The calibration dynamic coefficients have been carried out with reference to 40 well-characterised rockfalls, and performing a statistical estimate of the values obtained for each parameter, selecting the simulation that best fits reality. The parameters calibrated have been validated in a first stage, with 10 rockfalls triggered during the humid period 2008-2010 and, in a second stage, with 63 inventoried landslides along the Ma-10 road, which have occurred during the last 18 years. In the first stage of validation it shows that the accuracy of the model varies the scope and the off-path blocks. Rockfalls with a preferential trajectory and shorter range are better represented. In the second stage it is observed that the rockfall with source area in rock massif escarpments present a degree of confidence (81,5% of the events were correctly identified) that the rockfalls with the source area in the road cuttings (only 49% of the rockfalls were identified). Finally, the results obtained have been used to design the main lines of action in the Ma10 versus protection of rockfalls. Three working phases have been established : (1) short-term measures taken in areas where no registered events and results were obtained with simulation STONE; (2) medium-term measures taken where there have been rock falls but the model obtained no results and (3) long-term measures taken for road sections where no rockfalls occurred, but the model obtained results. This research aims to provide a series of calibrated and validated tools in the study area as a basis for future work (regional and/or local) to assess hazard, vulnerability and risk. ; [spa] En el presente trabajo de investigación se han aplicado herramientas novedosas, como son las técnicas de Interferometría Radar Avanzada y los modelos de simulación de desprendimientos rocosos, para analizar la peligrosidad por movimientos de ladera en la Serra de Tramuntana de la Isla de Mallorca. La aplicación de ambas técnicas precisa disponer de buenos datos de partida como son: el inventario detallado de los movimientos del terreno, el conocimiento de los factores condicionantes de las inestabilidades (geología, geomorfología, resistencia de materiales, pendientes, etc.), el análisis de los factores desencadenantes (precipitación, temperatura, erosión marina y torrencial), así como de otros parámetros relativos al impacto generado por estos peligros naturales, tales como los daños causados en viviendas e infraestructuras, y las pérdidas económicas generadas, referentes tanto a los costes directos como indirectos. A partir de trabajos previos focalizados en los movimientos de ladera en la Serra de Tramuntana (Mateos, 2001), de los datos facilitados por el Servicio de Carreteras del Consell Insular de Mallorca y la Dirección General de Emergencias del Govern Balear, junto con el trabajo de campo y el análisis de la fotografía aérea llevado a cabo para el presente trabajo, se han inventariado y caracterizado 934 movimientos de ladera en la Serra de Tramuntana desde el siglo XVIII. El inventario incluye las siguientes tipologías: desprendimientos rocosos, deslizamientos (de roca y en suelo), flujos, expansión lateral y colapsos de naturaleza kárstica. La proyección de los puntos inventariados en GIS ha facilitado el estudio de su distribución a lo largo de la Serra y ha permitido llevar a cabo el análisis pormenorizado de los factores que condicionan los movimientos. Se ha podido constatar que el 65,5 % de los movimientos registrados en la Serra corresponden a desprendimientos rocosos y el 25% a deslizamientos. El 54% de los eventos inventariados se localizan en la franja costera de esta cadena montañosa. Los desprendimientos rocosos tienen lugar principalmente (52% de los casos) en los materiales duros del Lías (calizas y brechas dolomíticas principalmente) asociados a los principales escarpes de la Serra, y especialmente a los frentes de cabalgamiento que configuran la estructura geológica de la Tramuntana. Los deslizamientos en suelos afectan principalmente a los sedimentos blandos del Keuper (arcillas versicolores con yesos) y a los depósitos coluviales del Cuaternario, y se concentran principalmente en la mitad suroccidental de la Serra. El evento frío y lluvioso del periodo 2008-2010, que desencadenó un número inusual de movimientos de ladera (14 desprendimientos, 1 avalancha de rocas, 15 deslizamientos, y 4 colapsos Kársticos), ha permitido llevar a cabo un análisis pormenorizado de los factores desencadenantes. Así, los desprendimientos rocosos tuvieron lugar después de la ocurrencia de lluvias intensas, con valores superiores a 90 mm/24h, o bien en macizos rocosos saturados (lluvias acumuladas >800 mm/3 meses) con varios ciclos de hielo-deshielo días previos a la rotura. Los deslizamientos en suelos tuvieron lugar después de lluvias intensas, de moderadas a extremas, y con valores elevados de lluvia acumulada (> 850 mm/3 meses). Sin duda alguna, otro de los motores principales de los procesos gravitacionales es la intensa dinámica litoral de la costa norte, tal y como refleja la elevada distribución de movimientos registrados a lo largo de la franja costera. La colaboración con diferentes agentes sociales de la isla (ayuntamientos, departamentos de la administración local y autonómica etc.,) ha permitido la valoración de las pérdidas económicas causadas por los movimientos de ladera durante el citado periodo 2008-2010, que afectaron a numerosas viviendas e infraestructuras, y principalmente a la red viaria de la Serra. Las pérdidas económicas (directas e indirectas) durante el citado periodo ascendieron a 11 M €, lo que representa el 0,042% del PIB de Baleares. La distribución espacial de los daños muestra que el sector suroeste de la Serra es el que ha soportado mayores pérdidas económicas, especialmente los municipios de Andratx (pérdidas de 2.072.457 €) y el municipio de Calvià (1.700.000 €). Las técnicas de Interferometría Radar Avanzada (DInSAR) se han aplicado con la finalidad de detectar zonas activas con deformaciones del terreno. Para ello, se han procesado numerosas imágenes radar obtenidas por varios satélites: ALOS, ENVISAT, ERS, COSMO SKY- MED, que cubren un espacio temporal de 20 años (desde 1992- 2012). Del conjunto de imágenes, se han seleccionado las correspondientes al sensor PALSAR del satélite ALOS (14/17 imágenes con un intervalo en la secuencia de 46 días), ya que su banda L permite obtener mayor densidad de puntos en zonas desfavorables, y además su cobertura temporal cubre el periodo húmedo 2008-2010. El método de procesado empleado ha sido la técnica Avanzada de procesamiento Diferencial Interferométrico de Dispersión Persistente (PSI) desarrollada por Arnaud et al. (2003); Duro et al. (2005). Con la finalidad de corregir la distorsión geométrica generada por el modo de adquisición de los datos del satélite, se ha proyectado la velocidad estimada de la deformación en la línea de vista del satélite (VLOS) a lo largo de la línea de máxima pendiente (VSLOPE). Los umbrales de deformación establecidos en el área de estudio han sido de: ± 3 mm/año para la velocidad de deformación VLos, y de - 5 mm/año para la velocidad de deformación Vslope. La superposición de los datos de velocidad de deformación al mapa inventario, junto con las observaciones geomorfológicas (DEM, topografía, ortofotos) y comprobaciones en campo, han permitido identificar los deslizamientos activos. Los resultados son: (1) un 22% de los deslizamientos cartografiados son activos; (2) se han identificado 5 deslizamientos nuevos, (3) se ha redefinido la geometría de 5 deslizamientos existentes, y (4) se han identificado nuevas áreas potencialmente peligrosas. A lo largo de la carretera Ma-10, principal infraestructura de la Serra, el radar ha identificado 18 zonas activas que presentan un valor medio de VSLOPE que excede los 10 mm/año, umbral de daños propuesto por Masour et al. (2011). Las imágenes SAR también han permitido cuantificar deformaciones relacionadas con procesos de expansión lateral identificadas en el sector meridional de la Tramuntana. Las velocidades de deformación obtenidas, inferiores a -16 mm/año, confirman la lentitud de estos movimientos, aunque en las zonas de despegue, las velocidades se disparan hasta los 3 cm/año, lo que denota la peligrosidad de estos movimientos. Gracias al elevado número de desprendimientos rocosos inventariados (103), de magnitud y frecuencia variable, se ha podido calibrar y validar el Código STONE (Guzzetti et al., 2002) en la Serra de Tramuntana. Se trata de un software que requiere 5 mapas de entrada en formato ASCII (modelo digital del terreno, áreas fuente, coeficiente de energía de restitución normal, coeficiente de energía de restitución tangencial y coeficiente de fricción dinámica). La calibración de los coeficientes dinámicos se ha llevado a cabo tomando como referencia 40 desprendimientos bien caracterizados, y realizando una estimación estadística de los valores obtenidos para cada parámetro, seleccionando la simulación que mejor se ajusta a la realidad. Los parámetros calibrados se han validado, en una primera etapa, con 10 de los desprendimientos desencadenados durante el periodo húmedo 2008-2010 y, en una segunda etapa, con 63 desprendimientos inventariados a lo largo de la carretera Ma-10, y ocurridos durante los últimos 18 años. En la primera etapa de validación se observa que la precisión del modelo varía dependiendo del alcance y el recorrido de los bloques desprendidos. Desprendimientos con una trayectoria preferencial y menor alcance están mejor representados. En la segunda etapa se observa que los desprendimientos de rocas con el área fuente en escarpes de macizos rocosos presentan más grado de confianza (se identificaron correctamente el 81,5 % de los eventos) que los desprendimientos con el área fuente en taludes de la carretera (solo se identificaron el 49% de los desprendimientos). Finalmente, los resultados obtenidos se han utilizado para diseñar las líneas principales de actuación en la Ma-10 frente a su protección a los desprendimientos. Se han establecido tres fases de trabajo: (1) medidas a corto plazo en aquellas zonas donde hay eventos registrados y se obtuvieron resultados con la simulación del STONE; (2) medidas a medio plazo donde se han registrado caídas de rocas pero el modelo no ha obtenido resultados y (3) medidas a largo plazo para los tramos de carretera donde no se registraron caída de rocas, pero el modelo obtuvo resultados. El presente trabajo de investigación pretende ofrecer una serie de herramientas calibradas y validadas en la zona de estudio como base para futuros trabajos (regionales y/o locales) de peligrosidad, vulnerabilidad y riesgo por movimientos de ladera. ; [cat] En el present treball de recerca s'han aplicat eines noves, com són les tècniques de Interferometria Radar Avançada i els models de simulació de despreniments rocosos, per analitzar la perillositat per moviments de vessant en la Serra de Tramuntana de l' illa de Mallorca. L'aplicació d'ambdues tècniques precisa disposar de bones dades de partida com són : l'inventari detallat dels moviments del terreny, el coneixement dels factors condicionants de les inestabilitats (geologia, geomorfologia, resistència de materials, pendents, etc.), l'anàlisi dels factors desencadenants (precipitació, temperatura, erosió marina i torrencial), així com d'altres paràmetres relatius a l'impacte generat per aquests perills naturals, tals com els danys causats en habitatges i infraestructures, i les pèrdues econòmiques generades, referents tant als costos directes com als indirectes. A partir de treballs previs focalitzats en els moviments de vessant en la Serra de Tramuntana (Mateos, 2001), de les dades facilitades pel Servei de Carreteres del Consell Insular de Mallorca i la Direcció General d'Emergències del Govern Balear, juntament amb el treball de camp i l'anàlisi de la fotografia aèria dut a terme per al present treball de camp, s'han inventariat i caracteritzat 934 moviments de vessant en la Serra de Tramuntana des del segle XVIII. L'inventari inclou les següents tipologies: despreniments rocosos, lliscaments (de roca i en sòl), fluxos, expansió lateral i col.lapses de naturalesa càrstica. La projecció dels punts inventariats en GIS ha facilitat l'estudi de la seva distribució al llarg de la Serra i ha permès dur a terme l'anàlisi detallada dels factors que condicionen els moviments. S'ha pogut constatar que el 65,5% dels moviments registrats en la Serra corresponen a despreniments rocosos i el 25% a lliscaments. El 54% dels esdeveniments inventariats es localitzen a la franja costanera d'aquesta cadena muntanyenca. Els despreniments rocosos tenen lloc principalment (52% dels casos) en els material durs del Lias (calcàries i bretxes dolomítiques principalment) associats als principals penya-segats de la Serra, i especialment als fronts d'encavalcament que configuren l'estructura geològica de la Tramuntana. Els lliscaments en sòls afecten principalment als sediments tous del keuper (argiles versicolors amb guixos) i als dipòsits col.luvials del Quaternari, i es concentren principalment en la meitat suroccidental de la Serra. L'esdeveniment fred i plujós del període 2008-2010, que va desencadenar un nombre inusual de moviments de vessant (14 despreniments, 1 devessall de roques, 15 lliscaments, i 4 col.lapses càrstics), ha permès dur a terme una anàlisi detallada dels factors desencadenants. Així, els despreniments rocosos van tenir lloc després de l'ocurrència de pluges intenses, amb valors superiors a 90 mm/24h, o bé en massissos rocosos saturats (pluges acumulades >800 mm/3 mesos) amb diversos cicles de geldesglaç dies previs al trencament. Els lliscaments en sòls van tenir lloc després de pluges intenses, de moderades a extremes, i amb valors elevats de pluja acumulada (> 850 mm/3 mesos). Sens dubte, un altre dels motors principals del processos gravitacionals és la intensa dinàmica litoral de la costa nord, tal com reflecteix l'elevada distribució de moviments registrats al llarg de la franja costanera.La col.laboració amb diferents agents socials de la illa (ajuntaments, departaments de l'administració local i autonòmica etc.,) ha permès la valoració de les pèrdues econòmiques causades pels moviments de vessant durant el citat període 2008-2010, que van afectar a nombrosos habitatges i infraestructures, i principalment a la xarxa viària de la Serra. Les pèrdues econòmiques (directes i indirectes) durant el citat període van ascendir a 11 M €, la qual cosa representa el 0,042% del PIB Balears. La distribució espacial dels danys mostra que el sector sud-oest de la Serra és el que ha suportat majors pèrdues econòmiques, especialment els municipis d'Andratx (pèrdues de 2.072.457 €) i el municipi de Calvià (1.700.000 €). Les tècniques de Interferometria Radar Avançada (DInSAR) s'han aplicat amb la finalitat de detectar zones actives amb deformacions del terreny. Per a això, s'han processat nombroses imatges radar obtingudes per diversos satèl.lits: ALOS, ENVISAT, ERS, COSMO SKY-MED, que cobreixen un espai temporal de 20 anys (des de 1992-2012). Del conjunt d'imatges, s'han seleccionat les corresponents al sensor PALSAR del satèl.lit ALOS (14/17 imatges amb un interval en la seqüencia de 46 dies), ja que la seva banda L permet obtenir major densitat de punts en zones desfavorables, i a més la seva cobertura temporal cobreix el període humit 2008-2010. El mètode de processament emprat ha estat la tècnica Avançada de processament Diferencial Interferomètric de Dispersió Persistent (PSI) desenvolupada per Arnaud et al. (2003); Dur el al. (2005). Amb la finalitat de corregir la distorsió geomètrica generada per la manera d'adquisició de les dades del satèl.lit, s'ha projectat la velocitat estimada de la deformació en la línia de vista del satèl.lit (VLOS) al llarg de la línia de màxima pendent (VSLOPE). Els llindars de deformació establerts a l'àrea d'estudi han estat de :± 3 mm/any per a la velocitat de deformació VLOS , i de -5 mm/any per a la velocitat de deformació VSLOPE. La superposició de les dades de velocitat de deformació al mapa d'inventari, juntament amb les observacions geomorfològiques (DEM, topografia, ortofotografia) i comprovacions en camp, han permès identificar els lliscaments actius. Els resultats són: (1) un 22% dels lliscaments cartografiats són actius; (2) s'han identificat 5 lliscaments nous, (3) s'ha redefinit la geometria de 5 lliscaments existents, i (4) s'han identificat noves àrees potencialment perilloses. Al llarg de la carretera Ma-10, principal infraestructura de la Serra, el radar ha identificat 18 zones actives que presenten un valor mitjà de VSLOPE que excedeix els 10 mm/any, llindar de danys proposat per Masour et al. (2011) Les imatges SAR també han permès quantificar deformacions relacionades amb processos d'expansió lateral identificades en el sector meridional de la Tramuntana. Les velocitats de deformació obtingudes, inferiors a - 16 mm/any confirmen la lentitud d'aquests moviments, encara que a les zones de desenganxament, les velocitats es disparen fins als 3 cm/any, la qual cosa denota la perillositat d'aquests moviments. Gràcies a l'elevat nombre de despreniments rocosos inventariats (103), de magnitud i freqüència variable, s'ha pogut calibrar i validar el Codi STONE (Guzzetti et al., 2002) en la Serra de Tramuntana. Es tracta d'un programari que requereix 5 mapes d'entrada en format ASCII (model digital del terreny, àrees font, coeficient d'energia de restitució normal, coeficient d'energia de restitució tangencial i coeficient de fricció dinàmica). El calibratge dels coeficients dinàmics s'ha dut a terme prenent com a referència 40 despreniments ben caracteritzats, i realitzant una estimació estadística dels valors obtinguts per a cada paràmetre, seleccionant la simulació que millor s'ajusta a la realitat. Els paràmetres calibrats s'han validat, en una primera etapa, amb 10 dels despreniments desencadenats durant el període humit 2008-2010 i, en una segona etapa, amb 63 despreniments inventariats al llarg de la carretera Ma-10, i ocorreguts durant els últims 18 anys. En la primera etapa de validació s'observa que la precisió del model varia depenent de l'abast i el recorregut dels blocs despresos. Els despreniments amb una trajectòria preferent i de menor abast estan millor representats. En la segona etapa s'observa que els despreniments de roques amb l'àrea font en escarpes de massissos rocosos presenten més grau de confiança (es van identificar correctament el 81,5 % dels esdeveniments) que els despreniments amb l'àrea font en talussos de la carretera (solament es van identificar el 49% dels despreniments). Finalment, els resultats obtinguts s'han utilitzat per dissenyar les línies principals d'actuació en la Ma-10 enfront de la seva protecció als despreniments. S'han establert tres fases de treball: (1) Mesures a curt termini en aquelles zones on hi ha esdeveniments registrats i es van obtenir resultats amb la simulació del STONE, (2) Mesures a mitjà termini on s'han registrat caigudes de roques però el model no ha obtingut resultats i (3) mesures a llarg termini per als trams de carretera on no es van registrar caiguda de roques, però el model va obtenir resultats. El present treball de recerca pretén oferir una sèrie d'eines calibrades i validades a la zona d'estudi com a base per a futurs treballs (regionals i/o locals) de perillositat, vulnerabilitat i risc per moviments de vessant.
El objeto de esta tesis doctoral LO CONSTITUYE PRINCIPALMENTE, desde el punto de vista metodológico, el estudio de la legislación española y la diversa legislación de Derecho Comparado relacionada con la participación ciudadana. Para ello se han utilizado multitud de fuentes bibliográficas, legislativas y jurisprudenciales sobre la materia tratada, lo que unido a distintas entrevistas a personas y funcionarios públicos relacionados con la participación, han llevado a que este trabajo se haya enriquecido notablemente. La participación ciudadana se ha pretendido ubicar en un contexto adecuado, dotándola de una visión global para posteriormente acercarla al derecho español, y muy particularmente al régimen local, donde principalmente se desarrolla la participación. El trabajo de investigación se ha estructurado en ocho capítulos diferenciados, debido al alcance y contenido del estudio. -La participación ciudadana debemos definirla como "modelo de actuación de la ciudadanía en asuntos públicos, ya sea a título personal o colectivo, con la finalidad de que influya y se vea reflejada en las políticas o decisiones que se adopten por las instituciones públicas ". Este concepto de participación deja patente el hecho que se pueda participar tanto de forma individual como colectiva, lo que enriquece a la misma y la dota de un carácter abierto y no restrictivo. Tanto los sujetos intervinientes en la participación, como el modelo que se adopte para llevarse a cabo, son claves para su consecución. Es necesario indicar que la participación ciudadana no es un fenómeno reciente, sino que ya en la Antigüedad y Edad Media se producía. Como señala Loewenstein: los sujetos de las comunidades tomaban las decisiones en relación con aquello que los rodeaba, y se sentían como miembros inseparables del grupo. Lo mismo sucede por ejemplo con los maoríes en Nueva Zelanda. Será a partir de la Revolución Francesa cuando la participación ciudadana directa pase a ser una participación representativa, en la que la ciudadanía participará únicamente como titular de la soberanía eligiendo a sus representantes en las asambleas periódicamente. Otro término inseparable con la participación ciudadana es el de gobernanza. La Real Academia Española de la Lengua es la que mejor dota de significado al mismo, definiéndola como el: "arte o manera de gobernar que se propone como objetivo el logro de un desarrollo económico, social e institucional duradero, promoviendo un sano equilibrio entre el Estado, la sociedad civil y el mercado de la economía". Significa gobernar de forma cooperativa, bajo los principios básicos de responsabilidad, eficacia y coherencia, suponiendo un nuevo modelo. Junto con gobernanza aparece el concepto "buena gobernanza ". Este término, dada su importancia, ha sido estudiado y desarrollado tanto por Naciones Unidas como por la Unión Europea. La "buena gobernanza "pretende integrar a la ciudadanía, ya sea de forma colectiva o individual en la esfera pública, con la finalidad de acabar con los abusos y la corrupción que existe en multitud de Estados. Para ello, se han fijado una serie de principios con los que se cree que se puede desarrollar de forma real y efectiva una buena gobernanza, como son, entre otros: -participación, consenso, equidad, transparencia, etc. CRITICAS A LA GOBERNANZA: La gobernanza no está alejada de reproches por algunos sectores críticos, que consideran que permitir que sea llevada por organismos internacionales conlleva a: -debilitar el poder del Estado y -aumentar el proceso globalizador en detrimento de la población. -Este trabajo de investigación ha recogido una visión del derecho comparado, llevando un amplio análisis de la relación entre democracia y participación ciudadana. -Así, instituciones como Naciones Unidas, dedicaron sus Informes de Desarrollo Humano de 1993 y 2002 a este tema. Analizan la forma en que debe llevarse la participación para el que el sujeto sea el centro de desarrollo desde el que se alcance una democratización del sistema y de las instituciones. Para llegar a la participación, señala Naciones Unidas, deben participar en igualdad de condiciones toda las personas, incluso grupos que están condenados en muchos países al ostracismo como son minorías étnicas, mujeres, habitantes de zonas rurales, etc. Lo más destacable de estos informes es que llegan a una misma conclusión: la descentralización es clave en la participación ciudadana, lo que conlleva al fortalecimiento de las instituciones democráticas. -La participación ciudadana también es un fenómeno que la UNIÓN EUROPEA considera necesario para su funcionamiento y así aumentar la involucración de la ciudadanía europea en las políticas e instituciones que la afectan. El Tratado de Lisboa, de 13 de diciembre de 2007, que modifica el Tratado de Constitución de la Unión Europea, introduciéndose la iniciativa popular. Con esta medida se pretende incrementar los derechos de la ciudadanía, intensificar los debates de las políticas públicas europeas, aumenta así la participación de ciudadanos y sociedad civil. El derecho al ejercicio de la iniciativa ciudadana, precisando de un millón de firmas, con una serie de requisitos, entró en vigor el 1 de abril de 2012. -La experiencia participativa se ha llevado a cabo en multitud de países de países de todo el mundo, por lo que en este trabajo se ha pretendido recoger un amplio elenco de estas experiencias para dotarlo de una visión general. Destaca que se haya citado países tales como India o Nueva Zelanda, cuyas experiencias son casi desconocidas en nuestro país. Estas experiencias se llevan a cabo de forma efectiva dentro del ámbito local, lo que no hace más que confirmar la idea de Naciones Unidas ya comentada, de que es la descentralización la clave en la participación ciudadana. -Como no podía ser de otra forma, he dedicado un apartado especial a Perú. Tal y como he dicho al principio de mi intervención, mi estancia en este país me sirvió para documentarme y conocer mejor la realidad participativa. En este país se ha llevado a cabo una notable implantación de la participación ciudadana en todos los niveles de gobierno, dotando especialmente a la sociedad civil de la importancia que merece en los procesos participativos. A partir del año 2002 se produce en Perú la consolidación de la participación ciudadana de forma que se encuadra dentro de las políticas públicas del proceso de descentralización, lo que tiene su reflejo en: -La Ley 26300 de Derechos de Participación y Control Ciudadanos; -La Ley de Bases de Descentralización: que considera como objetivo de la descentralización "la participación y fiscalización de la ciudadanía en la gestión de los asuntos públicos de cada región y localidad ". -La Ley Orgánica de Gobierno Regionales; -Ley Orgánica de Municipalidades, y por supuesto, -La Constitución peruana de 1993 (en los artículos 2.17 y 31) -La Ley 27444 de Procedimiento Administrativo General, recoge en su articulado el principio de participación. Consideramos que es clave que se produzca la participación ciudadana en la Administración Pública, ya que se trata de las instituciones más cercanas a la ciudadanía. -Queremos destacar la Ley 27806 de Transparencia y Acceso a la Información Pública. Esta ley busca la consecución de la transparencia de los actos del Estado y la participación ciudadana. Aunque adolece de algunos vicios, como el hecho de no ser publicada en las lenguas nativas para que tenga una correcta difusión, fue aprobada en el año 2002, algo que es especialmente llamativo, como ya comentaremos más adelante, siendo aprobada en España la Ley de Transparencia el año pasado, 11 años más tarde que en Perú. Como aspectos controvertidos destacables en la abundante normativa peruana relacionada con la participación ciudadana, nos encontramos ante una legislación demasiado procesalista, en la que los procedimientos imperan frente a la calidad en la representación ciudadana y la ausencia de obligaciones para que las autoridades, por mandato legal, para cumplir con la participación de la ciudadanía en los procesos. -En España la participación ciudadana se ha ido abriendo paso poco a poco. Tal y como recogemos en el Capítulo V, Constitución de 1978 la plasma en diversos artículos. El artículo 23 se dedica al derecho fundamental a participar en los asuntos públicos, aunque no debe ser interpretado de forma extensiva, dado que correríamos el riesgo, como indica LOPEZ GUERRA, de aplicarle una desmesurada extensión de las cautelas y garantías propias de los derechos fundamentales. Este capítulo además se ha enriquecido con numerosos referencias jurisprudenciales así como legislativas de distintas ciudades, donde se plasman estas formas de participación ciudadana. Como consecuencia de las numerosas formas de participación existentes en el sistema español, hemos considerado necesario delimitarlas y establecer una clasificación para facilitar el estudio. Estas dos formas de clasificación son: -la orgánica (en la que la ciudadanía se integra en un órgano colegiado de carácter público); -y la funcional (aquellas formas de participación, no incluidas en la orgánica). Existen multitud de órganos de participación en nuestra legislación, tales como los Consejos Sectoriales (dentro del municipio), los Consejos Territoriales de Participación (en el ámbito del distrito), con un funcionamiento similar aunque con diferente ámbito de actuación. Dentro de estos órganos, y como novedad de la Ley 57/2003, que modificó la LBRL, se estableció la creación de un órgano nuevo de participación ciudadana en los municipios de gran población como es el Consejo Social (art.131). Algunas ciudades ya establecieron su creación como Barcelona en el año 1998, al igual que algunas diputaciones provinciales, los habían creado bajo la denominación de "Consejos Económicos y Sociales ". Su composición y funcionamiento es muy similar aunque con pequeñas variaciones dependiendo de las ciudades y su principal objeto es el debate, informe, consulta y propuesta de temas estratégicos para la ciudad, que la afecten de forma directa. Existen otros órganos orientados a mejorar la gestión municipal y la participación ciudadana como son los Órganos Territoriales de Gestión Desconcentrada. Expresamente la LBRL en su artículo 24.1 reconoce su creación para facilitar la participación ciudadana en la gestión de los asuntos locales. La instauración, cuando sea facultativa, de unos u otros órganos, dependerá de los propios municipios. La participación funcional la lleva a cabo la ciudadanía de forma individual. Especialmente hemos tenido en cuenta la que se desarrolla en la Administración Local, esfera donde puede llevarse a cabo la participación ciudadana directamente. Si hablamos de participación funcional lo primero que debemos hacer es señalar la importancia de la información pública, considerada como "el principal exponente de la participación directa procedimental de los ciudadanos ". El derecho de información pública tiene una gran tradición legalista en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico. Ya se recogía por: -la Ley Municipal de 1870, -La Ley Municipal de 1877; -y el Estatuto de Calvo Sotelo de 1924, más reciente que favoreció la participación ciudadana con las "exposiciones públicas ". La información pública se recoge en el artículos 20 de la Constitución. Pese a que no figura expresamente el derecho de información administrativa, debemos ponerlo en referencia con el artículo 105 del mismo texto legal, que establece una reserva de ley en tres ámbitos diferenciados, y aunque no se cite la palabra "derecho ", no cabe duda que son tres derechos públicos subjetivos, como indica PARADA VAZQUEZ. El hecho de introducir el legislador el artículo 105 CE fuera del título dedicado para los derechos fundamentales, no otorgándole su especial protección, pese a estar ocasionalmente conectado con diversos derechos fundamentales, dotándole de este carácter es una incongruencia del legislador a la hora de la redacción de la Constitución. La Ley 30/92, de 26 de noviembre de Régimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas y Procedimiento Administrativo Común, en su artículo 3.5 recoge en una serie de principios de transparencia y participación que van unidos al derecho información y por ende, la participación ciudadana. La cuestión es que estos principios enumerados por la Ley 30/92 son innecesario puesto que no hace más que reproducir lo que la Constitución ya recoge y que es de obligado cumplimiento. En este mismo sentido, en 1999 se aprobó la Carta de Derechos del Ciudadano de Castilla- La Mancha, que pese a ser fruto de la participación y consenso de numerosos colectivos, no hizo más que reproducir lo que la Ley 30/92 ya había establecido y que venía recogido por la Constitución. La información pública también se recoge en la Ley 7/1985, de 2 de abril reguladora de las Bases de Régimen Local. Pese a que el Título V recoge la Información y Participación Ciudadana, hay un artículo de notable importancia fuera de este Título, donde la participación ciudadana es clave, como es el artículo 49, que recoge la obligación de someter a información pública la aprobación de ordenanzas locales. En caso de producirse su omisión conlleva la invalidez del acto legislativo. Sin embargo, este trámite también debía haberse extendido a reglamentos municipales, dado que importancia, como las ordenanzas. Estrechamente relacionado con la información pública está el papel que juegan las nuevas tecnologías, que facilite la participación ciudadana. El artículo 70 bis 3, introducido por la Ley 57,2003, de 16 de diciembre, de Modernización del Gobierno Local, introducido en la LBRL, instaba a los municipios y entidades locales a favorecer e impulsar las nuevas tecnologías. Esta modificación atendió a la Recomendación del Comité de Ministros del Consejo de Europa de 2001, sobre la participación de los ciudadanos en la vida pública local. En Castilla-La Mancha debemos destacar el Decreto 12/2010, de 16 de marzo, por el que se regula la utilización de los medios electrónicos en la actividad de la Administración autonómica, y aprobado en atención de sus competencias de autoorganización, que buscaba el reforzamiento de la participación ciudadana y la transparencia de la administración y que surge a raíz de la aprobación de la normativa estatal, de la Ley 11/2007, de 22 de junio, de acceso electrónico de los ciudadanos a los Servicios Públicos. Otro derecho de participación funcional es el derecho de petición, que recoge dentro de su doble vertiente, además de una manifestación del derecho de libertad de expresión, un cauce participativo, cuando se refiere a intereses generales o colectivos. Destaca como la ley que lo regula, la L.O. 4/2001, de 12 de noviembre, no lo define pese a que su anterior regulación, la Ley 92/1960, de 22 de noviembre, en su artículo 1, si lo hacía. Estamos ante un derecho participativo con notable arraigo en nuestra historia, y que ya en la España Musulmana se recogía, exponiéndole al Visir de Reclamaciones las quejas frente a agravios o excesos de los funcionarios. Otras formas de participación ciudadana destacables, son el derecho de iniciativa ciudadano o el de consulta popular local. -La iniciativa ciudadana viene recogida por el artículo 70 BIS 2 de la LBRL. Pese a que se pueda ejercer la iniciativa de forma extensiva, presentado propuestas o proyectos sobre casi todas las materias de competencia municipal, a excepción de lo relacionado con hacienda local, adolece de un grave defecto, dado que no tiene carácter vinculante para el pleno. Así, puede conllevar a que la iniciativa, pese a cumplir con todos los requisitos no sea tomada en consideración, y la participación ciudadana no tenga sentido, volviendo a la actividad discrecional del Pleno la toma de decisiones. -Sobre la consulta popular local, el derecho de ultramar de 1897, reconocía para Cuba y Puerto Rico, la consulta popular local. Las leyes locales de 1907 de Maura, la de 1912 de Canalejas o de 1924 de Calvo Sotelo también lo introdujo para determinadas materias. La primera ley autonómica que reconoció la consulta popular local fue la de Cataluña en 1935. La Constitución de 1978 no contempla expresamente la consulta popular local, por influencia de la Constitución de 1812. Por ello, tenemos que acudir a distintos artículos (art. 9.2.; 23.1; 92.3 PAG. 245. para que implícitamente podamos decir que sí cabe en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico. La LBRL, recoge en su artículo 18, apartado f), entre los derechos de los vecinos, el de "pedir consulta popular en los términos previstos en la ley ". Pese a ello, en la práctica, la consulta popular ha sido inoperante dada la interpretación rígida de las causas de inadmisibilidad por el Consejo de Ministros (cuya autorización se precisa). Hasta junio de 2004, sólo se habían autorizado 94. Esta autorización debería ser transferida a las Comunidades Autónomas en virtud del artículo 150. 2 CE, lo que dotaría de más significado a la consulta popular local, puesto que son las CC.AA. las que más afectadas pueden verse por el activismo municipal. Otro aspecto discutido es el ejercicio de la consulta popular, es decir, "quien puede llevarla a cabo? Atendiendo a la L.O. 4/2000, de Derechos y Libertades de Extranjeros en España: -los españoles residentes, -que se encuentren empadronados en España, que tienen los mismos derechos que los reconocidos para los españoles en la LBRL. Así pese a que no puedan ejercer el derecho de sufragio , sí que podrán participar en una consulta popular local. Consideramos que era oportuno analizar, a través del derecho comparado, la consulta popular local en países de nuestro entorno así como EE.UU. Ha sido necesario plasmar en este trabajo de investigación las últimas novedades legislativas relacionadas con la participación ciudadana y especialmente en el ámbito local. -La Ley 19/2013, de 9 de diciembre, de transparencia, acceso a la información pública y buen gobierno es novedosa en nuestro sistema. Busca incrementar y reforzar la transparencia en la actividad pública, reconocer y garantizar el acceso a la información y establecer las obligaciones de buen gobierno que deben cumplir los responsables públicos. Aunque no es perfecto es un primer paso para el ejercicio pleno del derecho de participación ciudadana. Es motivo de su aprobación no es otro que la ciudadanía que se niega a ser tratada como simples electores cada 4 años y quieren interactuar con su Administración Pública y su democracia. En su elaboración a través de un portal web, se recibieron más de 3.600 aportaciones. La democracia representativa debe además de ser participativa y con pasos así puede llegar a serlo. Al encontrarnos ante una ley prácticamente recién aprobada y también debido a su vacatio legis, tendremos que esperar para conocer como se desarrolla su aplicación y su efectivo cumplimiento. Elemento clave es el desarrollo de la participación ciudadana son los presupuestos participativos, que conlleva a la participación ciudadana en su redacción y en la decisión de donde van destinadas las partidas presupuestarias. Como indicaba Naciones Unidas "pocas decisiones del gobierno significan tanto para la gente común como las que se adoptan con la redacción de los presupuestos públicos ". Los presupuestos participativos no se han desarrollado de la misma manera en todos los países en los que se lleva a cabo. Nació en 1989 en Brasil, en particular, en la localidad de Porto Alegre, donde ha tenido una gran implantación. El modelo de presupuestos participativos implantado en países europeos no es uniforme. En Alemania utilizan el modelo llevado a cabo en Christchurch (Nueva Zelanda); en Portugal, dado sus lazos con Brasil, se sigue el modelo brasileño; en el caso de España se toma un modelo híbrido, donde se combina la participación directa ciudadana y a través de colectivos. Con la finalidad de dotar de una amplia visión general a los presupuestos participativos, hemos comentado multitud de localidad de España para conocer sus particularidades, y muy especialmente la ciudad de Albacete. Aquí ha sido un proyecto asentado en la política municipal, refiriendo incluso la denominación de "el Porto Alegre Manchego ". Este modelo se asentó sobre el asociacionismo y fue perfilado para mejorar sus deficiencias hasta que en el año 2007 alcanzará su pleno auge. En la actualidad, debido a la crisis financiera que acarreó la disminución de los fondos públicos, ha perdido fuerza y tendremos que esperar a que la situación económica mejore para conocer como se van desarrollando nuevamente los presupuestos participativos. La democracia participativa debería mantenerse, independientemente de la situación de las arcas municipales. Las nuevas tecnologías de la información y comunicación tienen un papel clave en la participación ciudadana y contribuye a incrementarla, favoreciendo así la transparencia y accesibilidad. La aparición de las NTIC conlleva al surgimiento de nuevos términos relacionados con la participación ciudadana, como son: "e-democracia " (NTIC son utilizadas por partidos políticos, lobbys, asociaciones y ciudadanía en particular con fines políticos y jurídicos "; "e-governmet o gobierno electrónico ", que supone un espacio participativo digital, donde la ciudadanía conoce las administraciones públicas de los distintos niveles, puede llevar a cabo los trámites que precisa de ellas, y presentar quejas o participar mediante iniciativas en la misma. En España, la Constitución de 1978, en su artículo 18.4, recoge el uso de la informática, aunque de forma negativa. Pese a ello es algo progresista, y más si atendemos al año de su aprobación, cuando su uso no estaba implementado. Será en el año 2007 cuando se apruebe la Ley 11/2007, de 22 de junio, de acceso electrónico de los ciudadanos a los Servicios Públicos y la Ley 37/2007, de 16 de noviembre, sobre reutilización de la información del sector público. Estas leyes no tienen la consideración de L.O. para así no reconocer al derecho de información categoría de derecho fundamental. El uso de medios informáticos y telemáticos con la Administración y la cantidad de posibilidad que otorga, a llevado al surgimiento por algunos autores del término "e-administración ". Pese a que las NTIC son un medio con el que se puede llevar a cabo la participación ciudadana de forma más rápida, aún siguen siendo en multitud de webs, sobre todo de los ayuntamientos de las localidades, confusas y complejas, algo que deberá perfilarse. -Por último, hemos finalizado la tesis con un capítulo dedicado íntegramente al medio ambiente como paradigma de la participación ciudadana. La concienciación por la defensa del medio ambiente es un objetivo que se ha ido abriendo paso en el marco de las distintas políticas y actuaciones impulsadas por la Unión Europea, y donde la participación ciudadana ha tenido un papel clave. La aprobación por Naciones Unidas del Convenio de Aarhus sobre acceso a información ambiental, participación del público en la toma de decisiones y el acceso a la justicia en materia de medio ambiente, en 1998, supuso el comienzo de lo que se conoce por "democracia ambiental ". Este convenio dota de notable importancia a la información medioambiental como medio para poder llevar a cabo de forma efectiva la participación ciudadana. Europa ya había mostrado su sensibilidad hacia la participación de la ciudadana en decisiones medioambientales, como dejó patente la Directiva 90/313/CE, que regulaba el acceso a la información medioambiental, previa solicitud. Este interés en la Unión Europea por medio ambiente y participación ciudadana, siguió con la Directiva 2003/4/CE, que derogó la anterior Directiva y adoptó la normativa comunitaria al Convenio de Aarhus. Asimismo, en este mismo año se aprobó por el Parlamento y el Consejo, la Directiva 2003/35/CE, que establecía medidas para la participación del público en la elaboración de determinados planes y programas relacionados con el medio ambiente. -En España, la Constitución reconoce en su artículo 45 el derecho al medio ambiente, pero será la Ley 27/2006, de 18 de julio, por la que se regulan los derechos de acceso a la información, de participación pública y de acceso a la justicia en materia de medio ambiente, la que transponga las Directivas 4 y 35/2003. Esta Ley regula el derecho que ostenta la ciudadanía a los poderes públicos para que adopten las medidas encaminadas a garantizar la adecuada protección del medio ambiente. 2.- CONCLUSIÓNES: -Podemos decir que la participación ciudadana en la Administración local es útil en la vida del municipio y en la esfera que afecta a la ciudadanía. -Permite reducir la exclusión social si se toman medidas encaminadas a mejorar la situación de estos grupos, a propuesta en muchos casos de la ciudadanía que expone sus peticiones, y en algunos casos son tomadas en cuenta en los propuestos. -La racionalización en el gasto público no puede suponer un limite a la participación ciudadana y servir de justificación por las Administraciones para que no se tenga en cuenta, ni se lleve a cabo la participación. -Será en el ámbito local, donde se puede llevar a cabo de forma más efectiva la participación ciudadana, por lo que habrá que dotarla de medios para que su consecución en todos los municipios y localidades sea un objetivo, y haya una participación plena. -Si la participación ciudadana se produce, continúa y es tenida en cuenta, podrá servir para legitimar las instituciones y sus proyectos, más aún si tenemos en cuenta el descredito actual en el que están sumidas.
Part two of an interview with Dorothy Giadone Poirier. Topics include: What the customers were like at the furniture store. Her father's involvement in social clubs. How Dottie was treated as a child by other children. Her friendship with Peter Levanti's daughter. Traveling back to Italy. How her mother spent her leisure time. What her parents would think of Fitchburg today. ; 1 SPEAKER 2: I remember one time a customer came in and said, "That sofa's down the street for $500 less." And I said, "I don't think so, sir." He said, "Are you calling me a liar?" I said, "No, sir,"—Broyhill—and I said, "I'm the only store in this immediate area. The next would be Worcester that carries Broyhill, and I know that they don't have Broyhill. Sit in this and then go sit on the one down the street," and so he did. He said, "I want the sofa, but I don't want you to wait… I don't want you to waste [unintelligible - 00:00:47]." "I don't care as long as you buy it." We're working on commission. But what happened -- I tried to explain to him. I said to him, "Sir, you know what it is? There are a lot of furniture companies out there. They copy, and there's only a few companies that sell material. So if Company A is excellent and Company B is just mediocre and they buy the same material and they steal the frame, the look of it, then it looks the same, but until you sit on it, you can't tell the difference, and there's a big difference because the other one will sit like a board and this one's like you sank in it." "I want it, but I don't want you to wait." SPEAKER 1: Now, the older generations, do they buy furniture frequently, or do they tend to keep…? SPEAKER 2: They tend to keep what they bought. Like I said, I had a customer that had… I mean, they still -- I have 20 years. I had another customer that's just recently I went out, she says, "I couldn't find anything I liked better so I had it recovered, and it cost me more than going out and buy a new sofa." And to have -- you tend -- if you have a good customer and you're good to them, you tend to keep them and, you know, they'll change. They always need something different. A bedroom set will last for -- you know, most people keep the bedroom set. 2 They'll change their living room and kitchen because that's something that's used by the whole family. If you don't have children and you'll have it again, then you keep your living room set forever until you really get sick of it. But I mean, I could, you know, keep my living room set longer than my sisters. They had kids, I didn't. Not that kids are destructive, but you use it differently. You know, lifestyles change. SPEAKER 1: Getting back to your father and his political side, did he… was he involved at all with the Italian Citizen's Club? SPEAKER 2: I don't know if they had Italian Citizen's Club. They had the Sons of Italy. He was involved with that because he was -- and then they had they called the PP club, and that was [unintelligible - 00:03:14] Club… SPEAKER 1: What is that club? SPEAKER 2: Well, I don't think it existed. Well, maybe it does. It's that club that was anybody from [unintelligible - 00:03:23], which was where he was born, they were coming and they had a small club that they would make pizza. They would -- and this was years ago. Then they would have -- you know how they have the [unintelligible - 00:03:38] they have their feast days? Well, when it was the feast of -- they call it the Madonna del Cava -- they would have a feast day and they would have a parade, and they would march up to Saint Anthony's and have a Mass and they would have an Italian band playing music, and they don't do that, they haven't done that in years. But they used to have that, and then someone would carry the statue. They have -- believe it or not, and most of the time they were little boys dressed up in angel suits, and then they would walk and they would pin dollar bills onto this statue that had streamers. But I forget, you know, they haven't done it for years so I forget. They still do that down the [unintelligible - 00:04:28].3 SPEAKER 1: But he was part of that club? SPEAKER 2: Yes. SPEAKER 1: As a member? SPEAKER 2: Yes. And he was also a member of the Marconi Club because my mother was a [unintelligible - 00:04:36]. It was her region, and the people in that region, if they were [unintelligible - 00:04:47] they had this -- the club is still letting, and I don't know how they interpret the people there because most of the people that started it have deceased and their family don't run it at all anymore. SPEAKER 1: Do you think these clubs were important, let's say to your parents? SPEAKER 2: I think it was more important to the people, not so much to my parents because my father was involved with so many other things. He kind of -- not that he ignored them. He kind of drew away from them as he got busier in the community and the store, because then the store was bigger and he was busier and he was involved in politics. He always stayed -- he was always active in the Sons of Italy up until the very, I think until he died, because he was president of that many times. So you can be… they called it Venerable, which is the president. You could be president for I think two terms, and then after you have to resign. You know, you can't run again. And then after two years you can run again. So he was The Venerable many times in the Sons of Italy. He was Chamber of Commerce president a couple of times. He was active in Rotary. In fact, they would sponsor kids coming here, you know, from other countries or other parts of the country, and we would put them up, you know. Two or three times we had people, you know, stay with us for, you know, a weekend or a week just to [unintelligible - 00:06:33]. SPEAKER 1: From Italy? SPEAKER 2: No, no from his Rotary.4 SPEAKER 1: Oh, from the Rotary. SPEAKER 2: Yeah. They had -- they would sponsor something. I don't know if they sponsored Up With People one time, and we had someone staying with us or two people staying with us for I want to say a week, and then we had to pick them, take them and pick them up, and so we did that a couple of times. We just brought people home. I mean, I would come home at night, and I would make noise and they'd say, "What are you doing?" I'd say, "If I make enough noise my mother will get up and cook us breakfast." And she would. And then I'd say, "Well Ma, I'd got to go to work tomorrow so I got to go to bed," and I'd leave her with my friends, and I'd go to bed. SPEAKER 1: And did you ever consider getting involved in politics yourself? SPEAKER 2: The only time I got in politics is because my father would say, "Okay do this, do this, do this," but no. SPEAKER 1: Marty was telling me this was Peter Levangi's… SPEAKER 2: Yes, yes, daughter. SPEAKER 1: How exciting it was when her father won. SPEAKER 2: Oh yeah. SPEAKER 1: Do you remember anything about them? SPEAKER 2: Yeah. She was a character, because Marty's funny. As kids, she had the car one time, had a heavy foot. One time we're coming from Worcester, you know, the [unintelligible - 00:08:05] underpass through, they have I-90 as you're coming from Worcester. She was going so fast that she couldn't make that underpass; she had to go straight. I don't know how -- but God, thank you. "Marty, slow down." But that was like talking to the wall. One time my girlfriend's kicking her, she goes, "My varicose veins. My varicose veins." She goes, "So slow down." Another time she got stopped and she goes, "You know who my father is?" She said, "I never said…" I said, "Marty you did."5 SPEAKER 1: So she said she didn't say it, huh? SPEAKER 2: Yeah. "Do you know who my father is?" SPEAKER 1: Well, did you feel privileged though, you know, and… SPEAKER 2: Well, you know we didn't think… she said people were jealous of us… I didn't see that. Maybe I closed my eyes -- I don't know. She said people picked on us. I said, "No one picked on us." She goes, "Yeah, they didn't like us because they thought we had money." I didn't think we had money. I just took things for granted. I mean, I said that because my father worked… we had a business, and her father had a business, and people could see things because you have a business that you have money. They don't think that… you got furniture and they don't think you have to pay for it. They think you know it came from the sky. So people perceive things differently. I remember when my father and mother bought this house in Leominster, they said, "Oh, there's a swimming pool there." I said, "No, there isn't." "Oh yeah, there's a swimming pool." I said, "Well, it must be invisible or they covered it up because there's no swimming pool there." The people thought there was a swimming pool, but there wasn't. "Oh yeah." I said, "Did you see it?" "No, no I just…" "Well, we just bought the house. There's no swimming pool there." Paula, they have a sister that was my sister Sandra's age, and they went to school together, so it was nice. Their youngest sister is Paula, and my sister Sandra went -- when they had St. Anthony's—and St. Anthony's didn't exist when we were growing up—they were one of the first or second class to graduate from there, because I think it's now -- or if it was what it was just recently because they are both around 55. 6 So let's see, I'm 50… yeah, 55. So they got picked on more because, again, her father was a… by then I think he was a state representative, and my father's store naturally was bigger, because -- I mean, like I said, I was fortunate enough that I didn't have all this nice stuff that my sisters had. So they would pick on them because they thought they got a big store, your father's got a Cadillac, you know. SPEAKER 1: So when you say, "they" the children… SPEAKER 2: Yeah, because they were mostly Italians there, and kids can be cruel. Again, my sister had the same friends she's had since she was a kid too, so it didn't bother her that much. But there's always a few that, you know, say things that because they didn't have it, they would assume that you were luckier. But that's not true, so. And I never -- I never treated my friends any differently. I mean, they didn't have as much as I had growing up. But I mean, whatever we had that was everything, you know -- my father and mother never said don't take your friend. We always had an open house. I mean, we'd be out, "Hey Dottie, want to go to a party?" I go, "Yeah, where?" "Your house." So we would all pile down, and we had a big family room downstairs. So my mother and father never says don't take your friends or you can't do… SPEAKER 1: So when after Peter Levangi lost, that was a hard time… SPEAKER 2: That was a hard time for her, but you see, back then I don't think we were as friendly. Like I said, she went to high school, and I didn't say this, but she went to Fitchburg High. I went to St. Bernard's, so you're kind of, you know, drift apart a little. So those years we weren't as close as we are today because she didn't go to St. Bernard's. And then she, I guess, after high school we got close again, and then she got married young, and I -- you know, she was like 22 or 7 23, I think, when she got married. They had babies. We were single and going out, and you know, doing nothing, and then things changed. You get together again, but basically, you know, we were always in each other's company, but not as -- so when her father lost I forgot what, you know, the reaction was -- I forget. But then he ran for senator. So he was senator for a good many years. I'll never forget one time I got stopped and I lost my license for… my father wouldn't do anything to fix it [unintelligible - 00:13:35]. So instead of losing it for a week, I think I only lost it for three or four days, because by the time I called them it was, you know, he got it back as soon as possible. SPEAKER 1: Did you go to your father? SPEAKER 2: The? SPEAKER 1: Losing it for a week, weren't you going a little fast? SPEAKER 2: Yeah, I was. I was probably doing an 80 in a 65 or 50. Well, I don't know if it was 65. I had a heavy foot, too. I had a heavy foot, so… SPEAKER 1: Have you considered leaving Leominster? You said earlier that maybe after going to [unintelligible - 00:14:17]. SPEAKER 2: After the [unintelligible - 00:14:19] I said I'd go to New York to work for a few years, but I never -- after that, you know, I'm basically a coward. I know like some people they'll say they'll go to lunch and have lunch by themselves. You think I'd even go and have a cup of coffee at a restaurant by myself? No, no. That was more talk than it was actually to do something. I think of I had another friend to do that with; I probably would've done it. But to do it alone I don't think so. SPEAKER 1: Did you work after closing up shop? SPEAKER 2: No. I haven't worked in eight years. Well, not as good as my husband's pension.8 SPEAKER 1: Okay. Do you have any regrets? SPEAKER 2: Any regrets? The only regret that I had is that I didn't work somewhere else for a few years, but not regret working at the store, no. Basically, I enjoyed it, you know. Like a lot of fun there and you meet a lot of nice people. SPEAKER 1: Did your father ever go back to Italy? SPEAKER 2: Yes. SPEAKER 1: To visit? SPEAKER 2: Yes. He did. When he worked he had… I think he went with this… one time, appliances, if you bought X amount of appliances, they would give you different types of things. And this one year, they just went to Italy, and ET was in [unintelligible - 00:15:52], and so he hired someone to take him out to on a bus or whatever. He took a train or whatever. He got there, and when he got there, it was [unintelligible - 00:16:08] is a poor town. He left everything he had. He only came home with the suit he had on his back. Then he would send things out to them periodically. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible - 00:16:22]. SPEAKER 2: Well you just don't see that, but since then I think it has changed tremendously, because a friend went a few years -- her parents were from the same provinces my grandparents were. So she went. She said, "There were people there, Dorothy." She says, "I thought, I wish your father was there." She said, "They looked just like your father." Yeah. SPEAKER 1: Did he travel back there with your mother? SPEAKER 2: No, no, no, no. He just went that one… and this lady that went -- my aunt went a couple of times, and there was a cousin, I think, or somebody's -- married to one cousin of theirs that came out here a couple of times. She went two or three times, and I don't think my grandmother ever went back. I don't think so. SPEAKER 1: Have you again?9 SPEAKER 2: No. In fact, when I worked I didn't have the time to do it because I was only getting a week here and there or whatever. And then I went to travel, Teddy passed away. So I was going to go to Spain this past… with us, me, and my girlfriend's brother died, and two days later our mother's house, she was burned out of her apartment, so she went to live with my girl friend, and so my girl friend didn't have any other siblings except [unintelligible - 00:18:03] you know, grandchildren. But you know how grandchildren are; they all have their own life. So she had no -- her mother had no, you know, no one to stay with, so she said, "I have to cancel out." So I said, "Well I think I will too," because we're going to be, you know, roommates. And then this September 11 happened, so things work out. My friends, two of my friends still went. SPEAKER 1: Did Gloria go? SPEAKER 2: No, Marty went. SPEAKER 1: Oh, Marty. SPEAKER 2: She was the one who went, and another friend [unintelligible - 00:18:32]. But they went and they end, but they ended up -- because they were traveling by air… SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible - 00:18:41]. SPEAKER 2: … yeah and they were out of business, and they had to stay I think in Switzerland three days before they got to Spain, and there's a big foul up. So I'm just glad [unintelligible - 00:18:57]. I'll tell you what. My husband, at his age, if he had gotten into the service, he would have gone there. That would've -- my father would just shake his head and say, "I can't believe this is even happening here." To this day I still I can't believe it happened. I mean, I had to shut this television off after a while because I think I was crying so much from, you know, different people talking of their, what happened, and then the funerals. And finally, I said I 10 can't cry anymore. I know that's something that I will never forget. I'm proud of my heritage. I'm, you know, I'm… I'm not ashamed to be an Italian. If anybody asks me if I'm Italian, yes I am, and I'm proud of it. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible – 00:19:58]. SPEAKER 2: No, no. In fact, my first husband was Italian. SPEAKER 1: Who was your first husband? Was he from Fitchburg? SPEAKER 2: No, Leominster. SPEAKER 1: Leominster? SPEAKER 2: Forget about him. SPEAKER 1: Forget him? SPEAKER 2: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: All right. I know your parents worked so hard. Did they have any leisure time? Actually, [unintelligible - 00:20:21]. SPEAKER 2: Yeah. My mother was stay-at-home. She… like I said, enjoyed her family and her friends and her… she always… she loved having the kids around, she loved cooking. Her leisure time was maybe, I don't know, going to visit a friend in Rhode Island. She had a friend out there she was close to and originally was here, but she had a daughter, and when we were both young, they lived… they were neighbors, and they always keep in touch with one another. So she would go to Rhode Island for a few days. That was her leisure time. She liked that. She loved cooking. She loved to -- you know what else? My mother had -- she loved to do puzzles. In fact, Alice was the one that would find different ones for her… I mean, a round puzzle, different puzzles to do. So she would like that. She loved doing that. And like I said she cooked a lot. She… I don't know, she always -- there's a lot of things to do to keep busy. SPEAKER 1: Did she pass away?11 SPEAKER 2: Had Alzheimer's, and for a while she was at home. And then towards the… we had to put her in the nursing home because it got to be bad, and my father was still alive. He died a year later, but my mother just died [unintelligible - 00:22:01]. SPEAKER 1: I think your father died in 1984. SPEAKER 2: Yeah, but my mother died 10 years later, in '90… no, she died in '92, because Teddy died in '94. But she had Alzheimer's. SPEAKER 1: What do you think they would think of Fitchburg now? SPEAKER 2: Well, my mother not so much because she was like a goomba, but my father would be disappointed in it. He would be -- it hasn't progressed like Leominster has. So he would be disappointed in it. Different decisions, different people moving out, different things not happening. I find that, you know, big companies like GE left. A lot of people, you know, it's not all those, you know, the Wallaces and the Crockers. The Crockers contributed a lot to Fitchburg. Wallace appeared he did, but he didn't contribute like Markus did. My father would be absolutely furious that Burbank was closed, absolutely furious. I don't understand. I do not understand how the city could sell something that didn't belong -- I mean, that was part of the city. To this day I don't know how that happened, and a lot of people don't. SPEAKER 1: So the city sold Burbank Hospital? SPEAKER 2: He sold it to Health Alliances. SPEAKER 1: Are they [unintelligible – 00:23:42] or anything? SPEAKER 2: No, no, no. SPEAKER 1: So what would the connection be? SPEAKER 2: Because he was, he was… even though we lived in Leominster, his heart still belongs in Fitchburg, and that was part of Fitchburg. So he would be -- my father did however, when Doctor Silver, they had General Hospital, he would help them out. He was on their 12 board of directors. But because my father was active in Fitchburg, he would have said that that has to stay in Fitchburg. To this day if you ask a lot of the people in my generation or a little older would still they all feel the same way about how did they take Burbank Hospital away, and no one can answer that. We were. Like I said, the Crockers, they donated most of that money for Burbank. A lot of things quietly, and then it was the paper mills. That's Leominster. SPEAKER 1: Leominster. SPEAKER 2: Yeah, that's Leominster. That's Doyle Field and, you know, they contributed a lot to Leominster. At one time Fitchburg, was larger than -- in population -- was larger than Leominster, but I… if I'm not mistaken on the last census Leominster was larger. SPEAKER 1: A lot of zoning problems lately or planning… SPEAKER 2: Taxes keep going up. So, I mean, I don't have any kids, and -- but I think they need a new school. I mean, Fitchburg built a beautiful school, but it's not big enough. I went and saw their opening at Fitchburg. One of their -- I guess they had an open house for a couple of days that you could see and, you know, and I asked one of the teachers [unintelligible - 00:25:57] and whatever and I says, "How much can it…" and she said, "We're already to our capacity." That wasn't good planning. A room that full -- I mean, their gym is better than some of the colleges that I've, you know, been too. Unbelievable. You know, I think that's… I think that they should -- I don't know. Is there anything else you'd like to ask me? SPEAKER 1: Not really, I don't think. SPEAKER 2: I think we did, and like I said, I've been blessed with a wonderful family, and you know, parents that loved us, and maybe we didn't think so growing up, but as you get older you realize a lot of things that they did for us because that's why they cared about us. But as 13 kids, you know, we don't understand a lot. They said youth is wonderful; too bad it's wasted on the young. SPEAKER 1: I guess that's it. SPEAKER 2: My pleasure, my pleasure. /AT/pa/lrr/es
DER VÖLKERKRIEG BAND 11 Der Völkerkrieg (-) Der Völkerkrieg Band 11 (11 / 1918) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) Impressum ( - ) Der Völkerkrieg. Der türkische krieg während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Die Türkei während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Aus Persien und Afghanistan. Nachrichten aus Marokko. Die Kämpfe auf dem Balkan während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Die Erdrosselung Griechenlands während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Serbien und Montenegro während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Bulgarien während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Großbritannien während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Die Schweizer Eidgenossenschaft während des zweiten Kriegsjahres Errungenschaften und Verluste am Ende des zweiten Kriegsjahres. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (19Die Ankunft des Generals Townshend in Konstantinopel. Neben dem britischen General der Paßkommandant von Konstantinopel. (2)Indische Truppen befördern schwerverwundete Engländer der Armee des Generals Townshend, die nach der Kapitulation von Kut-el-Amara ausgewechselt worden waren, aus dem Hospitalschiff an Land ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (19Der türkische Minister und das diplomatische Korps nach der Trauerfeier anläßlich der Beisetzung des Generalfeldmarschalls v. d. Goltz. (2)Die Überführung der Leiche des Generalfeldmarschalls v. d. Goltz-Pascha ( - ) Der türkische Krieg während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres (97) Der englisch-russische Vorstoß nach Bagdad (97) Während der Belagerung und der Uebergabe in Kut-el-Amara (97) Die Kritik der Engländer über den Feldzug in Mesopotamien (100) Die Lage des russischen Expeditionskorps in Persien (103) Generalfeldmarschall Freiherr von der Goltz † (104) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberbootsmannsmaat Wilhelm Schubert. Führer eines erfolgreichen Marine-Kampfflugzeuges an den Dardanellen (2)Der französische Kreuzer "Admiral Charner", der am 8. Februar 1916 von einem deutschen Unterseeboot an der syrischen Küste versenkt wurde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Dschermal Pascha, der Führer der IV. Armee, mit seinem Stabe auf einem Inspizierungsritt am Suezkanal (2)Der Chef der Suez-Expedition Oberst Freiherr von Kressenstein (der fünfte von links) mit seinem Stabe im Hauptquartier von Jerusalem. ( - ) Die Ereignisse im Schwarzen Meer. Von Anfang Februar bis Ende Juli 1916. Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (106) Der Kampf um die Dardanellen. Vom Anfang Februar bis Ende Juli 1916 (110) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (110) Von den Luftkämpfen über den Dardanellen (116) Die Bilanz des Dardanellen-Unternehmens (118) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einzug von Truppen der Verbündeten in Jerusalem (2)Türkischer Landsturm beim Transport von Proviant in Damaskus ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Parade türkischer Truppen auf einem Platze in Jerusalem im Beisein von Offizieren der Verbündeten (2)Eine türkisch-deutsche Sanitätsstation in der Wüste ( - ) Die Ereignisse im Aegäischen und im östlichen Mittelländischen Meer. Von Februar bis August 1916. Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (121) Die Ereignisse in Aegypten. Von Februar bis August 1916. (127) An der Ostgrenze Aegyptens und von Nordwestarabien (127) Chronologische uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers und den amtlichen britischen Mitteilungen (127) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beduinenweiber bringen Milch und Joghurt in eine Kantine deutscher Truppen (2)In den Kämpfen am Suezkanal gefangen genommene Engländer werden von türkischen Truppen abtransportiert ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkischer Gasthof in Inner-Syrien (2)Beim Abbruch eines türkischen Lagers im Sinai-Gebirge im Wadi-Tal vor dem weiteren Vormarsch ( - ) Deutsche und österreichisch-ungarische Truppen in der Wüste (132) [2 Abb.]: (1)In den Kämpfen am Suez-Kanal verwundete Türken in einem syrischen Lazarett des Roten Halbmondes (2)Australier in den Schützengräben am Suez-Kanal ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Suez-Kanal gefangen genommene Engländer werden in Jerusalem eingebracht (2)Englische Offiziere, die am Suez-Kanal gefangen genommen wurden, kommen in Jerusalem an ( - ) Ein britischer Tagesbefehl an Australier und Neuseeländer (135) An der Westgrenze Aegyptens (135) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den amtlichen britischen Meldungen und ergänzenden Mitteilungen (135) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine britische Kamelreitertruppe in der Wüste (2)Neuseeländische Truppen in Alexandria ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kairo von der Zitadelle aus gesehen (2)Gasse im Händlerviertel in Kairo. ( - ) Die Kämpfe gegen die Senussi (137) Die Ereignisse im Sudan (138) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den amtlichen britischen Meldungen und ergänzenden Mitteilungen (138) Die britische Expedition gegen Darfur. (139) Personalien (142) Die Kämpfe in Südwest-Arabien. Von Februar bis August 1916 (142) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (142) Der Aufstand in Südarabien (144) Vom Sultan, den Prinzen und Heerführern (148) Die Türkei während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XI, Seiten 328 bis 340 ([149]) Der türkische Nationalismus ([149]) Von der türkischen Regierung (152) Personalien (152) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der abgesetzte Scherif von Mekka Hussein (2)Blick in die Hauptstraße der arabischen Stadt Maan ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Britische Kolonialtruppen erwarten im Hafen von Aden ihre Einschiffung (2)Der General-Gouverneur des Sudan Sir Reginald Wingate mit seinem Stabe in Chartum ( - ) Militärische Maßnahmen (153) Widerlegung unwahrer von der Entente verbreiteter Gerüchte (153) Vom türkischen Paralament. Der Schluß der zweiten Kriegstagung (Fortsetzung von XI, S. 331 f.) Von Februar bis 13. März 1916 (154) Finanzielle und wirtschaftliche Maßnahmen (156) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der türkische Thronfolger Prinz Wahid Eddin Effendi (2)Der türkische Kriegsminister Enver Pascha und General Dschermal Pascha während der Besichtigung durch Syrien ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der türkische Thronfolger Prinz Jussuf Izzedin Effendi † am 1. Februar 1916 (2)Deutsche Soldaten besorgen das Verladen von Geschützen in Konstantinopel ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die vorläufige Endstation der Bagdadbahn Bozanti [Pozanti] im Taurus mit großen Proviant-Lagerplätzen für die deutschen und türkischen Truppen (2)Die Bagdadbahn vor Konia ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ochse und Esel als Vorspann eines arabischen Pfluges in Palästina (2)Kamele als Ackertiere auf den Feldern von Philitia ( - ) Die Türkei, ihre Verbündeten und die Neutralen (161) Besuche (161) Auszeichnungen (165) Von den Beziehungen zu den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (166) Vom Thronfolger (166) Von den Völkern des Osmanischen Reiches (168) Die Reisen Enver Paschas (168) [Abb.]: Der Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen umgeben von deutschen und türkischen Offizieren während seines besuches in Konstantinopel vom 24. bis 27. März 1916 ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick in einen Saal des Serai-Gymnasiums in Galata, das dem "Roten Halbmond" als Lazarett dient. Die Schwestern sind Damen der türkischen Gesellschaft (2)Auf der Terrasse des deutschen Marineheims in Jenikoi am Bosporus ( - ) Die armenische Frage (170) Die Aufstände in Arabien und Syrien (173) Nachrichten aus Aegypten (173) Aus Persien und Afghanistand. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XI, Seiten 341 und 342 ([176]) Nachrichten aus Persien ([176]) Nachrichten aus Afghanistan (178) Nachrichten aus Marokko. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XI, Seiten 343 bis 344. Meldungen und Mitteilungen ([179]) Die Kämpfe auf dem Balkan während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XIII, Seiten 59 bis 213 ([180]) Zusammenfassende Darstellung ([180]) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über den österreichisch-ungarischen und bulgarischen Vormarsch in Albanien (181) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Hauptstraße von Berat (2)Blick auf den Marktplatz von Tirana ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Artilleriestellung auf den Höhen von Durazzo (2)Oesterreichisch-ungarische Truppen auf dem Vormarsch durch Albanien ( - ) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über das Kampfgelände von Saloniki (187) Die Kämpfe in Albanien. Von Anfang Februar bis Ende Juli 1916. (188) Der Vormarsch der k. u. k. und bulgarischen Truppen (188) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des österreichisch-ungarischen und bulgarischen Generalstabs (188) In Elbasan. Aus einem bulgarischen Feldpostbrief (191) Die Einnahme von Durazzo (192) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gesamtansicht von Durazzo (2)Gesamtansicht von Durazzo ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Hafen von Durazzo (2)Freiwillige Albaniertruppen der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee auf dem Vormarsch nach Durazzo ( - ) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über die Operationen zur Einnahme von Durazzo. Nach einer Skizze in "Streffleurs Militärblatt" (24. VII. 16). (195) [3 Abb.]: (1)General Settimio Piacentini (2)General Emilio Bertotti (3)Das Vorgelände von Valona. Überschwemmungsgebiet ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Albanische Proviantkolonne der österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen auf dem Vormarsch zur Vojusa (2)Vor einer Labestation des "Roten Kreuzes" auf einem Hochplateau in Albanien ( - ) Bis zur Vojusa (197) Italienische "Heldenflüge" (198) Die Zustände im besetzten Albanien (199) Personalien (200) Die Seekämpfe an den Küsten der Adria (200) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den amtlichen Meldungen und ergänzenden Mitteilungen (200) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Alpenjäger finden bei der Anlage eines Schützengrabens vor Saloniki eine altgriechische Vase (2)Der Transport eines schweren englischen Geschützes vom Schiff auf den Verladekai im Hafen von Saloniki ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Truppen nach ihrer Ausschiffung im Hafen von Saloniki (2)Blick in den Krankenraum eines englischen Feldlazaretts vor Saloniki ( - ) Personalien (202) Die Serben in Korfu und ihr Transport nach Saloniki (202) Die Kämpfe an der Mazedonischen Front. Von Anfang Februar bis Ende Juli 1916 (204) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen der deutschen Obersten Heeresleitung und des bulgarischen Generalstabes (204) Personalien (209) Eine "Trophäe" des Generals Sarrail (210) Die Gefangennahme eines deutschen Fliegers bei Thasos (210) Der Fliegerangriff auf Saloniki. Am 27. März 1916 (211) Die Besetzung von Rupel (212) Entente-Machenschaften in Mazedonien (213) Bulgarische Soldaten (213) Die Befreier (213) Ihr Hauptmann. Wo sind die Helden? (214) Die Erdosselung Griechenlands während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XIII, Seiten 203 bis 213 ([215]) Das Vorgehen der Entente und die Maßnahmen der griechischen Regierung ([215]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Soldaten beim Baden im Bardafluß (2)Bulgarische Soldaten machen auf einem Marsch in Mazedonien kurz Rast zur Einnahme des Mittagsmahles ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der bulgarische General Bojadiew schreitet die Abordnung der Bürger von Monastir ab, die zur Huldigung bei der Geburtstagsfeier des Zaren erschienen (2)Vor einem deutschen Feldlazarett in Mazedonien ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Apell deutscher Soldaten nach dem Gottesdienste auf dem Platze vor der Kirche in Leskovac (2)Pferde-Apell einer bulgarischen Train-Abteilung in Prilep ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verwundete österreichisch-ungarische Soldaten (Bosniaken) werden nach einer serbischen Sitte vor einer Kirche in Serbien mit geweihten Speisen gelabt. (2)Serbische Frauen, bei denen Waffen vorgefunden wurden, werden interniert ( - ) Serbien und Montenegro während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XIII, Seiten 214 bis 226 ([223]) Nachrichten über Serbien ([223]) Von der serbischen Regierung und Kammer ([223]) Die Reisen des serbischen Kronprinzen sowie des Ministerpräsidenten Pasitsch und die äußere Politik Serbiens (224) Von der Verwaltung der Mittelmächte in Serbien (225) Die Lebensmittelversorgung Serbiens und die Entente (227) Nachrichten über Montenegro (228) Vom König, den Prinzen und der Regierung in Frankreich (228) Von der österreichisch-ungarischen Verwaltung (229) Bulgarien während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XIII, Seiten 227 bis 232 ([231]) Von den Kriegstagungen der Sobranje ([231]) Der ersten Tagung zweiter Teil ([231]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wiederherstellungsarbeiten an der von den Montenegrinern zerstörten Lovcen-Straße (2)Evakuierte Frauen werden im Hafen von Cattaro als Hilfsarbeiterinnen verwendet ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oesterreichisch-ungarische Soldaten im Hafen von Antivari (2)An österreichisch-ungarische Truppen werden in einem montenegrinischen Dorf Lebensmittel und Zigaretten verteilt ( - ) Der zweiten Kriegstagung erster Teil. Vom 28. Juni bis 23. Juli 1916 (234) Von der Regierung (236) Einige Maßnahmen (236) Hochverratsprozesse (236) Von den Beziehungen zu den Verbündeten und Neutralen (237) Von den Beziehungen zu Deutschland (237) Der Wechsel in der deutschen Gesandtschaft (237) Besuche (237) Personalien (239) Von den Beziehungen zu Rumänien, Amerika und dem Vatikan (240) Großbritannien während des vierten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Februar bis August 1916. Fortsetzung von Band XIII, Seiten 294 bis 328 ([241]) Von den Ursachen der Erfolge der auswärtigen Politik Englands ([241]) Vom Parlament und der Regierung (242) Während der Tagung des Parlaments vom 15. Februar bis 30. Mai 1916 (243) Die Eröffnung und die Adreßdebatte (243) Die Friedensdebatte (244) [2 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Watschew. Der Präsident der bulgarischen Sobranje (2)Die deutschen Reichstagsabgeordneten bei ihrem Besuch in Bulgarien vor dem Gebäude der Sobranje in Sofia. In der ersten Reihe (links) Dr. Pfeiffer (Zentrum), rechts in Uniform Bassermann (Natl.). In zweiter Reihe (von links nach rechts) Dr. Stoilow, Attaché im bulgarischen Ministerium des Aeußeren; Dr. v. Heydebrand (kons.); Dr. Stresemann (natl.); Dr. Georgiew, Direktor im bulg. Ministerium des Aeußern; Stanciow, Sobranje-Abgeordneter ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Graf Oberndorff. Der deutsche Gesandte in Sofia (2)Im Alexander-Spital zu Sofia. Königin Eleonore von Bulgarien mit den Aerzten und Schwestern des Militär-Krankenhauses ( - ) Staatssekretär Sir Edwrad Grey über Englands Friedensbedingungen (254) [3 Abb.]: (1)General Sir William Henry Mackinnon (2)Harold John Tennant. Unterstaatssekretär im britischen Kriegsministerium (3)Sir Arthur Nicolson. Unterstaatssekretär im britischen Auswärtigen Amt ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Victor Christian William Cavendish. Herzog von Devonshire. general-Gouverneur von Canada (2)Lord Kitchener verabschiedet sich vor seiner Einschiffung auf der "Hampshire" von Admiral Jellicoe, Oberst Fitzgerald und O'Beirne ( - ) Die Einführung der Sommerzeit, die Gewährung eines neuen Kriegscredits und die Vertagung (257) Während der Tagung des Parlaments vom 20. Juni bis August 1916 (258) Personalveränderungen in der Regierung (258) Englands finanzielle Maßnahmen (260) Englands handelspolitische und wirtschaftliche Verhältnisse (263) [2 Abb.]: (1)In Dublin nach den Straßenkämpfen des Oster-Aufstandes 1916 (2)Aus der Sackville-Straße in Dublin nach dem Oster-Aufstand 1916. Im Vordergrund ein verbranntes Automobil, das als Barrikade benutzt wurde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die irischen Grafen Josef, Georg und John Plunkett. Der älteste wurde zum Tode verurteilt, die beiden anderen zu 10 Jahren Zwangsarbeit (2)Ein englischer Panzerwagen, der bei der Unterdrückung des irischen Oster-Aufstandes 1916 in Dublin verwendung fand ( - ) Der irische Oster-Aufstand 1916 (265) Die Vorgeschichte (265) Chronologische uebersicht der Ereignisse (268) Die Folgen des irischen Oster-Aufstands (273) Die Verurteilung und Hinrichtung von Sir Roger Casement (275) Die Ausschreitungen der englischen Soldateska in Irland während des Oster-Aufstandes 1916 (277) Der versuch einer Lösung der irischen Frage (278) [2 Abb.]: (1)Sir Roger Casement (2)Lord Wimborne, der Vizekönig von Irland, nimmt die Parade über die Royal Inniskilling Füsiliere in Dublin ab ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Lewis Harcourt. Chefsekretär für Irland (2)Lord Beresford (3)John Redmond ( - ) Die feindlichen Ausländer in England und die Deutschen-Hetze (281) Vom König. Personalien und Kundgebungen (282) Die englischen Sozialisten und der Friede (283) Aus den englischen Kolonien (285) Meldungen aus Kanada (285) Meldungen aus Australien (285) Meldungen aus Indien (286) Meldungen aus Südafrika (287) England am Ende des zweiten Kriegsjahres (287) [2 Abb.]: (1)König Georg von England besucht eine englische Munitionsfabrik (2)Frauen als Arbeiter auf englischen Werften ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Exkaiserin Eugenie und Lady Haig in Farnborough Hill (2)König Georg von England begibt sich zur Besichtigung eines Lagers in Aldershot in Begleitung seines Stabes und von Sir Archibald Humber ( - ) Die Schweizer. Eidgenossenschaft während des zweiten Kriegsjahres. Vom August 1915 bis August 1916. Zusammenfassender Bericht von Werner Guggenheim, St. Gallen. Geschrieben im Januar 1917. Fortsetzung von Band VII, Seiten 289 bis 319 ([289]) Die Innerpolitische Lage der Schweiz ([289]) Zunehmende Spannung ([289]) Der Zwischenfall der beiden Generalstabsobersten ([289]) Die innere Krise (290) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bundesrat Camille Decoppet. Präsident der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft im Jahre 1916 (2)Die Bundesräte Schultheß, Decoppet, Motta und Hoffmann (in der vordersten Reihe von links nach rechts) bei einer Besichtigung der schweizerischen Grenzbesatzungen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Beförderung der Gefangenenpost in einem Feldpostbüro in der Turnhalle des städtischen Gymnasiums zu Bern (2)Vom schweizerischen Grenzschutz. Ein Kehlgraben mit einmündendem Verbindungsgang nach einem Stützpunkt ( - ) "Die große Tagung" vom 6. bis 17. März 1916 (291) Entspannung (293) Deutsche und welsche Schweiz (293) Von der Regierung der Eidgenossenschaft (294) Vom Bundesrat (294) Von der Bundesversammlung (294) Politische Maßnahmen des Bundesrates. Diplomatische Vertretungen (295) Die Landesverteidigung (296) Vom schweizerischen Heer (296) Grenzzwischenfälle (296) Schmuggel und Spionage (297) Die Regelung der Ein- und Ausfuhr (297) Wirkungen des Wirtschaftskrieges (297) Die Unterhandlungen (298) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Wille, der Oberbefehlshaber des schweizerischen Heeres bei einer Truppeninspektion (2)Oberstkorpskommandant Andéoud und Oberstleutnant Haller nach einer militärischen Uebung ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schweizerisches Militär auf dem Marsch im Hochgebirge (2)Eingeschneite Wohnbaracken schweizerischer Truppen im Hochgebirge ( - ) Treuhandstelle für Einfuhr deutscher Waren (299) Organisation und Tätigkeit der S.S.S. (300) Von der wirtschaftlichen Lage der Schweiz (301) Wirtschaftliche Maßnahmen des Bundesrates (301) Die Staatsrechnung (302) Beschaffung von Geldmitteln (302) Landwirtschaft (303) Die Lebensmittelversorgung (303) Der schweizerische Geldmarkt (305) Handel und Gewerbe (306) Internationale Konferenzen in der Schweiz (307) Die erste Zusammenkunft von Zimmerwald vom 5. bis 8. September 1915 (307) Die zweite "Zimmerwalder Konferenz" in Kiental bei Bern. Vom 24. bis 30. April 1916 (309) Der dritte Nationalitätenkongreß in Lausanne. Vom 27. bis 29. Juni 1916 (310) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine schweizerische Bagagekolonne auf dem Marsch durch ein Bergdorf (2)Von schweizerischen Truppen hergestellte Grenzbefestigungen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schneeräumungsarbeiten schweizerischer Truppen an der Gotthardstraße (2)Schweizerische Truppen im Hochgebirge beim Bau des Lagers ( - ) Schweizerische Hilfstätigkeit (311) Die Ermittlungsstelle für Kriegsgefangene in Genf (311) Die Kriegsgefangenenpost (311) Die Schwerverwundetenzüge. Die Internierten und Evakuierten (312) Kriegsgefangenenfürsorge (313) Kleinere Hilfswerke (314) Die Beherbung kranker und verwundeter Kriegsgefangener in der Schweiz (314) Unsere Kriegsinternierten (315) Die Errungenschaften und Verluste am Ende des zweiten Kriegsjahres (317) Die Errungenschaften und Verluste am Ende des zweiten Kriegsjahres ([318]) Der Gewinn der Zentralmächte im Landkriege ([318]) Die Verluste der Entente im Landkriege ([318]) [2 Abb.]: (1)In Frankreich gefangen genommene deutsche Rote Kreuz-Schwestern und Sanitätssoldaten werden durch die Schweiz geleitet, um nach Deutschland zurückzukehren (2)Schwer verwundete deutsche Kriegsgefangen, die nach der Schweiz entlassen wurden, werden am Vierwaldstättersee von schweizerischen Sanitätsmannschaften in Empfang genommen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Bischof von Chur bei den deutschen Kriegsinternierten in Davos. Erste Reihe der Gruppe im Vordergrund, links: Kommandant Dr. Kienhaus, Georgius, Bischof von Chur, H. Borchart, deutscher Konsul in Davos, Hauptmann Kerith aus Bayern, P. Coelestin Schweighofer aus Altöttingen (2)Empfang deutscher Austausch-Invaliden in Davos ( - ) [Tabelle]: Was nun die von der Studiengesellschaft errechneten direkten Heeresverluste anbelangt, so ist bemerkenswert, daß der weitaus größere Teil der Verluste auf die Heere der Ententemächte entfällt, die wie folgt berechnet werden: (319) Die Ergebnisse des Seekrieges (320) [Tabelle]: Ueber die Verluste der Flotten Englands und seiner Verbündeten an Kriegsschiffen (Linienschiffen, Panzer-, geschützten und kleinen Kreuzern) am Ende des zweiten Kriegsjahres ist von deutscher Seite halbamtlich (1. VIII. 16) folgende Uebersicht veröffentlicht worden: (320) Der Vökerkrieg. Der Einfluß der Freimauerei auf den Völkerkrieg. Neue Kriegserklärungen durch Italien und Rumänien. Zusammenschluß der Mittelmächte während des fünften Kriegshalbjahres. Zusammenschluß der Entente während des fünften Kriegshalbjahres. Der Handelskrieg bis zum uneingeschränkten Unterseebootskrieg. ( - ) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Beneckendorff und v. Hindenburg. Chef des Generalstabs des Feldheeres ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erzherzog Thronfolger Karl Franz Josef im Gespräch mit türkischen Offizieren an der Ostfront (2)Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg und Generaloberst Tersztyansky begeben sich zur Front ( - ) Der Einfluß der Freimaurerei auf den Völkerkrieg ([1]) Die Freimaurerei in den Kriegsführenden und in den neutralen Ländern ([1]) Die Freimaurerei und der Völkerkrieg (4) Die romanische Freimaurerei (4) Die deutsche Freimaurerei (7) [Abb.]: General d. Inf. Ludendorff. Erster Generalquartiermeister ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Prinz Waldemar von Preußen (der älteste Sohn des Prinzen Heinrich) in Konstantinopel im Oktober 1916. Von links nach rechts: Erste Reihe: Fuad Savfet Bei; Zeremonienmeister des Sultans Herr v. Radowitz; Prinz Waldemar von Preußen; General v. Chelius; General Abdul-Kemir Pascha. Zweite Reihe: Hauptmann Stedemann; Dragoman Dr. Schönberg; Rittmeister Schmidt; Major Waski Bei. (2)Prinz Waldemar von Preußen besucht S. M. S. "Göben" im Hafen von Konstantinopel ( - ) Neue Kriegserklärungen durch Italien und Rumänien ([9]) Die Kriegserklärung Italiens an Deutschland. Fortsetzung von Band XV, Seiten 243 bis 249 ([9]) Die amtliche Note und ihre Aufnahme ([9]) Wie die italienische Kriegerklärung entstand (10) Der Eintritt Rumäniens in den Krieg (13) Rumänien bis zu seinem Entschluß zum Kriege (Fortsetzung von Band XIII, Seiten 33 bis 37 und 56) (13) Der rumänische Kronrat vom 27. August 1916 (15) Amtliche Meldungen über die Kriegserklärungen (17) Der Wortlaut der Kriegserklärungen (18) Die Kriegserklärung Rumäniens an Oesterreich-Ungarn (18) Die Österreichische Antwort. (19) Die Kriegserklärung Bulgariens an Rumänien (20) Zur Vorgeschichte der rumänischen Kriegserklärung (22) Zusammenschluß der Mittelmächte während d. fünften Kriegshalbjahres. Von August 1916 bis Februar 1917. Fortsetzung von Band XVI, Seiten 97 bis 101 und Band XVII, Seiten 8 bis 10, 161 bis 165 und 237 bis 240 ([24]) Die Vereinheitlichung der Kampfleitung ([24]) "Führung" ([24]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaiser und König Karl beim Besuch des deutschen Kaisers im Großen Hauptquartier am 5. Dezember 1916 (2)König Ferdinand von Bulgarien und Kronprinz Boris beim Besuch des Erzherzog-Thronfolgers Karl Franz Josef am 15. September 1916. König Ferdinand im Gespräch mit Generaloberst v. Koeveß ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Militärbevollmächtigten der Mittelmächte im Großen Hauptquartier. Von links nach rechts: k. u. k. General von Klepsch-Kloth von Roden; k. u. k. Oberst Freiherr von Bienerth, Militär-Attaché; Zekki Pascha; Oberst P. Gantschew. (2)Vom Besuch der Parlamentspräsidenten der Mittelmächte in Berlin vom 19. bis 24. Januar 1917. Von links nachr rechts in der ersten Reihe; Vizepräsident Clemer von Simontfis; Vizepräsident Dove; Präsident Hadjt Abdil Bei; Oberbürgermeister Wermuth; Präsident Dr. Julius Sylvester; Vizepräsident Dr. Paasche; Präsident Dr. D. K. Watschew. ( - ) Aenderungen in den Befehlsverteilungen an den Fronten (25) Türkische Truppen an der galizischen Front (28) Zusammenkünfte der Fürsten und Heerführer (29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von der britisch-italienischen Wirtschaftskonferenz in Pallanza vom 6. bis 14. August 1916. In erster Reihe sitzend: Minister Arlotta; der britische Botschafter in Rom Sir Rennel Rodd; Minister Runciman; Minister de Nava. (2)Die britisch-französische Besprechung im Hauptquartier nach dem 11. August 1916. Von links nach rechts; General Joffre; Präsident Poincaré; König Georg von England; General Foch; General Sir Douglas Haig. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vom Entente-Kriegsrat in Paris am 16. und 17. November 1916. Von links nach rechts in erster Reihe: Gen. Wielemans (Belgien); Sir William Robertson (England); Gen. Joffre; Sir Douglas Haig (England); Gen. Ratchitch (Serbien); Oberst Pechitch (Serbien); Oberst Tellini (Italien). In zweiter Reihe: Gen. Maurice (England); Oberst Nagai (Japan): Gen. de Castelnau; Gen. Dessino (Rußland); Gen. Porro (Italien); Oberst Rudeanu (Rumänien). In dritter Reihe; Gen. Pellé; Gen. Galitzin, Oberst Pantchevko (Rußland); Comm. Moyrand; Comm. Thouzellier. (2)Der französische Munitionsminister Thomas und der russische Kriegsminister Schuwajew mit ihrer Begleitung beim Besuch einer russischen Munitionsfabrik ( - ) Zusammenkünfte und Kundgebungen von Staatsmännern (33) Interparlamentarische Besuche (35) Wirtschaftliche Konferenzen (38) Die Donau-Konferenz in Budapest am 4. September 1916 (38) Die Konferenz der Mitteleuropäischen Wirtschaftsvereine vom 11. bis 13. Dez. 1916 (38) Deutsch-türkische Verträge (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein deutsches U-Boot-Mutterschiff (2)Ein deutsches Unterseeboot kurz vor seiner Ausfahrt mit seinem Mutterschiff ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein deutsches Unterseeboot beim Auslaufen aus einem deutschen Hafen (2)Zwei deutsche Unterseeboote längsseits auf hoher See zur Übernahme von Materialien ( - ) Der Zusammenschluß der Entente während d. fünften Kriegshalbjahres. Von August 1916 bis Februar 1917. Fortsetzung von Band XIV, Seiten 1 bis 24 ([41]) Die militärisch-politischen Konferenzen ([41]) Der englische-französische Kriegsrat in Paris. Am 11. August 1916 ([41]) Die englisch-französische Konferenz in Boulogne. Am 20. Oktober 1916. (42) Französisch-italienische Kriegsberatungen in St. Michele-de-Maurienne. Am 7. November 1916 (44) Der Entente-Kriegsrat in Paris. Am 16. und 17. November 1916 (44) Der Entente-Kriegsrat in Rom. Vom 5. bis 7. Januar 1917 (46) Der britisch-französische Kriegsrat und der Entente-Marinerat in London. Am 15. und 16. sowie 25. Januar 1917 (50) Wirtschaftliche Konferenzen (50) Die britisch-italienische Wirtschafts-Konferenz in Pallanza. Vom 6. bis 14. August 1916 (50) Die britisch-französische Finanzkonferenz in Calais. Am 24. August 1916 (51) Die Eröffnung der russisch-englischen Handelskammer in London. Am 30. November 1916 (52) Die technische Konferenz der Entente in Paris. Am 15. Dezember 1916 (52) Militärische und diplomatische Besuche (53) Der Handelskrieg bis zum uneingeschränkten Unterseebootskrieg. Von Anfang August 1915 bis 1. Februar 1917. Fortsetzung von Band V, Seiten 231 bis 254 und IX, Seiten 274 bis 276 ([55]) Der Handelskrieg von Ende Juli 1915 bis 8. Februar 1916. ([55]) Das deutsche U-Boot als Kriegsmittel ([55]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schnellfeuerkanone eines deutschen Unterseebootes (2)Im Torpedoraum eines deutschen Unterseebootes ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf einem deutschen Unterseeboot wird ein Schuß gelöst, um einen feindlichen Dampfer zum Halten zu bringen (2)Im Öl-Motoren-Raum eines deutschen Unterseebootes ( - ) Vom Kreuzerkrieg der Unterseeboote (57) Die amtlichen Meldungen (57) In der Nordsee, im Kanal und im Atlantischen Ozean (57) Die Versenkung des amerikanischen Frachtdampfers "Leelanaw" am 25. Juli 1915 (57) Die Versenkung des "Trondhjemfjord" am 25. Juli 1915 (59) Die Wegnahme der Post auf dem norwegischen Dampfer "Haakon VII." am 17. August 1915 (60) Die Versenkung der "Arabic" am 19. August 1915 (60) Die Mordtat des "Baralong" am 19. August 1915 (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Maschinengewehr in einem deutschen Flugzeug (2)Beim Verpacken der Brieftauben, die von jdem Seeflieger mitgenommen werden, damit er im Falle einer Notlandung seiner Station Nachricht geben kann ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Führer eines deutschen Wasserflugzeuges wird von einem Matrosen mit wasserdichtem Oelanzug ans Land gebracht (2)Ein deutsches Wasserflugzeug übernimmt auf hoher See von einem deutschen Unterseeboot erbeutete wichtige Papiere ( - ) Der Unfall "Hesperian" am 4. September 1915 (69) Die Erledigung des Falles des "Svein Jarl" am 9. September 1915 (69) Die Erledigung norwegischer Proteste durch England am 12. September 1915 (70) Die Vernichtung des deutschen Unterseeboots "U 41" am 24. September 1915 (71) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant z. S. Crompton (2)Die Wirkung eines Torpedos an einem Frachtdampfer, der zur Wiederherstellung ins Dock gebracht wurde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englische Minenzerstörer bei der Arbeit im Kanal. Zwischen den beiden Schiffen befindet sich ein Kabel, der die Minen zur Zerstörung bringen soll (2)Von einem schwedischen Dampfer bei der Insel Gotland aufgefischte Seeminen am Strande von Stockholm ( - ) Deutsche Unterseeboote vor der französischen Küste. Die Torpedierung der "Artemis" am 1. Februar 1916 (74) In der Ostsee (74) Die Tätigkeit der britischen Unterseeboote in der Ostsee (74) Die Zerstörung und Ausplünderung des Dampfers "Germania" am 11. Oktober 1915 (77) Der Fall der "Argo" am 21. Oktober 1915 (78) Im Mittelländischen Meer (78) Die Eröffnung des Handelskriegs durch deutsche Unterseeboote im Mittelmeer. Anfang September 1915 (Vgl. XI, S 281 bis 286 und XIII, S. 280 bis 283.) (78) Die Versenkung der "Ancona" am 7. November 1915 (79) Von der Versenkung der "Tafna" am 24. November 1915 (85) Die Versenkung des "Porto Said" am 10. Dezember 1915 (85) Der Untergang der "Persia" am 20. Dezember 1915 (86) Der Untergang der "Yasaka Maru" am 21. Dezember 1916 (87) Die Gegenmaßnahmen der Entente (88) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Torpedotreffer (2)Ein Truppentransportdampfer mit aufgemalter Bugwelle, die etwa auflauernde Unterseeboote über seine Geschwindigkeit täuschen soll ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zwei in Greenport (Amerika) für die Entente gebaute Schiffe, sogenannte "Mosquitos", bestimmt zur Jagd auf deutsche Unterseeboote in einem amerikanischen Hafen zur Abfahrt nach Archangelsk bereit (2)Kauffahrteischiffe werden im Kopenhagener Freihafen mit den Neutralitäts-Abzeichen bemalt ( - ) Episoden (91) Ein guter Fang (91) Durch ein deutsches Wasserflugzeug versenkt (93) Die Heimkehr (93) Die Verluste der Entente im ersten Jahre des Kreuzerkrieges der Unterseeboote (94) Der britische Handelskrieg (95) Der Beschützer des Rechts (95) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lokomotivkessel und andere Eisenbahnwagenteile im Hafen von New York zum versand nach Rußland bereit (2)Ein von England bei der "Force-River-Shipyard" in Boston bestelltes Unterseeboot im Cast-Boston Trockendock ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verladen von Muntion in einem Hafen der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (2)Zur Herstellung von Munition bestimmte große Kupferplatten im Crie Basin zu Brooklyn zum Versand bereit ( - ) Die Einschränkung und Ueberwachung des neutralen Handels durch England und seine Verbündeten (97) Der verschärfte Blockadeplan Englands (102) [2 Abb.]: (1)Garrison, der Kriegsminister der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika während einer Rede an die Kadetten (2)Präsident Wilson mit seiner Braut Mrs. Norman Galt, als Zuschauer bei einem Baseball-Spiel. Rechts vom Präsidenten Mrs. Belling, die Mutter der jetzigen Gattin Wilsons, links von dessen Braut Major Blankenburg, der Bürgermeister von Philadelphia ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Theodor Rooselvelt hält eine Rede (2)Robert Lansing. Der Staatssekretär der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika ( - ) Die neutralen Nordstaaten und der britische Handelskrieg (107) Die Niederlande. Fortsetzung von Band V, S. 277 bis 282 (107) Dänemark. Fortsetzung von Band V, S. 287 f. und 299 f. (111) Norwegen. Fortsetzung von Band V, Seiten 295 bis 300 (113) Schweden. Fortsetzung von Band V, Seiten 290 bis 292 und 299 ff. (115) [4 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Walter Hinnes Page. Der Botschafter der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika in London (2)Sir Cecil A. Spring-Rice. Der englische Botschafter in Washington (3)James W. Gerard. Der Botschafter der Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika in Berlin (4)Johann Heinrich Graf v. Bernstorff. Der deutsche Botschafter in Washington ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Senator Gore (2)Senator Champ Clark (3)Senator William Stone ( - ) Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika und der Handelskrieg (121) Die Gefährdung amerikanischer Bürger durch den Kreuzerkrieg der Unterseeboote und der Notenwechsel mit Deutschland (121) Die Lustitania-Angelegenheit (121) Das Urteil des englischen Gerichtshofs (Vgl. V, S. 241 bis 248) (121) Die Erklärung der deutschen Regierung vom 11. Mai 1915 (122) Die erste amerikanische Note an Deutschland vom 15. Mai 1915 (122) Die deutsche Antwortnote vom 28. Mai 1915 (124) Die zweite amerikanische Note vom 10. Juni 1915 (126) [Abb.]: Kaiser Wilhelm, Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg und General Ludendorff im Großen Hauptquartier im Januar 1917 ( - ) Die deutsche Antwortnote vom 8. Juli 1915 (129) Die dritte amerikanische Note vom 23. Juli 1915 (131) Die Angelegenheit der "William P. Frye" (133) Amerikas Kriegslieferungen an die Entente und der Notenwechsel mit Oesterreich-Ungarn (135) Der Umfang der amerikanischen Kriegslieferungen und ihre Bekämpfung durch die Mittelmächte (135) [Tabelle]: Die Ausfuhr aus den Vereinigten Staaten betrug in Millionen Dollars (1 Dollar = 4,20 M): (135) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Klaus Hansen. Führer des am 24. September 1915 von einem englischen Dampfer unter amerikanischer Flagge vernichteten "U 41" (2)Begegnung des "U 35" mit einem anderen ausreisenden Unterseeboot auf hoher See. Der Kommandant ist zum Austausch von Nachrichten über den Feind an Bord von "U 35" gekommen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit Blumen geschmücktes, aus dem Heimathafen in See gehendes deutsches Unterseeboot (2)Am Nachmittag auf einem deutschen Unterseeboot. - Ein unerwarteter kalter Gruß ( - ) Der Notenwechsel Oesterreich-Ungarns mit Amerika über die amerikanischen Waffenlieferungen (142) Die Bewegung gegen den Waffenhandel in Amerika (150) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der am 24. März 1916 torpedierte englische Postdampfer "Sussex" im Hafen von Boulogne (2)Ein Rettungsboot mit Passagieren des am 19. August 1915 torpedierten White Star Dampfers "Arabic" ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der von "U 35" torpedierte, mit leeren Fässern beladene französische Dampfer "Herault", vor dem Versinken (2)Die Offiziere von "U 35". Von links nach rechts: Leutnant z. S. de Terra, Kapitänleutnant von Arnauld de la Perière, Marine-Ingenieur Göhr, Oberleutnant z. S. Loyke ( - ) Die Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika und die Entente. Fortsetzung von Band V, Seiten 309 bis 336 (153) Die Bemühungen Englands zur Ueberwachung des amerikanischen Handels (153) Der britisch-amerikanische Notenwechsel und die Vorschläge Lansings zur Regelung des U-Boot-Krieges (155) Argentinien und der britische Handelskrieg (159) Die Behandlung bewaffneter Kauffahrteischiffe als Kriegführende. Die Denkschrift der Deutschen Regierung (161) Die österreichisch-ungarische Denkschrift (164) Die Aufnahme der Denkschrift in Frankreich und England (165) Die Haltung der Vereinigten Staaten (167) [2 Abb.]: (1)Korvettenkapitän Burggraf und Graf Nikolaus zu Dohna-Schlodien. Kommandant der "Möwe" erhielt den Orden "Pour le mérite" (2)Die Mannschaft eines versenkten englischen Schiffes wird an Board der "Möwe" genommen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kommandant der "Möwe" Graf zu Dohna-Schlodien bei einer Ansprache an seine Leute nach der Ankunft im Heimatshafen (2)Blick über das Deck der "Möwe" mit den zahlreichen Gefangenen ( - ) Der Handelskrieg vom 8. Februar 1916 bis 1. Februar 1917 (169) Die völkerrechtliche Stellung der U-Boote. Nach den Beschlüssen der Haager Konferenz (169) Vom Kreuzerkrieg der Unterseeboote und anderer Hochseestreitkräfte (171) Die Meldungen des Admiralstabs der deutschen Marine (171) Chronologische Uebersicht (171) Meldungen über die monatlichen Erfolge der deutschen Unterseeboote (175) In der Nordsee, im Eismeer, im Kanal und im Atlantischen Ozean (176) Der Untergang der "Mecklenburg" und der Maoja" am 27. Februar 1916 (176) Der Untergang der norwegischen Schiffe "Silius", "Kannik" und "Baus" am am 10. und 22. März sowie 5. April 1916 (177) Der Untergang der "Tubantia" am 16. März 1916 (177) Der Untergang der "Palembang" am 18. März 1916 (180) Vier Tage an Bord eines deutschen Tauchboots (181) Die Katastrophe des Dampfers "Sussex" am 24. März 1916 (182) I. Englischer Dampfer "Berwind Vale". (184) II. Englischer Dampfer "Englishman". (184) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Führer des deutschen Prisenschiffes "Appam" (2)Die deutsche Prisenmannschaft der "Appam" in Newport News ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose. Der Führer des Unterseeboots "U 53" (2)Die Offiziere und Mannschaften von "U 53" nach ihrer Rückkehr von der Fahrt nach Amerika 30. Oktober 1916 ( - ) III. Englischer Dampfer "Manchester Engineer" IV. Englischer Dampfer "Eagle Point" (185) V. Französischer Dampfer "Sussex" (185) Die Aufbringung des Dampfers "Brussels" und die Hinrichtung des Kapitäns Fryatt in der Nacht vom 22. auf den 23. Juni und am 27. Juli 1916 (187) Ein Gefecht zwischen Unterseebooten und feindlichen Bewachungsdampfern am 11. Juli 1916 (190) Die Versenkung des Dampfers "Rowanmore" am 26. Oktober 1916 (191) Die Erledigung der Vorfälle mit der "Konigin Regentes" und der "Blommersdijk (192) Die Versenkung der "Westminster" am 14. Dezember 1916 (193) Der Untergang der "Rogne" am 15. Dezember 1916 (193) Von der Tätigkeit der deutschen Unterseeboote an der spanischen Küste im Dezember 1916 (194) Von der Tätigkeit der deutschen Unterseeboote im Eismeer (194) In der Ostsee (196) Von der Tätigkeit der englischen und russischen Unterseeboote (196) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant z. S. Otto Steinbrinck. Kommandant eines Unterseebootes erhielt den Orden "Pour le Mérite" am 11. IV. 16 (2)Der von "U 35" versenkte englische Schoner "Miß Norris" ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Walter Forstmann. Kommandant eines Unterseebootes erhielt den Orden "Pour le Mérite" am 18. VIII. 16 (2)Das Unterseeboot "U 35" kommt von einer Unternehmung zurück und macht längsseit des Wohnschiffes fest. Die Besatzung erwidert die Hurras der österreichisch-ungarischen Schiffe ( - ) Schiffsexplosionen in finnischen Häfen (202) Im Mittelmeer (202) Der Kampf des "Colbert" mit einem U-Boot im April 1916 (202) Die Zerstörung österreichisch-ungarischer Küstendampfer (203) Die österreichisch-ungarische Note vom 15. Mai 1916 (203) Die österreichisch-ungarische Note vom 2. Juli 1916 (205) Die italienische Antwortnote und die österreichisch-ungarische Richtigstellung (205) "U 35" im Hafen von Cartagena am 21. Juni 1916 (207) Die Versenkung der "Angeliki" am 28. Oktober 1916 (209) Die Versenkung der "Caledonia" am 4. Dezember 1916 (209) Auf den übrigen Meeren (211) Die Angelegenheit der "Golconda" (211) Die Kreuzerfahrt der "Möwe". Von Anfang Januar bis 4. März 1916 (211) An Bord der "Möwe" während des Kreuzerkriegs (213) Die Erlebnisse der Besatzung des "Clan Mactavish" (214) "S. M. S. Appam" (216) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière. Kommandant von "U 35" erhielt den Orden "Pour le mértie" am 19. X. 16 (2)"U 35" vor dem Auslaufen nach dem Auftauchen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitänleutnant Max Valentiner. Kommandnat des "U 38" erhielt den Orden "Pour le mérite" am 27. XII. 16 (2)Der Hafen von Funchal auf der portugisischen Insel Madeira, der von einem deutschen Unterseeboot am 6. Dezember 1916 bombadiert wurde ( - ) Wie der Dampfer "Westburn" in Teneriffa eingebracht wurde (218) Die "Möwe" auf der Heimfahrt (220) Die Amerikafahrt von "U 53" vom 20. September bis 31. Oktober 1916 (221) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
DER VÖLKERKRIEG BAND 3 Der Völkerkrieg (-) Der Völkerkrieg Band 3 (3 / 1915) ( - ) Titelseite (-) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) Impressum ( - ) Der Völkerkrieg. Die Ereignisse auf den serbisch-montenegrinischen Kriegsschauplätzen / Die russischen Kriegsschauplätze bis zur Winterschlacht in Masuren / Die Türkei und der heilige Krieg bis zu den Dardanellenkämpfen / Rußland während des ersten Kriegshalbjahres / Der Seekrieg bis zur Erklärung der Unterseebootsblockade gegen England / Der Krieg in den deutschen Schutzgebieten / Zeittafel der Ereignisse des ersten Kriegshalbjahrs ( - ) [Abb.]: Soltan Muhammed Reschad Chan V. Kaiser der Osmanen ( - ) Die Ereignisse auf den serbisch-montenegrinischen Kriegsschauplätzen. Von Ende oktober 1914 bis Mitte Februar 1915 (1) Der große Vorstoß der Oesterreicher nach Serbien (1) Chronologische Uebersicht der Kämpfe (1) [2 Abb.]: (1)König Peter von Serbien beobachtet seine Truppen während eines Kampfes (2)Serbische Armee-Reserven ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine serbische Patrouille im Gebirge (2)Ein serbisches Maschinengewehr russischer Herkunft in Stellung bei Obrenovac ( - ) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über das Kriegsgebiet im nordwestlichen Teil Serbiens (Vgl. die Karte II, S. 83.) (5) Personalien (9) Wiederaufnahme der Kämpfe in der Macva und die Einnahme von Sabac (11) [3 Abb.]: (1)Feldzeugmeister Oskar Potiorek (2)General d. I. L. Ritter v. Frank (3)Beim Bau einer österreichisch-ungarischen Feldbahn bei Rača in Macva (Serbien) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aus den österreichisch-ungarischen Befestigungen in den Bitvasümpfen in der Macva (2)Aus einem verlassenen befestigten serbischen Lager nördlich von Glušci in der Macva ( - ) Die Schlacht beu Krupanj und die Einnahme von Valjevo (13) Die Siege an der Kolubara und bei Lazarevac und Einnahme von Uzice (16) Die Einnahme von Belgrad (17) Der Rückzug der Oesterreicher (18) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Zug von gefangenen serbischen Komitadschi in Mitrovica (2)Serbische Landbevölkerung auf der Flucht ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die von den österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen erbaute Kriegsbrücke über die Save zwischen Klenak und Sabac (2)S. M. S. Donaumonitor "Bodrog" ( - ) Episoden (21) Der Zug der Gefangenen (21) Der Bote (22) Der Serbe und die "Barbaren" (22) In Belgrad (23) Vom serbischen Heere (23) Die Kämpfe gegen die Montenegriner (25) Die amtlichen österreichisch-ungarischen Meldungen (25) Kurze Zusammenfassung (25) Die Beschießung des Lovcen (26) Vom Entsatz der Feste Bilek (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lager österreichisch-ungarischer Infanterie bei Krupanj in Serbien (2)Lager einer österreichisch-ungarischen Verpflegungskolonne bei Autovac an der montenegrinischen Grenze ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarisches Zeltlager an der montenegrinischen Grenze (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Gebirgsartillerie auf dem Marsch in Kluz an der montenegrinischen Grenze ( - ) Serbiens und Montenegros innere Lage (29) Hof und Regierung in Serbien (29) Die Zustände in Alt-Serbien (30) Die Zustände in Neu-Serbien (31) Montenegros innere Lage (32) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte der Kämpfe in Polen ( - ) Die russischen Kriegsschauplätze bis zur Winterschlacht in Masuren. Von Ende Oktober 1914 bis Ende Februar 1915. Fortsetzung von Band II, Seiten 1 - 69 und 193 - 248 (33) Die gemeinsame Offensive (33) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (33) Das Zusammenarbeiten der Verbündeten (37) Die Schlacht in Polen (39) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Generalstabsmeldungen (39) Von der Schlacht und den Schlachtfeldern bei Kutno (48) Der Durchbruch bei Brzeziny (52) [3 Abb.]: (1)General d. Inf. Freiherr v. Scheffer-Boyadel (2)Generalleutnant von Litzmann (3)Eine verlassenen russische Feldstellung bei Lodz ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Truppen, die aus dem Schützengraben hervorkommen, um sich zu ergeben (2)Drahtverhaue vor einer russischen Feldstellung bei Lodz ( - ) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte des Gebietes der Kämpfe bei Lodz und des Durchbruchs bei Brzeziny (53) Die Kämpfe bei Lodz und Augustynow (57) Aus den Kämpfen um Lowicz (60) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei einer deutschen Batterie während eines Gefechts in Polen (2)Deutsche Pioniere bei der Herstellung eines Unterstandes in Polen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aufklärung durch deutsche Vorposten in Polen (2)Eine radfahrende Jägerabteilung bei einem plötzlichen Angriff in Polen ( - ) Von den Schlachtfeldern an der Bzura und Rawka (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche schwere Feldhaubitzen beschießen eine russische Artilleriestellung in Zgierz bei Lodz (2)Die Wiederherstellung der zerstörten Eisenbahnbrücke über die Warthe an der Linie Kalisch-Warschau ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Pioniere mit Pontons und Brückenmaterial auf dem Marsch bei Lodz (2)Deutsche Truppen auf dem Marsch in Polen ( - ) Der Vormarsch auf Warschau und der Sturm auf Humin (65) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über das Kampfgebiet bei Lowicz und den Vorstoß über Bolimow und die Rawka gegen Humin sowie den Suchafluß. Vergleiche auch die Uebersichtskarte über Polen nach Seite 32. ([67]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Stab einer deutschen Heeresabteilung auf einem Hügel bei Mlawa. Im Vordergrund ein Maschinengewehr (2)Vorgeschobener Schützengraben hinter Mlawa ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Maschinengewehr-Abteilung in einem Wäldchen in Russisch-Polen (2)Abtransport russischer Truppen, die von den Deutschen bei Plonsk gefangen genommen wurden ( - ) Warschau in Erwartung der Deutschen (70) Von den Kämpfen in Nordpolen nördlich der Weichsel (72) Die Kämpfe in Südpolen und Westgalizien (73) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den österreichisch-ungarischen Generalstabsmeldungen (73) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarischer 30,5 cm Mörser in gedeckter Stellung bei den Kämpfen in Russisch-Polen (2)Eine österreichisch-ungarische Maschinengewehr-Abteilung mit Tragtieren während der Kämpfe bei Tomaschow ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische und ungarischer Pferde bei einer österreichisch-ungarischen Sanitätskolonne (2)Österreichisch-ungarisch schweres Geschütz in einem Wald Polens während des Ladens ( - ) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen in Südpolen und Westgalizien. ([77]) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (80) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Hauptplatz in Limanowa (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Schützenlinie an der Nida in Süd-Polen (-) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine befestigte Stellung österreichisch-ungarischer Truppen in Ost-Galizien (2)In der Schlacht bei Limanowa gefallene Russen werden in einem Massengrab beerdigt ( - ) Die Schlacht bei Limanowa (82) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Schützengräben an einem Flusse Ostgaliziens (2)Die von den Russen zerstörte Dunajec-Brücke bei Neu-Sandek wird von österreichisch-ungarischen Pionieren wieder hergestell (-) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ungarischer "Honved"-Vorposten verjagt eine Kosaken-Patrouille bei Krakau (2)Distanzmessen einer österreichisch-ungarischen Maschinengewehr-Abteilung bei grodek (3)In den Schützengräben bei Zakliczyn gefallene Russen ( - ) Aus den siegreichen Kämpfen bei Zakliczyn ( - ) Die Kämpfe in Galizien und in den Karpathen (87) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den österreichisch-ungarischen Generalstabsmeldungen (87) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen in Galizien und in den Karpathen ([91]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Infanterie im Schützengraben in Galizien (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Infanterie im Schützengraben in Galizien ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch-ungarische Schnehschuh-Patrouille in den Karpathen (2)Ein österreichisch-ungarisches Feldgeschütz in Galizien während des Ladens mit einem Schrapnell ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche und österreichisch-ungarische Truppen vor einem Bauernhause in der Nähe des Uzsok-Passes in den Karpathen (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Kolonne in den Karpathen, die auf Pferden und Maultieren Munition zur Front befördert ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine österreichisch-ungarische Patrouille auf der Rast in den Karpathen (2)Ein österreichisch-ungarischer Panzerzug in den Karpathen ( - ) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (97) Aus den Kämpfen in Galizien und in den Karpathen (100) Die Erstürmung des Duklapasses (103) Die Wiedergewinnung des Uzoker Passes (106) Von der zweiten Belagerung der Festung Przemysl (107) Von der Russenherrschaft in den befreiten Gebieten Galiziens und in Ungarn (108) Die Kämpfe in der Bukowina (111) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den österreichisch-ungarischen Generalstabsberichten (111) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (112) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Geschützstand österreichisch-ungarischer Feldartillerie diesseits des Pruth in der Bukowina (2)Aus einem von den Russen niedergebrannten Dorfe der Bukowina ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ungarische Gendarmen als Grenzschutz an der rumänischen grenze (2)Österreichisch-ungarische Infanterie am Ufer des Pruth in der Bukowina ( - ) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen in der Bukowina (113) Die Russenherrschaft in der Bukowina (115) [2 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie Otto von Below mit seinem engeren Stabe (2)Eine deutsche Maschinengewehr-Kompagnie während der Kämpfe bei Darkehmen ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant von Kosch (2)Generaloberst Hermann v. Eichhorn (3)In einem Schützengraben bei Darkehmen nach der Schlacht ( - ) Die Kämpfe in Ostpreußen (117) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (117) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen in Ostpreußen. (119) Die zusammenfassenden Berichte des Großen Hauptquartiers (122) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kassensaal des Bankgebäudes zu Pilkallen nach dem Rückzug der Russen (2)Das von den Russen vor ihrem Rückzug zerstörte Gerdauen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf dem Vormarsch in Ostpreußen mit Schlittenkufen an den Rädern der Wagen (2)Deutsche Landwehrmänner in Schafpelzen in Ostpreußen ( - ) Aus den Kämpfen der Grenzschutztruppen (126) Aus der Winterschlacht an den Masurischen Seen. Vom 10. - 18. Februar 1915 (129) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aus der Winterschlacht in Masuren. - Eine Munitionskolonne auf dem Marsche (2)In der Winterschlacht in Masuren gefangene Russen auf dem Marsch zwischen Sejny und Suwalki ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die letzten Befestigungen der Russen in den Wäldern vor Augustow (2)Im deutschen Feuer gefallene Russen, die versuchten, die Drahthindernisse zu durchkriechen ( - ) Die Einkreisung des russischen Heeres (133) Die russischen Verluste in der Winterschlacht (137) Auf den Spuren russischer Kultur in Masuren (139) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vierzehn in der Winterschlacht in Masuren gefangene russische Offiziere, darunter ein Oberstleutnant und ein Oberst bei Wilkowischki (2)In der Winterschlacht in Masuren gefangene Russen während des Abmarsches ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Fuhrpark-Kolonne in der Ebene von Suwalki (2)Zweistöckige Erdhütten deutscher Truppen an der Ostfront ( - ) Weihnachten auf dem östlichen Kriegsschauplatz (141) Episoden aus den russischen Kriegsschauplätzen (144) Aus den Kämpfen in Polen (144) Die kühnen Hessen (144) Der Soldat von Janow (144) Die Braut im Felde (145) Wie ein Deutscher 30 Russen "umzingelte" (146) Heldentod eines deutschen Husarenoffiziers (146) Heimaterde (147) Aus den Kämpfen in Galizien und in den Karpathen (147) Das treue Mutterherz (147) "Echt österreichisch!" (148) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Ausgabe von Kohlen an die arme Bevölkerung von Lodz durch die deutschen Behörden (2)Deutsche Soldaten verteilen Extrablätter in jüdischer Sprache an die Juden einer Stadt in Russisch-Polen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Leben in der Petrikauerstraße zu Lodz nach der Einnahme durch die deutschen Truppen (2)Deutsche Offiziere durchreiten die Warschauerstraße in Mlawa ( - ) Spione bei der Arbeit (149) Aus den Kämpfen in der Bukowina. Ein Held von zwölf Jahren (149) Aus den Kämpfen in Ostpreußen (150) Wie der Leutnant dem Ernst Zickermann das Leben rettete (150) Kameradschaft (151) Ein Soldatengrab (152) Von den Fürsten und Heerführern der Verbündeten (153) Personalien (153) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generaloberst Hermann v. Eichhorn, der Führer der zehnten Armee mit seinem engeren Stabe (2)Generalfeldmarschall Paul v. Hindenburg mit seinem Stabe ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Stab einer deutschen Truppenabteilung verfolgt von einem Hügel den Verlauf der Kämpfe (2)Deutsche Sanitätssoldaten mit Sanitätshunden zum Absuchen des Schlachtfeldes bereit ( - ) Kaiser Wilhelm auf dem östlichen Kriegsschauplatz (158) Der Erzherzog-Thronfolger Karl Franz Josef an der Front (160) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der deutsche Kaiser Wilhelm II. verfolgt den Gang der Winterschlacht in Masuren bei Grabnik (2)Erzherzog-Thronfolger Karl Franz Josef im österreichischen Hauptquartier ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Feldgottesdienst in Ostpreußen vor einer Schlacht (2)Der deutsche Kaiser Wilhelm II. im wiedereroberten Lyck umjubelt von seinen siegreichen Truppen ( - ) Bei Hindenburg (161) Vom Zaren und den russischen heerführern (164) Personalien (164) Die Besuche des Zaren an der Front (164) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der russische Generalissimus Nikolai Nikolajewitsch im Hauptquartier (2)Ein russischer Schützengraben in der Nähe der ostpreußischen Grenze ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der russische Generalfeldmarschall Radko Dimitriew (2)Der Kommandant der russ. Nordwestarmee General Rußki (3)Russische Infanterie in Feuerstellung ( - ) Im russischen Hauptquartier (165) Die Mannschaftsverluste der Russen bis Ende Februar 1915 (167) Von der Verwaltung der von den Verbündeten besetzten Teile Russisch-Polens (168) Die Türkei und der heilige Krieg bis zu den Dardanellen-Kämpfen. Von Ende August 1914 bis Ende Februar 1915 ([169]) Die Türkei bis zum Ausbruch des heiligen Krieges (170) Die türkische Armee (170) Die inneren Verhältnisse der Türkei und ihre Beziehungen zu den kriegsführenden Mächten (171) Aegypten vor dem heiligen Kriege (179) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant Liman v. Sanders im Kreise der mit ihm im türkischen Heere tätigen deutschen Offiziere (2)Türkische Soldaten vor der Jeni-Walidé-Moschee in Konstantinopel ([uncounted]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkische Kavallerie (2)Türkische Infanterie ([uncounted]) Persien und Afghanistan bis zur Verkündigung des heiligen Krieges (182) Vorbemerkung (182) Chronologische Uebersicht der Ereignisse in Persien (182) Aus Afghanistan (186) Von der türkischen Politik Englands (187) In Aegypten (187) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abbas Hilmi II. Pascha. Der rechtmäßige Khedive von Aegypten (2)Parade vor dem Palais des Khediven zu Kairo anläßlich der Einsetzung des Prinzen Hussein Kamel zum Sultan von Aegypten durch die Engländer ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Suezkanal etwa 80 Kilometer nördlich von Aden (2)Port Aid und der Suezkanal ( - ) Der Suezkanal (190) In Kleinasien (192) [Abb.]: Enver Pascha der türkische Kriegsminister und Vizegeneralissimus der ottomanischen Armee ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kommandant von Jaffa hält eine Ansprache an die ausrückenden Truppen und das Volk (2)Dschemal Pascha, der Oberkommandeur der türkischen Truppen am Suezkanal verläßt die Omar-Moschee in Jerusalem ( - ) Die Verkündigung des Heiligen Krieges (193) Die türkischen Proklamationen (193) Der Fetwa (195) Die Rechtfertigungsversuche der Dreiverbandsmächte und die Entgegnung der Türkei (198) Die Begrüßungstelegramme der verbündeten Fürsten und Heerführer (201) Der Feldzug im Kaukasus (203) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers und ergänzenden Berichten (203) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen im Kaukasus. Links die Küste des Schwarzen Meeres, rechts oben die Küste des Kaspischen Meeres. Ueber die Gegend östlich des Wansees vgl. die Karte S. 213. (207) [2 Abb.]: (1)Türkische Kamelkarawanen mit Militärbedarf im Taurusgebirge (2)Türkische Artilllerie auf dem Marsch durch Syrien ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Kamelkarawane im Dienste des Roten Kreuzes in Bozanti (2)Türkische Vorposten vor einem Han (Einkehrhaus) im Taurus ( - ) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (210) Der Persische Kriegsschauplatz (212) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (212) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Beduinen-Scheich Ibn Reschid, der sich den türkischen Truppen angeschlossen und einen von den Engländern aufgewiegelten Beduinenstamm besiegt hat. Der Hut des anführenden englischen Obersten, der im Kampfe fiel, als Siegestrophäe auf der Fahnenspitze (2)Blick auf die Stadt Täbris ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schemal Pascha und der die Waffen segnende Hoscha verabschieden die nach dem Suezkanal abziehenden türkischen Truppen (2)Landsturm-Freiwillige Beduinen ( - ) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte zu den Kämpfen an den persischen Grenzen und am Urmia-See (213) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (215) Die Kämpfe am Persischen Golf (216) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (216) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte der Kämpfe am Persischen Golf (217) Zusammenfassende Darstellung (218) Der Feldzug gegen Aegypten (219) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den Meldungen des türkischen Hauptquartiers (219) [2 Abb.]: (1)Exz. Schemal Pascha, der Oberkommandierende der türkischen Truppen am Suezkanal und der deutsche Oberst von Frankenberg (2)Türkische Artillerie bringt ihre Geschütze (mit Wüstenbereifung) in Stellung ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lager australischer Hilfstruppen in Aegypten am Fuße der Pyramiden (2)Türkische Artillerie im Feuer am Suezkanal ( - ) Die Kämpfe am Suezkanal (221) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte des Suezkanals (223) Die Türkei im Seekampf mit dem Dreiverband (225) Die türkische Flotte und Rußlands Streitkräfte im Schwarzen Meer (225) Die Kriegsereignisse im Schwarzen Meer (226) Der Seekrieg im Mittelländischen Meer und vor den Dardanellen (228) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kapitän v. Kettner und die Offiziere des ehemals deutschen jetzt türkischen kleinen Kreuzers "Breslau", "Midillih" (2)Blick auf das Goldene Horn mit den Kreuzern Breslau-Midillih und Hamidjeh ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Eingang in die Dardanellen mit den türkischen Forts (2)Alte türkische Befestigungen am Eingang zum Bosporus ( - ) Von den Seekämpfen im Schwarzen Meer und vor den Dardanellen (230) Von den Fürsten und Heerführern (233) Personalien der türkischen und deutschen Heerführern (233) Vom Zaren (234) Die Türkei, Aegypten und Persien während der ersten Kriegsmonate (234) Maßnahmen der türkischen Regierung (234) Die Kriegstagung des türkischen Parlaments (236) Die Eröffnungssitzung (236) [Abb.]: Prinz Said Halim Pascha. Der türkische Großvezier ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Verkündigung des Fetwa in der Fethie-Moschee zu Konstantinopel (2)Der Sultan Mohammed Reschad Chan auf der Fahrt zur Parlaments-Eröffnung ( - ) Aus den Geschäftssitzungen (238) Nachrichten über die innerpolitischen Verhältnisse Aegyptens (239) Nachrichten aus Persien (240) Rußland während des ersten Kriegshalbjahres ([241]) Das russische Kulturproblem ([241]) Die zweite Kriegstagung des russischen Parlaments (243) Die Tagung des Reichsrats (243) Die Tagung der Duma (244) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Metropolit von St. Petersburg besucht die Verwundeten in der Halle der Adelsgesellschaft die der Regierung zur Verfügung gestellt wurde (2)Ein Pope predigt verwundeten russischen Soldaten in einem Feldlazarett ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Krankenschwestern bei der Beerdigung des Arztes (2)Russische Soldaten auf der Reise nach der Front während des Aufenthalts auf einer Eisenbahnstation ( - ) Die Maßnahmen des Zaren und der Regierung (249) Verwaltungsmaßnahmen, Kundgebungen und Personalien (249) Militärische Maßnahmen (250) Maßnahmen gegen die Angehörigen der feindlichen Staaten (251) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der russische Finanzminister Bark (2)Russische Offiziere küssen das heilige Kreuz vor ihrer Abreise zur Front ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein russisches Infanterie-Regiment in Winterausrüstung verläßt Petersburg (2)Feldgottesdienst russischer Truppen vor der Schlacht ( - ) Rußlands wirtschaftliche Verhältnisse. Der Reichshaushalt und die wirtschaftlichen Maßnahmen der Regierung (253) Vom russischen Volk (259) Stimmungen und Wandlungen (259) In Moskau und in St. Petersburg (262) Die russische Sozialdemokratie und der Krieg (263) Das russische Problem (265) Der Seekrieg bis zur Erklärung der Unterseeblockade gegen England. Von Mitte November 1914 bis Mitte Februar 1915 ([267]) Die Kämpfe in der Nordsee ([267]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Englische Minenfischer versuchen eine schwimmende Mine durch Gewehrfeuer zum Explodieren zu bringen (2)Die Explosion einer Wassermine mit dem von dem amerikan. Leutnant C. H. Woodward neu erfundenen Explosivstoff (3)Das auf eine Mine aufgelaufene schwedische Dampfschiff "Svartön" im Trockendock in Amsterdam ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf die englische Stadt Cromer, die wie Yarmouth und Sheringham am 20. Januar 1915 von einem deutschen Luftschiff beschossen wurde (2)Blick auf den Hafen und die Küstenwerke von Dover, die am 4. November 1914 von einem deutschen Flugzeug beschossen wurden ( - ) Schiffsverluste der Verbündeten (269) Deutscher Vorstoß an die englische Ostküste (270) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vizeadmiral Sir David Beatty. Der Kommandant der englischen Streitkräfte in dem Seegefecht bei Helgoland (2)Ein englisches Torpedoboot ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von Witby auf die befestigte Küstenstadt Hartlepool, die am 16. Dezember 1914 von deutschen beschossen wurde (2)Die Südseite der befestigung von Scarborough, die am 16. Dezember 1914 von deutschen Schiffen beschossen wurden ( - ) Englischer Vorstoß gegen die deutsche Bucht (273) Das Seegefecht bei Helgoland (274) [2 Abb.]: (1)Konter-Admiral Hipper. Kommandant des deutschen Geschwaders in dem Seegefecht bei Helgoland (2)Das englische Linienschiff "Formidable", das in der Neujahrsnacht 1914/1915 unweit Plymouth von einem deutschen Unterseeboot durch Torpedoschuß zum Sinken gebracht wurde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Korvetten-Kapitän Erdmann. Kommandant von S. M. Panzerkreuzer Blücher in englischer Gefangenschaft † (2)S. M. Panzerkreuzer Blücher, gesunken im Seegefecht bei Helgoland am 24. Januar 1915 ( - ) Der Handelskrieg in der Nordsee (279) Vorbemerkung (279) Zur Minengefahr in der Nordsee (279) Die deutsche Blockadeerklärung (281) [Karte]: Der deutsche Blockadering um Großbritannien. (283) In der Ostsee (284) [Abb.]: Kapitänleutnant v. Mücke. Führer eines Teils der Emden-Mannschaft auf S. M. Schiff "Ayesha" ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der französische Dreadnought "Courbet". Ein Schiff dieses Typs, der "Jean Bart", ist am 21. Dezember von dem österreichisch-ungarischen Unterseeboot 12 torpediert worden. Auch der Dreadnought "Courbet" ist später versenkt worden. (2)Das französische Unterseeboot "Curie", das Ende Dezember 1914 an der österreichisch-ungarischen Adriaküste von Strandbatterien und Wachfahrzeugen zum Sinken gebracht wurde ( - ) Im Mittlemeer (285) Vorbemerkung (285) In der Adria (285) Die Jagd auf die deutschen Uebersee-Kreuzer (287) Chronologische Uebersicht (287) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vizeadmiral Sir Frederic C. D. Sturdee. Der Kommandant des britischen Geschwaders in der Seeschlacht bei den Falklandinseln (2)Eine 6-inch-Kanone in Tätigkeit auf der "Highflyer" ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fregatten-Kapitän Lüdecke. Kommandant von S. M. kl. Kreuzer "Dresden" (2)Das englische Kriegsschiff "Hibernia" mit einem Flugzeug an Board ( - ) Die Seeschlacht bei den Falklandinseln (289) [Karte]: Skizze über den Verlauf der Seeschlacht bei den Falklandinseln (291) [2 Abb.]: (1)Geh. Reg.-Rat Dr. A. H. H. Schnee. Der Gouverneur von Deutsch-Ostafrika (2)Ein Negerdorf am Fuße des Kilimandscharo in Deutsch-Ostafrika ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Straßenbild aus dem Eingeborenenviertel von Muanza in Deutsch-Ostafrika (2)Straßenbild aus dem Eingeborenenviertel von Lindi in Deutsch-Ostafrika ( - ) Der Krieg in den deutschen Schutzgebieten. Von Anfang November 1914 bis Mitte Februar 1915. Vgl. Band II, Seiten 295 - 320. ([293]) Englands afrikanischer Kolonialkrieg ([293]) Deutsch-Ostafrika (295) Verspätete Meldung (295) Amtliche Meldungen und Private Mitteilungen (295) Deutsch-Südwestafrika (298) Verspätete Meldung (298) Amtliche Meldungen und private Mitteilungen (298) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberstleutnant Victor Franke. Der Kommandeur der Schutztruppe in Deutsch-Südwestafrika (2)Eine Abteilung der deutschen südwestafrikanischen Schutztruppe ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Burendetachement auf dem Marsche (2)Deutsche Truppen in Deutsch-Südwestafrika beim Abkochen ( - ) Die Vorgänge an der Grenze zu Angola (301) Kamerun (302) Verspätete Meldungen (302) Amtliche Meldungen und private Mitteilungen (303) [2 Abb.]: (1)Geh. Ober.-Reg.-Rat Ebermaier. Der deutsche Gouverneur von Kamerun (2)Blick auf die alte Mole in Swakopmund in Deutsch-Südwestafrika ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberstleutnant Zimmermann. Kommandeur der Schutztruppe in Kamerun (2)Eine deutsche Polizeitruppe auf dem Marsch in Gadha am Afu ( - ) Togo. Von der englischen und französischen Verwaltung (309) In der Südsee. Deutsch.Neuguinea (311) 1. Altes Schutzgebiet. (311) 2. Inselgebiet. (313) Samoa (314) Zeittafel der Ereignisse des ersten Kriegshalbjahres. Von Ende Juni 1914 bis Ende Januar 1915. Band I - IV des Gesamtwerkes (314) Der Völkerkrieg. Die Ereignisse an der Westfront von Mitte Januar bis Mai 1915 / Der Seekrieg bis zur Torpedierung der Lusitania ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der deutsche Kaiser beobachtet durch das Scherenfernrohr eine feindliche Stellung auf dem westlichen Kriegsschauplatz (2)Der deutsche Kaiser und Generaloberst v. Einem bei einer Parade auf dem Marktplatz von Bouziers ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein deutscher Fesselballon wird zum Auftsieg gebracht. (2)Deutsche Truppen in einem Steinbruch bei Soissons ( - ) Die Ereignisse an der Westfront von Mitte Januar bis Mai 1915. Fortsetzung von Band III, Seiten 65 - 240 (1) Drei Kriegslieder (1) Zusammenfassende Darstellung der Kämpfe an der Westfront bis zur Schlacht von Arras (2) Die Kämpfe im Zentrum der Schlachtfront (5) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (5) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte zur Winterschlacht in der Champagne. (Vgl. auch die Karten Bd. III, S. 75, 125 u. 127.) ([11]) Der Kampf um den "Granathof" (14) Das Gefecht von Hurtebise auf der Hochebene von Craonne. (16) [3 Abb]: (1)General von Gersdorff (2)General der Infanterie d'Elsa (3)Straßenbarrikaden in einem von den Deutschen gestürmten Dorfe auf den Höhen von Craonne ([uncounted]) [2 Abb]: (1)Blick auf die Stadt Craonne; im Vordergrund Hindernisse, die von den deutschen Truppen im Sturm genommen wurden (2)Unterstände deutscher Infanterie bei Craonne ([uncounted]) Der deutsche Vorstoß bei Massiges vom 2. bis 12. Februar 1915 (19) [2 Abb]: (1)Ein französischer Infanterist schleudert Handgranaten aus dem Schützengraben (2)Ein Maschinengewehr wird in einem deutschen Schützengraben aufgebaut ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Beobachtungsposten in einem deutschen Schützengraben während der Ruhe der Mannschaften (2)Deutsche Soldaten verlassen beim Morgengrauen die Unterstände und begeben sich auf ihre Posten ( - ) Aus dem bombadierten Reims (22) Die Winterschlacht in der Champagne Ende Februar bis 10. März 1915 (23) [2 Abb]: (1)Generaloberst von Einem (2)Deutsche Truppen im Schützengraben. Rechts vorn ein Minenwurfapparat; der vorderste liegende Mann hält eine Minenbombe. Im Hintergrund eine auf einem Holzgestell montierte Gewehrgranate, davor kniend zwei Mann mit Handgranaten ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Generalleutnant Fleck (2)Ein stark ausgebauter deutscher Schützengraben in der Champagne ( - ) Die Menschen der Champagne-Schlacht (29) Episoden (31) Wie wir unseren toten Leutnant bargen. (31) Kugeln, die nicht trafen (32) Die Kämpfe im Abschnitt Lille - Arras (33) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (33) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über das Kampfgebiet Lille - Arras. (Vgl. auch die Karten Bd. III, S. 75 u. 109.) (35) [2 Abb]: (1)Teil eines französischen, von den Deutschen eroberten Laufgrabens, der den Schützengraben mit einem Gehöft verbindet (2)Eine deutsche Sanitätkolonne sucht das Kampfgebiet ab ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Eine Zusammengeschossene Straße in Neuville, nördlich von Arras (Aus den Kämpfen um den Südhang der Lorettohöhe ( - ) Von den Kämpfen am Kanal von La Bassée Ende Januar 1915 (37) Die Kämpfe um die Lorettohöhe Anfang und Mitte März 1915 (38) Die Schlacht von Neuve-Chapelle vom 10. - 15. März 1915 (43) [2 Abb]: (1)Ein von deutscher Artillerie aus einer Höhe von 2000 m heruntergeschossenes englisches Flugzeug (2)Deutsche Unterstände nördlich Neuve-Chapelle ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Indische Hilfstruppen der englischen Armee (2)Neu eingetroffene englische Truppen mit ihren Offizieren auf einer Landstraße in Nordfrankreich ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Vor einem gestürmten französischen Schützengraben (2)Von den Deutschen gefangene Engländer auf dem Wege nach Lille ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Ein deutsches Zeltlager für die Verwundeten hinter der Front in Nordfrankreich (2)Deutsche Unterstände an einem Bahndamm in Nordfrankreich ( - ) Episoden (50) Die beiden Musketiere. (50) Unsere Pioniere unter der Erde. (51) In den Schanzen bei Contalmaison (bei Albert). (51) Englische Niedertracht. Anmarsch. (52) Der Waldkrieg in den Argonnen (53) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (53) Die Kämpfe der Württemberger bei Vauquois vom 29. Januar bis März 1915 (55) Aus Kampf- und Ruhetagen im Argonnenwald (58) Episoden (62) Die Stadt im Lehm (62) Heldengräber. (63) Nachtwanderungen (64) [2 Abb]: (1)Deutsche Kriegergräber, von einem deutschen Landsturm-Bataillon geschmückt (2)Ein französischer Vorposten in den Argonnen ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Deutsche Pioniere vor ihren Blockhäusern (2)Eine Unteroffiziersstube in den deutschen Unterständen in den Argonnen ( - ) Die Kämpfe zwischen Maas und Mosel (65) Aus den Kämpfen im Priesterwald (-) Episoden (-) Er geht auf Patroull'! (-) Aus Französisch-Lothringen (-) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (65) [2 Abb]: (1)Ein deutscher Schützengraben auf der Combreshöhe (2)Ein Beobachtungsstand der deutschen Feldartillerie vor Verdun ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Erdhöhlen der französischen Truppen in einem Walde zwischen Maas und Mosel (2)Küche französischer Vorposten in einem zerstörten Hause ( - ) Die Kämpfe um Norroy und die französischen Vorstöße bei Combres vom 13. - 20. Februar 1915 (71) Die französische Offensive zwischen Maas und Mosel vom 5. bis 16. April 1915 nach den amtlichen französischen Meldungen (76) [2 Abb]: (1)Eingebautes Maschinengewehr in einem deutschen Schützengraben (2)Ein Periskop in einem französischen Schützengraben ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Das Begräbnis zweier Offiziere, die in den Kämpfen zwischen Maas und Mosel fielen (2)Verladen von Verwundeten nach einem Gefecht in der Woëvre-Ebene auf der Verwundetenversandstelle Vigneulles ( - ) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über die Kämpfe zwischen Maas und Mosel. Vgl. die Karten Band III, S. 75 sowie Band I, S. 241 und Band II, S. 123. (79) Richtigstellung des deutschen Großen Hauptquartiers. (82) Die französische Offensive zwischen Maas und Mosel vom 5. - 20. April 1915 nach den Berichten aus dem deutschen Großen Hauptquartier. Vergleiche die amtlichen französischen Meldungen und Berichte S. 67 ff. (83) Bericht vom 7. April 1915 (83) Bericht vom 9. April 1915 (84) [2 Abb]: (1)Der französische Generalissimus Joffre beim Studium der Karte an der Front (2)Ein deutscher Infanterie-Stützpunkt im Walde ( - ) [2 Abb]: (1)Die Berliner Straße in der deutschen Laubenkolonie "Grunewalden-Woëvre" (2)Deutsche Unterstände in einem Walde zwischen Maas und Mosel ( - ) Bericht vom 12. April 1915 (85) Bericht vom 16. April 1915 (86) Bericht vom 21. April 1915 (88) Von den Kämpfen um die Combreshöhe und die Côte-Lorraine um Ostern 1915 (89) [2 Abb.]: (1)Franzosen, die im Walde von Ailly gefangen genommen wurden, auf dem Marsch durch Vigneulles (2)Deutsche Soldaten in der Kirche eines Dorfes zwischen Maas und Mosel ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Pioniere in Frankreich bei der Anfertigung von Drahtverhauen, sogenannten "Spanischen Reitern" (2)Eine deutsche Feldhaubitze während der Gefechtspause ( - ) Die Kämpfe in Lothringen, in den Vogesen und im Sundgau (97) Chronologischer Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (97) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Patrouille in einem Dorfe in französisch Lothringen (2)Aus einem französischen Schützengraben in den Vogesen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Gesamtansicht von Altkirch im Elsaß (2)Aus Sennheim im Elsaß nach der Beschießung ( - ) Die Entwicklung der Kämpfe im Oberelsaß. Ein Rückblick (102) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über die Südvogesen und den Sundgau (103) Die Wacht am Rhein (105) Die erste Erstürmung des Hartmannsweilerkopfes durch die Deutschen am 19. Januar und die Durchbruchsversuche der Franzosen am 27. Januar 1915 (107) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Befestigungen auf dem Donon (2)Französische Alpenjäger in den Vogesen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Bagagewagen mit fußkranken Farbigen hinter der Vogesenfront (2)Aus einem deutschen Schützengraben in den Vogesen ( - ) Die Kämpfe nordöstlich von Badonviller vom 27. Februar bis März 1915 (110) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte des Kampfgebietes nördöstlich von Badonviller ([111]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generaloberst Freiherr von Falkenhausen (2)Deutsche Erdhütten in den Vogesen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Alpenjäger mit einem Scheinwerfer in den Vogesen (2)Aus einem deutschen Schützengraben in den Vogesen ( - ) Die Erstürmung und Behauptung des Reichsackerkopfes von Mitte Februar bis Ende April 1915 (117) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über das Kampfgebiet beim Reichsackerkopf (Vgl. auch die Karte S. 103) (119) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gesamtansicht der Stadt Münster im Elsaß (2)Deutsche Unterstände in den Vogesen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die feierliche Beerdigung eines deutschen Soldaten in Feindesland (2)Ein französisches Soldaten-Begräbnis in französisch Lothringen ( - ) Der Verlust und die Wiederbesetzung des Hartmannsweilerkopfes von Ende Februar bis Ende April 1915 (129) Die zweite Erstürmung des Hartmannsweilerkopfes am 25. April 1915 (132) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Schneeschuhtruppen im Gefecht in den Vogesen (2)Halt einer deutschen Bagage-Kolonne bei einer Etappenstation ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein deutscher Badezug: Wasserwagen, Badewagen, An- und Auskleidewagen und Wohnwagen (2)Blick in das Innere des Badewagens eines deutschen Badezug. Jeder Wagen enthält 16 Brausen; der dritte Wagen nur 10 Brausen und ein Wannenbad ( - ) Die Vogesenwacht der deutschen Schneeschuhtruppe (135) Vom Luftkampf im Oberelsaß (137) Episoden (139) Kameradschaft (139) Schritt für Schritt (139) Die verirrte Kugel (140) [2 Abb.]: (1)Patrouille der deutschen Schneeschuhtruppen in den Vogesen (2)Ein französisches Flugzeug, das von deutschen Abwehrtruppen in den Vogesen heruntergeschossen wurde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Sonntag-Nachmittag in den deutschen Unterständen in den Vogesen (2)Eine deutsche Munitionskolonne bei einer Rast in den Vogesen ( - ) Der flandrische Kriegsschauplatz (141) Chronologische Uebersicht nach den deutschen Generalstabsmeldungen (141) [Karte]: Uebersichtskarte über das Kampfgebiet bei Ypern (147) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick in einen deutschen Schützengraben. Rechts Höhlen zur Ruhe während des Tages links Hohlräume zur Aufbewahrung von Ausrüstungsstücken (2)Sorgfältig ausgebauter deutscher Schützengraben mit Holzrosten am Boden, bombensicheren Unterständen und stufenartigen Auftritten für die Schützen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein belgisches Panzerautomobil auf der Fahrt zur Front (2)Ermüdete Turkos auf der Rast in den Dünen ( - ) Der zusammenfassende Bericht des Generals French über die Kämpfe bei Ypern. Ende April bis Mitte Mai 1915 (154) Ueber die Berechtigung der Verwendung von betäubenden Gasen im Kriege (156) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein englisches Militärautomobil hinter der Front (2)Eine englische Feldküche hinter der Front ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Infanterie auf dem Wege zur Front durch die Dünen Flanderns (2)Englische Infanterie auf dem Marsche in Flandern ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)General d. Inf. Freiherr v. Hügel (2)Ein von den Deutschen erobertes Gehöft bei Zonnebecke, das stark befestigt war ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Ruhepause in einem englischen Schützengraben (2)Deutsche Truppen beim Bau von Unterständen ( - ) Aus den Kämpfen bei Ypern von Ende April bis Mitte Mai 1915 (161) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blockhäuser der Kanadier im Polygonwald (2)Eigenartig angelegte englische Schützengräben in Flandern ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Engländer, die von den Deutschen bei Ypern gefangen genommen wurden (2)Ein bei Ypern von den Deutschen heruntergeschossenes englisches Flugzeug mit eingebautem Maschinengewehr ( - ) Die Kanadier bei Ypern (169) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aus einem deutschen Schützengraben in Flandern (2)Aus einem deutschen Schützengraben in Flandern. Die Schlafstätten gegen den Regen und Kälte geschützt ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine englische Reparaturwerkstätte unmittelbar hinter der Front (2)Deutsche Truppen in Laufgräben an der flandrischen Küste ( - ) Aus dem zerstörten Flandern (174) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine deutsche Küstenbatterie wird auf der Promenade von Ostende eingegraben (2)Deutsche Marine Infanterie an der flandrischen Küste ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf den Hafen in Dünkirchen (2)Französische Infanterie auf dem Marsch durch die Dünen Nordfrankreichs ( - ) Die Kämpfe an der flandrischen Küste (177) Die deutschen Luftangriffe auf die französischen Kanalfestungen (180) Die Beschießung von Dünkirchen (181) Die Engländer in Calais und Dünkirchen (184) Episoden (186) Hinrichtung eines englischen Deserteurs (186) Belgische Nonnen und deutsche Soldaten (187) Die Gefangennahme des französischen Fliegers Garros (188) Einquartierung (189) Die Verluste der Westmächte bis Anfang Mai 1915 (191) Fliegerangriffe auf deutsche Städte und die deutschen Vergeltungsmaßnahmen. Von Ende Januar bis Anfang Mai 1915 (193) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der württembergische Fliegeroffizier Leutnant Hellmut Hirth (2)Der bayrische Fliegeroffizier Hauptmann Stadelmeyer, die Oberleutnants König und Hailer und Leutnant Schlemmer, die für ihre kühnen Erkundungsflüge das eiserne Kreuz zweiter und erster Klasse erhielten ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Abwehrtruppen auf der Wacht gegen feindliche Flieger (2)Die gepanzerte Gondel eines französischen lenkbaren Luftschiffs ( - ) Die amtliche Kriegsberichterstattung der Franzosen und Engländer (201) Von den deutschen Fürsten und Heerführern (204) Personalien (204) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Generalquartiermeister Generalleutnant Freiherr v. Freytag-Loringhoven (2)Kronprinz Rupprecht von Bayern nimmt zu Lille am Geburtstag des deutschen Kaisers die Parade der bayrischen Truppen ab (27. Januar 1915) ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaiser Wilhelm besucht das Hauptquartier des deutschen Kronprinzen; ganz rechts Prinz Oskar von Preußen (2)Prinz Eitel Friedrich von Preußen auf dem westlichen Kriegsschauplatz ( - ) Vom Besuch deutscher Fürsten an der Westfront (208) [Abb.]: Kaiser Wilhelm II. im Felde ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)König Wilhelm II. von Württemberg beim Besuch der württembergischen Truppen an der Westfront (2)König Ludwig III. von Bayern beim Besuch der bayrischen Truppen an der Westfront ( - ) Des Kaisers Geburtstag am 27. Januar 1915 (210) Von den feindlichen Staatsoberhäuptern und Heerführern (214) Personalien (214) Besuche an der Front und Kundgebungen (215) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der französische Generalissimus Joffre begrüßt den englischen Feldmarschall Sir John French bei einem Besuch im Hauptquartier. Rechts im Vordergrund der englische General Wilson (2)Der französische Generalissimus Joffre überreicht dem Alpenjäger Lamadon die Militärmedaille. Links General Dubail, rechts im Hintergrund die Generale de Maud 'hui und Ponydraguin ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der französische Generalissimus Joffre überreicht einem französischen Soldaten gemeinsam mit zwölf Generälen die französische Militärmedaille (2)Ein belgischer General besichtigt in Paris eine belgische Radfahrer-Abteilung ( - ) Das Ende der Garibaldiner in Frankreich (218) Der Seekrieg bis zur Torpedierung der "Lusitania". Von Mitte Februar bis Mitte Mai 1915. Fortsetzung von Band IV, Seite 267 - 292 ([219]) In der Nordsee ([219]) Der Unterseeboot-Krieg und die Tätigkeit der deutschen Hochseeflotte ([219]) Schiffsverluste der Kriegsflotten (221) Die Seeschlacht zwischen britischen Geschwadern bei Bergen am 7./8. April 1915 (225) Deutsche Flugzeuge und Luftschiffe über der Nordsee und England (226) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Fliegeroffizier Leutnant Caspar, der als erster den Kanal überflog und Dover bombadierte (2)Die befestigte englische Küste bei Dover ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine deutsche Fliegerstation an der Westfront (2)Die äußerste Spitze Frankreichs, die England am nächsten liegt ( - ) Der Handelskrieg in der Nordsee (231) Von der Minengefahr (231) Die Maßnahmen der englischen, französischen und deutschen Regierungen (232) Die Kampfesweise im Handelskrieg (235) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Hochseegeschwader ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Engländer bei der Untersuchung einer explodierten Zeppelin-Bombe (2)Die Überreste des deutschen Luftschiffes L 4 bei Esbjerg (Dänemark) ( - ) Die Wirkung der Unterseeboot-Blockade (238) [Tabelle]: Die Verluste der feindlichen Handelsmarine an der englischen Küste in der Zeit vom 18. Februar bis 7. Mai 1915 (240) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Torpedoboot in Fahrt ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Eunard-Dampfer "Lusitania" (2)Ein Offizier am Periskop im Innern eines Unterseeboots ( - ) Die Versenkung der "Lusitania" (241) Die Behandlung der gefangenen Unterseeboots-Mannschaften in England (248) Episoden. Die Wachsamkeit der deutschen "U"-Boote (253) In der Ostsee (254) Im Mittelmeer (255) [2 Abb.]: (1)Linienschiffsleutnant Georg Ritter von Trapp (2)Der versenkte französische Panzerkreuzer "Léon Gambetta" ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Bucht von Cattaro (2)Ein französosches Unterseeboot ( - ) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte des Deutsch-Französischen Kriegsschauplatzes. ( - ) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte des Deutsch-Französischen Kriegsschauplatzes. ( - ) [Karte]: Karte des Österreichisch-Italienischen Grenzgebietes. ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
Uno de los habituales prejuicios a la hora de abordar el análisis del movimiento futurista, al igual que sucede con el constructivismo, es la consideración del contexto político en el que se desarrollaron ambas vanguardias. Sin embargo, y dejando a un lado un enfoque del arte con finalidad política de signo diverso, habría que insistir en el hecho de que posiblemente sean tanto el futurismo italiano como el constructivismo ruso, los movimientos que con mayor entusiasmo se manifestaron, en un sentido amplio, a favor de la modernidad. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, auténtico catalizador del grupo futurista y uno de los mejores interlocutores del arte de vanguardia, será el encargado de articular la ideología del culto a la máquina en correspondencia con la necesidad de una intervención social. Esta polémica antipasado explícita en los términos franceses del `Passeisme' frente al `Futurisme'- se presentaba como la única posibilidad de una auténtica renovación y como una superación de los límites espacio-temporales. Antonio Sant'Elia, con sus conocidas ciudades de diferentes niveles de circulación, profetizaba algunas realizaciones de la segunda mitad del siglo, con dibujos caracterizados por prescindir del ornamento y optar por contundentes volúmenes. Por otro lado, en el campo de la tipografía se llevaron a cabo experiencias de contraste visual, tipología o disposición en el formato que se adelantaban a propuestas posteriores, buscando crear en el lector un intencionado impacto visual asociado a experiencias sensitivas con frecuencia desconcertantes. La misma búsqueda de soluciones novedosas y experimentales era planteada de igual forma en pintura con artistas como Gino Severini o Giacomo Balla, con trabajos que sin duda influirían en el origen y formación de movimientos como el rayonismo ruso o el vorticismo inglés. Sin embargo, a pesar de la fuerza implícita en sus planteamientos, los primeros pintores futuristas eran aún deudores del puntillismo y del cubismo, pero también de las fotografías estroboscópicas de Muybridge y Marey. En el campo de la escultura, Umberto Boccioni, con su conocida obra Formas únicas de continuidad en el espacio pasaba a convertirse en uno de los autores más representativos del futurismo al intentar descomponer el movimiento en las tres dimensiones espaciales. Luigi Russolo, personaje carismático y polifacético, artista plástico y músico inventó el intonarumori o `máquina de ruidos' y redactó, en el año 1913, el manifiesto del ruidismo, un documento que hizo acompañar con la máquina diseñada por él. La propuesta futurista iba desde el vestido, la publicidad o la decoración a la casa y la ciudad, pero sin dejar de lado las artes escénicas o la música; la idea de simultaneidad posibilitaba la superación de la representación tradicional, la cual era sustituida por una propuesta integradora de gran diversidad de estímulos que producían la exaltación de los cinco sentidos. El ya mencionado Sant'Elia, fue, sin lugar a dudas, el principal paladín del futurismo arquitectónico, quizás, y en parte, por la contundencia de su manifiesto. Sin embargo, las propuestas arquitectónicas futuristas tuvieron, al igual que sucedió con el cubismo, muchas menos materializaciones concretas de las que hubiese cabido esperar, lo que no significa que las repercusiones de estas pocas producciones en el posterior panorama arquitectónico no fueran concluyentes. Tradicionalmente se habla de dos tipos diferentes de futurismo arquitectónico: el milanés -de tintes racionalistas- y el romano, éste último con un mayor interés por las artes plásticas. En 1917 Volt, seudónimo del conde Vicenzo Fani, redactaba otro manifiesto de arquitectura futurista, en el que se abogaba por las formas dinámicas, asimétricas y anticúbicas, pero también por cromáticas viviendas sin fachada, `transportables' y `mecánicas'. Por último, ya en la etapa final del movimiento, Marchi publicaba, en la revista Roma futurista, el 29 de febrero de 1920 el ¿Manifesto dell'architettura futurista dinamica, stato d'animo, drammatica¿; algo después, hacia 1934, y durante el que se ha dado en llamar el `segundo futurismo turinés', Marinetti, Mazzoni y Somenzi redactaron el ¿Manifiesto futurista de la arquitectura aérea¿ que sería publicado en el número tres de la revista Sant'Elia-. Junto a Sant'Elia, otro autor de un notable interés por sus novedosas propuestas fue el polifacético Fortunato Depero, quien en el año 1927 proyectó el Pabellón del Libro para la casa editorial Bestetti, Tuminelli y Treves, en la III Bienal de Artes Decorativas de Monza; se trataba de un diseño cúbico de arquitectura publicitaria que tenía un claro referente tipográfico -el continente pasaba a tener la forma del contenido- y que sin duda resultaría provocador rodeado de pabellones historicistas. Otro autor de un enorme interés fue Virgilio Marchi, artífice del primer diseño arquitectónico futurista construído, la rehabilitación de la Casa de Arte y Teatro de los Independientes (Roma, 1921), encargo de Anton Giulio Bragaglia, un conocido empresario y crítico de arte. Marchi propuso para la arquitectura la idea de `escultura habitable', con un fuerte protagonismo de los estímulos sensitivos, fruto de impresiones ópticas y sonoras, referidos al proyecto de metrópolis moderna. También es destacable el papel desempeñado por Sartoris, a pesar de que su adhesión al futurismo se vió matizada por una estética purista preocupada por la articulación de la planta -proyectos como Capilla-bar futurista (1927) o Notre Dame du Phare (1931)- lo que significa que su ruptura con la tradición no fue tan radical como en el caso de los futuristas ; One of the habitual prejudices at the moment of approaching the analysis of the futurist movement, as it happens with the constructivism, it is the consideration of the political context in which both vanguards were developed. Nevertheless, and leaving aside an approach of the art with political purpose of diverse sign, it would be necessary to insist on the fact that possibly they should be so much Italian futurism as the Russian constructivism, the movements that with greater enthusiasm was pronounced, on a wide sense, in favour of the modernity. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, authentic catalyst of the futurist group and one of the best speakers of the art of forefront, will be the manager of articulating the ideology of the worship to the machine in correspondence with the need of a social intervention. This polemic antipassed -explicit in the French terms of the 'Passeisme' opposite to ' Futurisme '- was appearing as the only possibility of an authentic renovation and like an overcoming of the space-temporary limits. Antonio Sant'Elia, with its well-known cities of different levels of traffic, was prophesying some accomplishments of the second half of the century, with drawings characterized for doing without the ornament and choosing for forceful volumes. On the other hand, in the field of the typography they led to themselves to end experiences of visual contrast, typology or disposition in the format that they were advancing to later offers, seeking to create in the reader a meaningful visual impact associated with sensitive experiences often disconcerting. The same search of novel and experimental solutions was raised of equal form in painting with artists as Gino Severini or Giacomo Balla, with works that undoubtedly they would influence the origin and formation of movements as the Russian rayonismo or the English vorticismo. Nevertheless, in spite of the implicit force of their expositions, the first futurist painters were still debit of the pointillism and of the cubism, but also of the stroboscopic photographies of Muybridge and Marey. In the field of the sculpture, Umberto Boccioni, with its well-known work unique Forms of continuity in the space was happening to be converted into one of the most representative authors of the futurism on having tried to separate into its elements the movement in all three spatial dimensions. Luigi Russolo, charismatic and versatile personage, plastic and musical artist invented the intonarumori or 'machine of noises ' and wrote, in the year 1913, the manifest of the ruidismo, a document that he made accompany on the machine designed by him. The futurist proposal went from the dress, the publicity or the decoration to the house and the city, but without leaving of side the scenic arts or the music; the idea of simultaneity was making possible the overcoming of the traditional representation, which was replaced with an of integration offer of great diversity of stimuli that were producing the exaltation of all five senses. Already mentioned Sant'Elia, it was, no doubt, the principal paladin of the architectural futurism, probably, and partly, by the forcefulness of his manifest. Nevertheless, the architectural futurist offers had, as it happened with the cubism, great fewer concrete materializations from which it had been necessary to expect, which does not mean that the repercussions of these few productions in the later architectural panorama were not conclusive. Traditionally one speaks about two different types of architectural futurism: The Milanese -of racionalist dyes- and the Roman, this one last one with a greater interest by the plastic arts. In 1917 Volt, pseudonym of the count Vicenzo Fani, he was writing another manifest of futurist architecture, in which one was pleading for the dynamical, asymmetric and anticubic forms, but also for chromatic housings without front, 'transportable' and 'mechanical'. Finally, already in the final stage of the movement, Marchi was publishing, in the magazine futurist Rome, on February 29, 1920 " futurist dynamical Manifesto dell'architettura, stato d'animo, drammatica "; a little later, about 1934, and during that it has been given in to call ' the second futurism turinés ', Marinetti, Mazzoni and Somenzi wrote " futurist Manifest of the air architecture " - that would be published in the number three of the magazine Sant'Elia-. Together with Sant'Elia, another author of a notable interest for his novel offers was the versatile Fortunato Depero, who in the year 1927 projected the Pavilion of the Book for the publishing house Bestetti, Tuminelli and Treves, in the Biennial III of Monza's decorative Arts; it was a question of a cubic design of advertising architecture that it had a clear typographical modal -the continent was happening to have the form of the content- and that undoubtedly would turn out to be provocative surrounded from historicist pavilions. Another author of an enormous interest was Virgilio Marchi, maker of the first architectural design futurist realized, the rehabilitation of the House of Art and Theatre of the Independent ones (Rome, 1921), I entrust of Anton Giulio Bragaglia, an acquaintance businessman and critic of art. Marchi proposed for the architecture the idea of ' inhabitable sculpture ', with a strong protagonism of the sensitive stimuli, fruit of optical and sonorous impressions, recounted to the project of metropolises modern. Also it is prominent the role recovered by Sartoris, in spite of the fact that his adhesion to the futurism was seen tinted by a purist aesthetics worried by the joint of the plant - projects as futurist Chapel-bar (1927) or Notre Dame du Phare (1931) - what means that its rupture with the tradition was not as radical as in the case of the futurist ones.
acts. The research is based on relevant data from the field of environmental protection in four language versions of the EU acquis: Bulgarian, Greek, Polish and English. The aims of the research are the following: • to characterize a linguistic area of high social prestige (triggered by extralinguistic factors and its scientific context valued by the contemporary world), indicative of the advancement of civilization; • to study in a comparative plan the terminology coined for the basic notions (concepts) of the selected thematic field (i.e. environmental protection); • to present in a systematic way diverse data concerning a particular current topic in order to raise awareness about the process of terminology development and international exchange of terminology in the relevant field; • to draw general theoretical conclusions on trends of development in contemporary European languages for specific purposes (hereinafter LSP) based on cited linguistic terminology data. One of the secondary goals of this monograph is to raise awareness of scientific achievements originating in "smaller" nations, which may remain unnoticed in the European, let alone wider, fora. To achieve the research goals set, the author deemed it necessary to address thematic fields such as: the theory of terminology, lexicography, law, European integration, environmental protection etc., thus rendering the present study interdisciplinary. However, the primary focus of the study is on the linguistic analysis, since its theoretical and methodological apparatuses are grounded in the well-established theses of lexicography, theory of terminology, comparative and applied linguistics, as well as translation studies. The objectives of the monograph (dependent on the defined goals), which determined the methodological choices made, are as follows: to study the extralinguistic context and EU legal sources; to choose a representative thematic field; to assemble a representative database of relevant specialized notions (concepts) and analyse their term-formation in a comparative plan; to select an appropriate research method linked to the design of an algorithm for language comparison, excerption and a comparative analysis of terminological material. Our research on the European Acquis terminology has been determined by the wide linguistic and extralinguistic context, referring to: • the essence and characteristics of LSP; the specific features of the language of law (as an LSP and the existing dichotomic perception of it as the language of law and the language of lawyers; • the EU language of law as a subtype of legal language and thus LSP; • the essence and characteristics of terminology as the core of a LSP, especially the legal terminology; • the internationalization and Europeanization of terminology as developmental trends of LSPs. The enumerated linguistic issues are directly connected to extralinguistic factors, such as: • harmonization of the EU law; EU multilingualism; • European integration and adoption of the EU law by the accession countries; • translation (overt and covert) of the European Union Acquis; • the role of subjective factors (institutional as well as human, e.g. translators, experts, ministries, NGOs etc.) in the process of creating the European Union terminology. The first chapter of the monograph introduces a theoretical model of the research composed of basic theses which can be generalized as follows: • The European Union law is formulated in a LSP. • Terminology is the core of each LSP, including the EU legal language. • A term is a language unit which is defined in a specialized text and is an element of a LSP. A term signifies a specialized notion, has a restricted (professional) scope of use; it is systemic, conventional, context-independent , and expressively- neutral. • A term is recognized as belonging to the EU legal language if it is defined (has a legal definition) in an EU legal act. • In all language versions of the European Union law, identical and equivalent terms are used, defined in the EU legal acts by means of identical legal definitions. • The definitiveness of a term is used as a strict criterion to distinguish between terms and non-terms. • An identical legal definition worded in the different linguistic versions of the harmonized EU law justifies comparability of the terms between languages. • Undertaking an analysis of two Slavonic languages – Bulgarian and Polish, and two non- Slavonic ones, belonging to different language groups (and therefore, bound by diverse normative traditions): Greek and English, makes it possible to study processes of terminological internationalization. Internationalization is thus interpreted as the formation of a common pool of proportionate in form and semantics language units, presented in at least three languages, at least two of which belonging to different language groups. • The EU environmental law is a topical and extremely dynamic field of interdisciplinary and supranational nature, which makes it possible to claim that its terminology is representative of the state and development of the EU terminology as a whole. • The contents of the term 'environment' encompasses such elements as: human being, flora and fauna, soil, water, air, climate, and other. • LSPs are indicative as to the civilisational stage of development of a social community, hence, studying the EU LSP can contribute to the study of certain aspects of the European civilization. The second chapter of the monograph is devoted to the analysis proper of the terminological data, which is preceded by the presentation of the methodological choices made. The following basic concepts have been thoroughly analysed: environment , human , animals , plants , water , air , land /soil , impact (on the environment). Тhe chapter also discusses the work procedures for excerpting terminological material. The methods for comparative analysis used, based on standard comparative algorithm are presented as follows: determining the comparability of objects based on assumed tertium comparationis (the criterion of comparability); confirming similarities and differences of the studied objects; outlining and defining common features, tracing trends of further development of the phenomena. Detailed comparative procedures allowing to recognize similarities and differences between the terms used to signify the specialised notions in the four languages, include the following parameters: source of a term, outer form of a term, and inner form of a term. Each of the parameters has been thoroughly discussed. The outcomes of particular concepts analyses were presented in a form of autonomic and uniformly-structured parts in order to facilitate their individual interpretation. The descriptive way of presenting the results was preferred to a strictly formalized one in order to make the text easier to read; besides, data of different kind and order cannot be presented in a formalized way. It is also believed that a formalized approach would have left out some crucial aspects of the terminological naming process, for instance the component of evaluation in some of the terminological units. As many as 800 terminological units in the four studied languages were included in the analysis (presented in the order corresponding to their "seniority" as official languages of the European Union: English, Greek, Polish, and Bulgarian). All analysed units are quoted along with their Celex numbers that indicate the relevant legislative act of the EU from which they are excerpted. The most important conclusions of the monograph are the following: • (The source of a term parameter): the overwhelming majority of terms in each of the languages have their origin in the native tongue. English terms are most often semantic neologisms, whereas in the other languages being terminologically secondary, they are translated borrowings (calques), among which the most numerous are the phraseological calques. Analogous terminological units that occur in all four languages must be deemed Europeisms or internationalisms (in a wider sense) on the grounds of semantic and/or formal convergence in the four languages, of which three are not genetically connected. Basic concepts from the field of environmental protection, which are elementary (universal) notions co-creating crucial fragments of their respective linguistic world-images, are signified by old native words. On a regular basis there is no formal (material) convergence in the studied languages – except for Bulgarian and Polish. The European legislator fixes old words (e.g. river, air, animal etc.) as terms and assigns new terminological meanings to them which then become common (standardized) for each and every language version of the harmonized European Union law. What demands close attention is a relatively small share of material internationalisms, which can be explained by the aptitude of nominators to preserve the national character of terms in the context of European multilingualism. This tendency is most evident in Greek terminology. • (The outer form of a term parameter) A dominant structural type among the studied terms in all four languages are the two-component terms consisting of a head-noun and a subordinate component/member which is an adjective in Greek, Polish and Bulgarian, and a noun used attributively in English (N+N structures) The noticeable categorical monotony of the terminology is another feature thereof – substantive units are commonly recognized as the most proper form of a term. • The conclusion that can be drawn as regards the term inner form is that essential semantic features present in a meaning (definition) of a term usually serve as a foundation of the terminological naming process. The analysis shows that predominantly there is a dependence of form components on contents components of a given term. In cases of loan translations/ calques such a dependency is established both in the primary English term and in its calques in the other languages. The comparative analysis of this parameter shows the relation of the meaningful elements of the terms (words and morphemes) between the four languages, as well as their relation to a given semantic feature of concept. This is yet another proof for the convergence of terminologies. One of the effects of convergence is the unquestionable enhancement of comprehension of stakeholders of LSPs, lacking fluency in the target foreign langauge. • Some conclusions were also reached as to similarities and differences according to language type: synthetic vs. analytic; Balkan vs. non-Balkan; using Latin script vs. using other writing system (alphabet). A crucial general conclusion is related to the scale of convergence processes taking place in contemporary specialized languages of integrated Europe. What is established is the inter-language iso-semanticity, very similar to iso-semanticity occurring among the Balkan languages, that is an independent material rendering in each language provided there are identical semantic features, which may be referred to Stanisław Gajda's conclusion concerning the genesis of European language league (GAJDA, 2008). In conclusion, the research addresses the area of intensified convergence processes leading to inter-language iso-semanticity, which stems not so much from language interference as from the impact of English (as a language of high social and communicative prestige in the contemporary world) on the remaining languages included in the study. The original author's contributions can be summed up as follows: • synthesis and systematization of knowledge stemming from different fields yet relating to the selected topic; • contrastive analysis of four languages in a rare (unique) configuration; • practical and applied aspect of the results obtained from the analysis of a large representative corpus of terms from the EU legal field of environmental protection • (the corpus's) linguistic and historical value; should it happen that the EU's LSP becomes yet another rejected "newspeak", the author has nevertheless been able to study the potential of the linguistic teams and language systems to create specialized languages (language subsystems) with the aim to attain particular goals and meet civilization needs at a particular historical moment.
Dear readers,We offer you a new English issue of Envigogika which thematically focuses on case studies of regional sustainable development where social actors play specific roles in communication processes – it documents both the promotion of positive changes at regional level and/or also provide evidence to illuminate seemingly unresolvable conflicts. The concept of social learning from an educational point of view frames this thematic edition – as with any other learning process, stakeholder dialogue has a transformative aspect, the opportunity to confront and possibly change opinions and act on the basis of agreed emergent standpoints. In particular, this collection of case studies specifically tries to illuminate role of science and education in regional development, and attempts to introduce methods of analysis of diverse social relationships as well as practical ways of facilitation of communication processes.In this issue of Envigogika two types of case studies are presented – regional development and regional conflicts. Progress in both is highly dependent on the involvement of actors who shape discussions and consequently frame the issue. Analysis of social aspects is hence highly desirable and first steps undertaken here show some interesting results.The first area of interest (development issues) is a traditional focus of Actor Analysis (AA) and this method is widely used abroad in the envisioning stage and helps to facilitate negotiation processes. In the Czech context however, deliberation processes take place rather spontaneously and without a proper analytical stage, and reflections on negotiations in specific cases illustrates exactly this. A hypothesis about the need for continuous cultivation of democratic conditions in the Czech Republic, (with help of sound scientific analytical methods) specifically concerning deliberation processes, was posed as a result of a collaborative research process. This hypothesis was explored in different ways by our invited authors.To provide a brief overview of the issue:Simon Burandt, Fabienne Gralla and Beatrice John in their article Actor Analysis in Case Studies for (regional) Sustainable Development introduce the Actor Analysis analytical tool used to reflect regional (sustainable) development challenges throughout several articles in this issue. This method can be used with the aim not only of studying social capital, but also to have an impact on decision making and community choices. Its role in describing social players and their interactions, to assist in understanding regional development processes and potential conflicts, and to provide information for strategy development is demonstrated through a specific case (the Ore Mountains). The steps of an actor analysis described in the article can be read as guideline for implementing this analysis and an analytical perspective on this process is provided by this article.An outstanding Czech sustainability oriented local economy project is presented in an article by Jan Labohý, Yvonna Gaillyová and Radim Machů: A sustainability assessment of the Hostětín cider house project. The authors assess the sustainability of the project in relation to different kinds of capital using complex indicators that uncover different aspects of the production process and its local cultural characteristics; moreover, effects to the local economy are measured using the local multiplier effect indicator. From this assessment it is clear that the cider house project meets the primary goals of regional sustainable development in a long term perspective.Another – opposite, negative – case is described by Jan Skalík in the analyses the Debate about the Šumava National Park in the Czech Chamber of Deputies. The article demonstrates persisting conflict and its roots with help of the text analysis method applied to the transcripts of parliamentary debates about National Park Šumava (ŠNP) in the Chamber of Deputies between 1990 and 2013. The relationship between politicians and local people within decision-making process, which is depicted as a consequence of this conflict, is then discussed. Interesting conclusions concern the plurality of dialogue and roles of the actors within it; the influence of scientists on the solutions; and the inflammatory and emotional characteristics of recent debate.As a contrast, which serves as a counterargument to show the power of civic society, Vendula Zahumenská refers to a case in Hradec Králové where environmentalists and local developers have been in conflict concerning the development and commercial use of the Na Plachtě natural monument. This case study shows the role of public participation in environmental protection and describes the specific opportunities for influencing environmental decision-making.But there are cases in CR where declared economic interests are so strong that they eliminate dialogue with civic society – for example, as a result of brown coal mining and its associated industrial development, 106 towns and villages were obliterated in North Bohemia and its population was resettled to newly built prefabricated housing estates. A Case study analysing biographic interviews with the displaced people of Tuchomyšl is presented by Ivana Hermová. The author shows that the former Tuchomyšlers continue to identify strongly with the social space of the obliterated village, and discovers how they reflect on their forced eviction 35 years after the physical destruction of the village.That these conclusions concerning the involvement of social actors might be reflected (and used) in the practice of school education, is described by Alois Hynek, Břetislav Svozil, Jakub Trojan and Jan Trávníček. In a reflection on the Deblínsko landscape project these authors refer to the roles of stakeholders including a university, primary school and kindergarten, and also owners, users, decision-makers, shareholders and stakeholders within public administration. The project is driven by Masaryk University which applies sustainability/security concepts in practice while closely relating these activities with research and teaching. This experience shows that social learning processes can start early among children/pupils/students.A brief analytical overview of cases in this special issue, as well as an overview of information and experiences from a database of case studies from different regions of the Czech Republic and from abroad (compiled by authors beyond the scope of this issue), is provided in an article Potential for social learning in sustainable regional development: analysis of stakeholder interaction … by Jana Dlouhá and Martin Zahradník. The conditions for the success or failure of environmental or sustainable development strategies from a social point of view have been analysed here with a focus on the roles of actors in a dialogue about regional sustainability issues within cooperative or conflict situations and concern for the communication processes among actors, scientists included. As a result of this analysis, interesting hypotheses were formulated, related to the role of future visioning as a ground for discussion, communication frameworks which involve all concerned actors, and the (non)existence of facilitation practices. These findings highlight the importance of reflecting on development issues' social aspects to help understand and promote democratic decision making processes at regional level.The case studies which follow the research section of the issue take the opportunity to provide a colourful depiction of local sustainable development conditions. The Description of old industrial regions in Europe and potential for their transformation is described by Joern Harfst and David Osebik who stress social learning as an important transformative factor. In particular the involvement of research partners may support joint learning effects and knowledge transfer between all actors. Establishment of trusting working relationships may be crucial to overcome certain reservations on all sides before innovative approaches can be pursued successfully.The Vulkanland case study case written by Michael Ober traces the first glimpses of a sustainable development vision for a border region with little hope for economic prosperity to the successful development of a new identity which has reinforced local peoples' self-confidence. The initiators of the project first imagined a future built on different standards than the past and consequently managed to substantially transform this region within a period of 15 years. The 'Steirisches Vulkanland' region now includes 79 municipalities which together promote local, green, self-sustaining businesses and continue to be ambitious about their future visions including achieving energy independence.As part of the theme illustrated in this Special issue and mentioned also within the analysis of the cases is a text Discovery of a supposed extinct settlement species made at Königsmühle in the Ore Mountains (published previously in Envigogika 9/1 last year but worth republishing in English in the context of this thematic issue). Author Petr Mikšíček pays attention to footprints left in the landscape by bygone generations of inhabitants (and also to present-day footprints left by our generation) and struggles to retain this memory for future generations. Clashes with the interests of some of the actors (land owners in this case) are necessary to preserve the footprints that are on the brink of being wiped out.A brief introduction to the new publication Analysis and support for participatory decision-making processes aimed at regional sustainable development strategies through the use of actor analysis methodology which is available fully online here is presented in the Information section of the Issue.From this overview, some general conclusions can be derived:Conflict situations described in this issue emerged when traditional concepts were enforced by strong actors (without joint envisioning and planning with the others); these circumstances usually do not allow for balanced discussions about the future. However the important role of minor actors such as scientists was also revealed. Experiences with their involvement provided a chance to highlight the role of scientists in policy-making.Based on the findings of this and other related research, the role of scientists can be framed not only as providers of the (rather technical) expertise to reach the goals that were set within the environment or SD oriented decision-making, but also as entering policy negotiations providing an insight into the processes they undergo. If invited at an early stage of decision-making, they can have a considerable impact on its results (then their involvement can be described as an action research). This finding might be used in planning of similar practical and scientific projects.As we can see, several interesting ideas resulted from a comparative meta-analysis of the case studies and were outlined in this issue of Envigogika. In general, it is a social point of view that provides an insight into the nature of the examples presented from the Czech Republic and the good practices from abroad. A scientific method of description is used here to reflect policy mechanisms as well as to indicate a way forward for integrating decision making practice into very sensitive, local or regional sustainability contexts. We sincerely hope that this will precipitate a broad process of public dialogue among experts as well as other actors – beyond the realm of academic discussions only, but nevertheless with substantial academic input.We wish you an enjoyable read and a pleasant and relaxing summer!On behalf of the Envigogika editorial teamJana and Jiří DlouhýAcknowledgementResearch in several articles of this issue was supported by the following projects: Interdisciplinary network of cooperation for policy development in the field of sustainable development (Mezioborová síť spolupráce pro policy development v oblasti udržitelného rozvoje – MOSUR, 2011‑2014) CZ.1.07_2.4.00_17.0130 from the OPVK program of Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports; and TD020120 (TAČR), and 14/36005S (GAČR).
Die Würzburger Stadtgemeinde wurde in den Jahren von 1921-1933 sowie von 1946-1948 von Oberbürgermeister Dr. Hans Löffler geleitet. Wenngleich Löffler auch von zentraler Bedeutung für die Geschichte Würzburgs im 20. Jahrhundert war, wurde er dennoch von der geschichtlichen Wissenschaft bislang nicht vertieft berücksichtigt, weil das öffentliche Archivmaterial viel zu knapp ist und seine "Tagebücher" als verschollen galten. Dem Verfasser der vorliegenden Studie gelang es, den Verbleib dieser Tagebücher zu eruieren. Die Politik Hans Löfflers fundierte wie sich alsbald ergab unter anderem auf drei durchgängigen Persönlichkeitsstrukturen und Verhaltensmustern: Der Bürgerlichkeit, dem Liberalismus und der Religiosität. Keines dieser drei Merkmale lässt sich aus den öffentlichen Archivbeständen charakterisieren. Deswegen kam der Auswertung von Hans Löfflers Chronik eine besondere Bedeutung zu. Die spezifischen Schwierigkeiten der "(auto-)biografischen Illusion" (Pierre Bourdieu) waren gleichwohl zu berücksichtigen. Deshalb wurde vom Verfasser als Arbeitshypothese der "Biographisch-Kritische Methodenpluralismus" eingeführt. Aus Löfflers Egodokumenten ergaben sich zugleich auch aussagekräftige Datenquellen, nämlich die Entwicklung seines Einkommens in funktionaler Abhängigkeit zum Preisindex, des weiteren der quantitative Quellenverlauf, der einerseits interessante Hinweise darauf liefert, wann Löffler schreibt und in welchem Umfang - und wann die Arbeit an seiner Chronik ruht. Zugleich liefert der quantitative Quellenverlauf auch überaus interessante Erkenntnisse zur Relation von Erzählzeitpunkt und erzählter Zeit. Hans Löffler, dessen Familie aus dem Würzburgischen Amtsstädtchen Karlsstadt stammte, vollzog mit dem für die untere Mittelschicht typischen Ehrgeiz eine Juristenkarriere, die als solche typisch für das späte 19. Jahrhundert war. Der Umzug seiner Familie nach Würzburg, der Beitritt zum traditions- und einflussreichen Corps Bavaria und schließlich auch die Eheschließung mit einer Tochter aus der ebenso alten und wie wohlhabenden Würzburger Kaufmannsfamilie Held förderten den sozialen Aufstieg. Die politische Gesinnung Hans Löfflers lässt sich erst im Verlauf des Ersten Weltkriegs sowie während der anschließenden Doppelrevolution anhand des Quellenmaterials schärfer zeichnen. Dessen ungeachtet zeigte sich schon in frühen Jahren, hart an der Grenze zum 20. Jahrhundert, die Verehrung Löfflers für den Reichsgründer Otto von Bismarck und die Verachtung für Kaiser Wilhelm II. Schlussendlich vollzog Hans Löffler einen nahezu mühelosen Übergang von der Monarchie zur parlamentarischen Demokratie. Löffler schloss sich der Deutschen Demokratischen Partei (DDP), der Partei Max Webers, Thomas Manns und Albert Einsteins an. Nachdem sein Vorgänger Andreas Grieser in die Berliner Ministerialbürokratie gerufen worden war, wurde Hans Löffler 1921 ohne Gegenstimme vom Stadtrat zu dessen Nachfolger bestimmt. Während im Vergleichszeitraum insgesamt 11 Reichskanzler regierten, blieb Hans Löffler bis zu seiner Entlassung durch die Nationalsozialisten Oberbürgermeister von Würzburg. Seine restriktive Finanzpolitik, die als seine bedeutendste Leistung in Zeiten weltweiter wirtschaftlicher Rezession gelten muss, ermöglichte zugleich stadtpolitische Projekte, die Würzburg bis heute prägen. Dazu zählen neben der Fertigstellung der Universitätsklinik Luitpoldkrankenhaus die Etablierung des Mozartfests, die Eingemeindung der Stadt Heidingsfeld oder auch der Beginn der Besiedelung der heutigen Sieboldshöhe. Nachdem auch in Würzburg die Nationalsozialisten im Verlauf der 1920er Jahre begonnen hatten gegen den jüdischen Teil der Bevölkerung zu hetzen, stellt sich Hans Löffler unerschrocken vor seine Mitbürger und wurde von den Nationalsozialisten deshalb pejorativ als "Judenbürgermeister" bezeichnet. Bei der Reichspräsidentenwahl 1932 kam es auch in Würzburg zu einem letzten Aufbäumen bürgerlicher Kräfte im Rahmen einer sogenannten "Hindenburgfront". Die Existenz dieser Hindenburgfront in Würzburg wurde in der vorliegenden Studie erstmals aufgezeigt. Als 1933 auch im katholischen Würzburg die Nationalsozialisten die Macht übernahmen, musste Dr. Hans Löffler auf sein Oberbürgermeisteramt verzichten, kaufte sich ein kleines Anwesen am Chiemsee und ging in die Innere Emigration. Unmittelbarer Auslöser dieses Umzugs war der Umstand, dass Löffler wiederholt hinterbracht wurde, Würzburger Bürger, die bei der Stadtverwaltung mit ihrem Anliegen nicht durchdringen konnten, hätten sich mit Bemerkungen beschwert, zu Löfflers Zeiten sei alles besser gewesen. Diese Konfliktlage wurde Löffler zu gefährlich. Während der gesamten nationalsozialistischen Zeit war Löffler in Chieming und besuchte nur ab und an Würzburg. Löffler pflegte in Chieming den Gartenbau und las unter anderem Dissidenten-Literatur. Nach dem Einmarsch der US Army bekannte Löffler in schonungsloser Offenheit, dass er die in den Konzentrationslagern verübten Verbrechen all die Jahre geahnt habe. Zugleich verspürte Dr. Hans Löffler den Wunsch, wieder Oberbürger-meister des zu 90 % zerstörten Würzburgs zu werden, scheute sich aber, sich selbst ins Gespräch zu bringen. Nachdem sich in Bayern ein erheblicher Teil der Liberalen aus der Zeit vor 1933 der neu gegründeten CSU angeschlossen hatten, wurde Löffler für diese neue Partei von 1946-1948 nochmals Oberbürgermeister von Würzburg. Über seine Rolle bei der Gründung der CSU und innerhalb der CSU gibt es nicht den geringsten Hinweis. 1948 schied Löffler aus Altersgründen aus dem Amt und verbrachte die verbleibenden Jahre bis zu seinem Tod 1955 in seinem Haus an der Keesburgstraße. Am Ende stand die Erkenntnis, dass nur allzu wenige die Ehre für sich in Anspruch nehmen konnten, sich während des schwärzesten Kapitels der deutschen Geschichte wie Hans Löffler verhalten zu haben. Und in der Tat: Matthias Matussek hat nach dem Tod von Joachim Fest über diesen geschrieben, was auch bei Hans Löffler festzustellen ist: "… das Gerade enthält immer einen stillen Vorwurf." Insofern ist Löfflers Lebensgang Anklage und Aufforderung gleichermaßen. Dass Löffler entschieden bürgerlich und zugleich ein linksliberaler Corpsstudent war, entspricht nicht jedermanns Geschichtsbild – aber der Lebenswirklichkeit. Hans Löffler dekliniert auf seine Weise einen jener Lebenswege, denen zufolge Leistung (nicht Abstammung) den sozialen Aufstieg innerhalb der "open society" ermöglicht. Löffler selbst sprach von der "Ethik des Bürgertums". Thomas Nipperdey hatte für das ausgehende lange 19. Jahrhundert festgestellt, die Zukunft sei belastet und umschattet, wie immer verhängt, letztlich aber offen gewesen. Die Person Hans Löfflers zeigt gerade für diese Epoche, dass verbreitete nationalistische oder antisemitische Anfechtungen nicht notwendigerweise und unausweichlich im Wahnsinn des Nationalsozialismus hätten enden müssen. Und schließlich: Karl Popper hatte postuliert, dass es dem kritischen Ra-tionalismus entsprechend zwingendes Merkmal einer wissenschaftlichen Aussage ist, dass diese sich dem Grunde nach falsifizieren lässt. Dementsprechend wäre es das ungünstigste, was Hans Löffler zuteilwerden könnte, wenn sein Wirken weiterhin im Schatten wissenschaftlicher Aus-einandersetzung bliebe. Eine Verifizierung, aber auch eine Falsifikation der vorliegenden Studie freilich wäre genau das, was Dr. Hans Löffler - einer Zentralfigur der Würzburger Zeitgeschichte - zweifellos zustünde. Aus den nun erstmals erschlossenen Quellenbeständen wurde diagnostiziert, dass Löffler für sein eigenes Leben verlässliche Konstanten hatte und gerade dadurch selbst zu einer verlässlichen Konstanten für die Stadtgemeinde Würzburg wurde. In diesem Sinne will die vorliegende Untersuchung die so dringend angezeigte Löffler-Forschung weder abschließen noch determinieren, sondern den notwendigen Anfang einer vertieften kommunalgeschichtlichen Auseinandersetzung mit einem bedeutenden deutschen Oberbürgermeister bilden - auf dass sich besser noch erhellt wie es denn eigentlich gewesen. ; The borough of Wuerzburg was run by the Mayor Dr. Hans Löffler during the years from 1921-1933 as well as from 1946-1948. Although he was also of central importance for the history of Wuerzburg in the 20th century he has nevertheless not been considered by history yet as the public archive material is far too scarce and his "diaries" were thought to have been lost. The author of the present study succeeded in finding the whereabout of these diaries. It soon became evident that Hans Löffler's policy, inter alia, was based on three general personality structures and behaviour patterns: the bourgeois way of life, liberalism and religiousity. None of these three features can be profoundly characterised through the public archive holdings. The analysis of Hans Löffler's chronicle was therefore of particular importance. The particular difficulties of the "(au-to-)biographical illusion" (Pierre Bourdieu) had to be taken into conside-ration conscientiously. Hence, the "biographical critical pluralism of methods" was introduced by the author as a working hypothesis. At the same time, significant data sources arose from Löffler's ego documents, namely the development of his income in functional dependence on the price index, furthermore the quantitative course of sources as well as finally the relationship between the time of the narration and the narrated time being very meaningful for the historical-critical hermeneutics of sources. Hans Löffler, whose family came from the small district town of Karlstadt near Wuerzburg, pursued a legal career with middle-class cha-racteristic ambition which was as such typical for the late 19th century. The relocation of his family to Wuerzburg, the accession to the influential Corps Bavaria and eventually also the marriage with a daughter from the equally old as well as wealthy merchant family Held were conducive to his social advancement. Hans Löffler's political conviction cannot be submitted to a more profound observation until in the course of the First World War as well as the subsequent double revolution. Nevertheless, Löffler's admiration for the founder of the German Reich Otto von Bismarck and his contempt for Emperor Wilhelm II already appeared in his early years, very close to the turn of the 20th century. At the end, Hans Löffler made a virtually effortless transition from monarchy to par-liamentary democracy. Löffler joined the German Democratic Party (DDP), the party of Max Weber, Thomas Mann and Albert Einstein. In 1921, after his predecessor Andreas Grieser had been assigned to the Berlin ministerial bureaucracy, Hans Löffler was appointed his successor by the city council without a dissenting vote. While a total of 11 Reich Chancellors governed the country during the reference period, Hans Löffler remained Mayor of Wuerzburg until his dismissal by the National Socialists. His restrictive financial policy, which has to be considered his major achievement in times of worldwide economic recession, at the same time paved the way for municipal projects which shape the character of Wuerzburg to this day. These include among the completion of the University Hospital Luitpoldkrankenhaus the establishment of the Mozart festivals, the incorporation of the town of Heidingsfeld or also the beginning of the settlement of the present day Sieboldshöhe. When the National Socialists also began to stir up hatred against the Jewish part of the population in Wuerzburg in the course of the 1920s Hans Löffler boldly defended his fellow citizens and was therefore called "Mayor of the Jews" by the National Socialists. At the Reich presidential election in 1932 there was also a last rise up of bourgeois forces in Wuerzburg within the framework of a socalled "Hindenburgfront". The existence of this Hindenburgfront in Wuerz-burg has been proven for the first time in the present study. When the National Socialists also took over Catholic Wuerzburg in 1933, Dr. Hans Löffler had to resign as a Mayor, bought a small estate at the Chiemsee and went into inward emigration. The immediate cause of his relocation was that Löffler was informed several times that Wuerzburg citizens who were not able to succeed with their concern at the municipal administration were said to have complained with the remark that everything had been better in Löffler's days. This conflict situation became too dangerous to Löffler. During the whole National Socialist area Löffler was in Chieming and only visited Wuerzburg now and then. Löffler focused on horticulture and among others read dissident literature. After the march-in of the US Army Löffler confessed in relentless openness that he had anticipated the crimes committed in the concentra-tion camps all those years. At the same time, Dr. Hans Löffler had the desire to become mayor of Wuerzburg, which was destroyed up to 90 % , but was reluctant to become a topic of conversation. After a considerable part of the liberals in Bavaria had joined the newly founded CSU, Löffler became Mayor of Wuerzburg for this new party again from 1946 to 1948. There is not the slightest reference to his role in the foundation of the CSU and within the CSU. In 1948, Löffler retired for reasons of age and spent his remaining days until his death in 1955 at his residence at Keesburgstraße. At the end, there was the painful truth that just a few could claim the honor of having been an Hans Löffler during the darkest chapter of German history. And indeed: Matthias Matussek has written about Joachim Fest after his death what must also be stated about Hans Löffler: "… the straight always contains a silent reproach." Löffler's path of life is thus an accusation and a request at the same time. That Löffler was a decidedly bourgeois, left-wing liberal Corps student may not be in accordance with everyone's historical perception, but with life's reality. Hans Löffler points out those paths of life according to which achievement (not descent) allow social advancement within the "open society" in his own way. This is in Löffler´s own words the "ethics of bourgeoisie". With regard to the long late 19th century, Thomas Nipperdey has pointed out that the future had been strained and shadowed, overcast as always, but ultimately open. Concerning this epoch, the person of Hans Löffler particularly shows that nationalist or anti-Semitic animosities needn't have led to the madness of National Socialism necessarily and inevitably. And ultimately: Karl Popper had postulated that, in accordance with critical rationalism, it is a mandatory attribute of a scientific statement, that it can basically be falsified. Consequently, it would be the worst that could happen to Hans Löffler if his work remained in the shadow of scientific consideration. A verification, but all the same a falsification of this study would of course be just what Dr. Hans Löffler – a central figure of Wuerzburg's contemporary history – should be entitled to without doubt. From the source material which was revealed for the first time it was diagnosed that Löffler had reliable constants for his own life and that this is exactly what made him a reliable constant for the borough of Wuerzburg. With this in mind, the present study neither wants to conclude nor determine the urgently needed Löffler research but instead be the beginning of a profound communal historical debate on a great German Mayor – so that more light is shed on what actually happened.
Biogaasi tootmise populariseerimine rohelise majanduse kontekstis suureneb nii Eestis kui ka teistes riikides iga aastaga ja sellest tulenevalt on üha enam hakatud Eesti tasandil rääkima biogaasi tootmisest kui uuest alternatiivsest võimalusest energia tootmisel. Eestis on biogaasi tootmise käigus saadud soojus- ja elektrienergia osakaal viimastel aastatel oluliselt kasvanud, vaatamata riigipoolsetele madalatele dotatsioonidele, mis pärsivad tegelikult selle valdkonnaga tegelema hakkamist. Kui võrrelda välisriikide näidetel Eestis makstavaid toetusi taastuvenergia kasutamiseks, siis on täiesti mõistetav, miks Eestis rajatud biogaasijaamade arv on väga väike. Biogaasi tootmise valdkonnas on Eestis läbi viidud mitmeid väga põhjalikke uuringuid, mis kõik annavad kinnitust biogaasist toodetava energia potentsiaalile just põllumajandusettevõttes tekkivatest jääkidest, mida Eesti põllumajanduses tekib üldjuhul piisavas koguses. Sellele vaatamata leidub siiski veel vähe ettevõtteid, kes toodaksid biogaasi ja suudaksid biogaasist toodetud energiaga konkureerida ka energiaturul. Selleks, et kinnitada biogaasi tootmise potentsiaalikust ja olulisust põllumajandusettevõttes, sooritati sotsiaal-majanduslike aspektide analüüs konkreetse piirkonna ja ettevõtte näitel, mille tulemusel selgus, kas biogaasijaama rajamine on majanduslikult otstarbekas või mitte. Baltic Biogas OÜ ja põllumajandusettevõtte Aravete Agro OÜ ühise projekti tulemusel valmis Aravetele, Mägise suurfarmi, biogaasijaam, mis hakkab toodetud soojusenergiaga varustama kohalikku kaugküttesüsteemi ja elektrienergiaga hakatakse konkureerima energiaturul. Investeeringu tasuvusanalüüsist selgus, et biogaasi tootmine Aravete Biogaas OÜ näitel on otstarbekas ja omab potentsiaali. Kahe võimaliku esitatud stsenaariumi puhul kujunesid tasuvusnäitajad stsenaarium 1 puhul positiivseteks, mis kujutas endast ka Aravete biogaasijaama rajamisega analoogset projekti. Stsenaarium 2 ei olnud otstarbekas projekt, sest kõik tasuvusnäitajad ja rahavood kujunesid negatiivseteks. Uurimustöös selgus, et majanduslikeks aspektideks, mis kindlustavad biogaasi tootmise võimaluse konkreetses põllumajandusettevõttes, on vajalike sisendite olemasolu ning riigipoolne finantsiline abi dotatsioonide näol. Takistuste hindamisel selgus, et jätkusuutlikku biogaasi tootmisprotsessi võib pidurdada energiaturu avanemine aastal 2013, mille tulemusel kallineb elektri hind nii tööstustarbijatele kui ka kodumajapidamistele. Samuti võib takistuseks osutuda dotatsioonide kaotamine, mille tulemusel ei ole biogaasijaama edasine opereerimine majanduslikult tasuv ning mille tulemusel ületavad ettevõtte kulud oluliselt tulusid. Kohalikus piirkonnas läbi viidud ankeetküsitluse analüüsil statistikaprogrammis SPSS selgus, et valdav osa inimestest on teadlikud kodukohta rajatavast biogaasijaamast ja on jaama rajamise suhtes positiivselt häälestatud. Kasutades !2-testi, selgus, et jaama rajamisest mitteteadlikke inimesi esines enam just noorte seas, mis on tingitud eelkõige nende liikuvamast eluviisist – mujal maakonnas õppimist või töötamisest. Sotsiaalseteks aspektideks, mis mõjutavad kõige enam kohalike inimeste rahulolu biogaasijaama rajamise suhtes, olid ebameeldiv lõhn ja võimalik sooja hinna vähenemine. Vähem tähtsateks peeti transpordikoormust ja müra taset, mis jääb tõenäoliselt samale tasemele. Biogaasijaamast pärinev soojusenergia hakkab kaugküttesüsteemi kaudu soojendama sellega ühendatud tarbijaid ja selle tulemusel on planeeritud müüa soe tarbijale 20% odavamalt, kui see siiani inimestele kättesaadav on olnud. See on ka üks peamisi põhjuseid, miks sooja hind on üheks olulisemaks mõjutajaks elanike rahulolu kujunemisel. Korrelatsioonimaatriksi analüüsimisel leiti, et sotsiaalsete aspektide (müra, sooja hind ehk jäätmete kasutamine, transpordikoormus ja õhusaaste) muutumine ei ole seotud elanike hoiaku kujunemisega biogaasijaama rajamise suhtes. Biogaasi tootmise valdkonna arengu soodustamiseks ja võimalike takistuste ületamiseks teeb magistritöö autor järgmised järeldused ja ettepanekud: 1. Selleks, et praegust Eesti energiatootmise sõltuvust põlevkivist vähendada, tuleks kindlasti tagada põllumajandusettevõtetele võimalus tegeleda biogaasi tootmisega, mis praegusel hetkel jääb pigem suurte esialgsete investeeringukulude taha seisma. Seega tuleks tõsiselt üle vaadata ja läbi mõelda toetuste süsteemid põllumajandusettevõttes tekkivatest jääkidest soojus- ja elektrienergia tootmiseks, mis ei seaks takistusi ettevõtjatele. Näiteks on PRIA poolt seatud põllumajandusettevõtjatele ülempiirangud, millest rohkem nad teatud aastate jooksul enam toetust taotleda ei saa. 2. Aasta pärast biogaasijaama töötamist tuleks kohalike elanike seas läbi viia uus küsitlus sotsiaalsete aspektide muutuste kohta, et selgitada välja, kuidas on muutunud inimeste arvates sotsiaalsed aspektid (transpordikoormus, müratase, lõhn ja sooja hind) tegelikult ning samuti selgitada välja võimalikud tekkinud murekohad. Oluline on, et uute biogaasijaamade investeeringute läbiviimisel oleks kaasatud ka kohalikud elanikud, mis lõppkokkuvõttes tõstab piirkonna ja seal asuvate ettevõtete mainet. 3. Kuigi biogaasi valdkonna uurimisega tegeletakse Eestis tõsiselt, tuleks siiski veel rohkem teadvustada potentsiaalseid ettevõtjad nende võimalustest biogaasi tootmiseks ja seda koostöös mõne kohaliku ettevõtte või operaatorfirmaga, et minimeerida kulusid ja leida sobiv tehnika. Selleks tuleks kaasata rohkem valdkonna eksperte ettevõtetele nõustajateks või teisalt tuleks läbi viia uuring, mille tulemusel kajastuksid kõik Eestis tegutsevad ja potentsiaalsed ettevõtted biogaasi tootmiseks, et suurendada omavahelist koostööd jaama opereerimisel. 4. Viimaseks oluliseks tähelepanekuks on rohkem julgustada riigi tasandil ettevõtjaid selle valdkonnaga tegelema. Selleks aga on vajalik tagada neile kindlustunne nii toetuste, energia ostukohustuse kui ka taastuvenergia toetuse näol. Käesoleva uurimustöö koostamine omab autori arvates tähtsust nii Eesti kui ka kohaliku omavalitsuse tasandil biogaasijaama sotsiaal-majanduslike aspektide analüüsimisel, sisaldades seeläbi kohalike elanike arvamust biogaasijaama rajamisest. Uurimustöö läbiviimise muutis raskeks asjaolu, et kõiki vajalikke andmeid majanduslike aspektide analüüsimiseks ei saadud Baltic Biogas OÜ konfidentsiaalsuspoliitika tõttu. Sellest tulenevalt ei ole uurimustöös leitud tasuvusnäitajad 100% tõesed, kuid siiski usaldusväärsed ning annavad üldise pildi biogaasi tootmisest põllumajandusettevõttes, millest saab teha juba iga ettevõtja omad järeldused. Uurimustöö täitis oma eesmärgi, milleks oli selgitada biogaasijaama rajamise majanduslik tasuvus Aravetele, kaasates jaama rajamise hinnangu andmisesse kohalikud elanikud. Uurimustööd võib pidada oluliseks, sest sisaldab investeeringuprojekti hindamist detailselt ja kriitiliselt OÜ Aravete Biogaas näitel, millest saavad eeskuju võtta teised ettevõtted ja huvilised edaspidiste sotsiaal-majanduslike analüüside läbiviimiseks. ; The MA thesis has been written in the Estonian language, on 83 pages. The thesis includes 16 diagrams, 5 tables, 64 scientific literary and 14 appendixes. Nowadays we need energy everywhere - in various production processes, in many parts of the households, transportation, etc. More and more there is discussion about the possibility to save energy and new ways to make it affordable and environment friendly so that the damage caused to the environment by the production and consumption would be minimal. Because human society has grown, energy use, greenhouse gas emission and also the wish to be more energy efficient have increased steadily, therefore the possibility how to save our environment is more and more under discussion. This new solution is the production of biogas in the context of the green economy, in order to save the environment and give people the opportunity to manage without damaging the environment and themselves. Biogas production in the context of green economy is aided by the fact that in recent years people have increasingly begun to promote the use of renewable energy sources to cover the costs of energy needed for life which are also foreseen by the European Union directive (2009/28/EC) of renewable energy sources by promoting the use of energy. Several extensive researches have been conducted about the production of biogas in Estonia all of which confirmed the potential of biogas energy production from the agricultural wastes, which generally occurs in sufficient quantity in Estonian agriculture. Nevertheless, there are still only a few companies who are able to produce biogas and can compete in the energy market. The aim of this MA thesis is to find out the socio-economic aspects of biogas production in the context of green economy, by analyzing the socio-economic aspects on the example of OÜ Aravete Biogaas. For the theoretical part of this MA thesis the necessary information is obtained from various scientific articles, a variety of related literature, based on past research studies, public databases, and various legislative acts. Empirical data were collected from a written interview, from various studies and through questionnaires. The analysis of the socio-economic aspects of the investment predicted what will be the economic efficiency of Aravete biogas plant. The questionnaire survey of the local population showed which social aspects influence and form people's attitudes and opinions about the construction of the biogas plant. The cost benefit analysis of the investment showed that the production of biogas on the example of OÜ Aravete Biogaas is feasible and has potential. There were two possible scenarios presented in which profitability indicators became positive for Scenario 1 – for example investment payback period was 18 years and profitability index 1,10 euros. Scenario 1 was analogous with the Aravete biogas plant project. Scenario 2 was not a feasible project, because all of the profitability indicators and cash flows turned out negative. The research work showed that the economic aspects, which provide the opportunity for biogas production in a specific farm, were the existence of the necessary inputs and state's financial assistance in form of subsidies. While assessing the obstacles to the sustainability of the biogas production it became evident, that the process may be delayed by the energy market opening in 2013, which leads to the increased price of electricity for industrial consumers and households. The elimination of subsidies may also prove to be an obstacle, which leads to the outcome, that a biogas plant is not economically viable for the future operations. Questionnaire survey conducted in the local area revealed that the vast majority of people are aware of the biogas plant and have a positive attitude towards the construction of the station. Using the !2-test showed that there were more young people among the people who didn´t know about the biogas plant building. This is mainly caused by their way of life - studying or working elsewhere in the county. Social aspects that affect people's satisfaction with the local establishment of a biogas plant the most, were an unpleasant odor and the possible reduction in the heat price. Less important were transportation and noise, which is likely to remain the same. Analyzing the correlation the author found that changes in the social aspects (noise, heat price, transportation and air pollution) are not connected with the residents' attitudes related to the construction of a biogas plant. This research is related to earlier studies on the biogas field, but has a different output, as it described primarily socio-economic aspects of biogas production in a specific region as an example. Various biogas plants have been addressed in the feasibility studies for biogas production and economic aspects of the presumed socially driven, but the opinion of the local people has not been involved but rather estimated opinions of the authors themselves have been used. To promote the development of biogas production in the area the author reached the conclusion that it should be ensured that agricultural businesses are able to practice biogas production, and for this the support systems should be seriously reviewed and analyzed. To clarify social aspects of the region, it is important that local people would be involved in the conduct of new investments in biogas plants, which ultimately increases the popularity of the area and corporations listed there. Although the biogas field investigations are studied seriously in Estonia, still awareness should be constructed for potential undertakers in terms of their potential to produce biogas, also in cooperation with a local business or a service provider, in order to minimize costs and to find a suitable technique. This should be done by involving more experts in the field of business advisers or by conducting a study, which would include all operating companies and potential businesses. Research work can be considered as important as the investment project evaluation includes a detailed case study of OÜ Aravete Biogaas. This MA thesis can be emulated by other companies and people interested in the future of socio-economic analyzes.
This paper will first define the words and terms applicable to the topic of light infantry that appear in eighteenth-century literature so that there is an understanding of how an eighteenth-century soldier conceived of warfare. After establishing this connection, this paper will follow a chronological chain of events that focuses on the creation of regular light infantry in European armies in Europe and North America from the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) until the beginning of the Revolutionary War (1740-1775), how those events influenced Washington, the first use of light troops during the Revolutionary War, and how the Continental light infantry developed through the war. This paper will not delve into the intricacies of battles because historians have well-examined the few notable battles involving the Continental light infantry. However, this paper will draw from battles the tactics that highlight the regular and irregular methods used by the light infantry and highlight details from campaigns and battles that depict how Washington and other leaders employed the light infantry. This paper argues that Washington recognized that trained, properly equipped, and competently led light infantry was more effective against regular and irregular enemies, rather than other American irregular light troops that often proved ineffective against those same enemies. Washington based his decision first, by drawing from his military experiences on the North American frontier, and second from European theory and practical application of regular light infantry forces in European armies. ; Master of Arts in Military History ; "The Picked Corps of the American Army": The Light Infantry of the Continental ArmyBrian K. GerringA paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for theMaster of Arts in Military HistoryNorwich UniversityMH 562D Capstone PaperDr. John RocheAugust 23, 2020 Gerring 1This position is only twenty miles from New York island; and was accordingly occupied by the van guard, consisting of light infantry; that is to say, the picked corps of the American army.—Marquis de Chastellux, Travels in North-AmericaThe history of the War of American Independence is replete with studies of military campaigns, leaders, weapons, and tactics. Historians frequently focus on particularmilitary units that have becomeingrained into American folklore concerning the war, such as the minutemenmilitia or Daniel Morgan's riflemen. Even the broadtopicof the Continental Army receives an adequate amount of scholarly consideration. However, one element within the army's structure that does not receive significant attention is the light infantry. Writing in 1900, Henry Johnston noted this absence of research concerning the Continental light infantry, concluding that "our books contain little about them."1In 1926, John Wrightsimilarly noted that the Continental light infantry suffered from scholarly neglect.2There has been minimal scholarly research into the Continental light infantry nearly a century later. When scholars do mention the Continental light infantry, they relegate those forces to a paragraph or two containing some form of exposition.This paper will begin to fill that scholarly voidby providing abroad overview of the history of the Continental light infantry.The inattention from historians towards theContinental light infantry likely stems from the seemingly insignificant role these forces played in the Revolutionary War's overall outcome.While onlybriefly touching on that topic, this paper arguesthat the Continental light infantry did fulfill a unique role for the army during the war. The Continental light infantry wasso unique that John Wright assessed them asthe first elite unit created within the regular American army 1Henry P. Johnston, The Storming of Stony Point (New York: James T. White, 1900), 68.2John W. Wright, "The Corps of Light Infantry in the Continental Army," The American Historical Review31, no. 3 (1926): 461. Gerring 52perception proved that the regular light infantry wassuddenly the preeminentelite force within the Continental Army.Wayne also advocated for a distinct uniform for the light infantry, which again indicatestheir status as elite troops. Contemporary troops considered as elite wore something unique, either headgear or uniforms—the most notable examples were the tall grenadier caps covered in bear fur and leather helmets of the British dragoons and light infantry.252Wayne wrote to Washington,expressing that as the commander of the corps, he should "have it in our power to Introduce Uniformity among the Light Corps belonging to the Respective States, andInfuse a Laudable pride and Emulation into the Whole."253He further concluded that the light infantry should have:an Elegant Uniform & Soldierly appearance—so much so that I would much rather risque my life and Reputation at the Head of the same men in an attack Clothed & Appointed as I could wish, with a Single Charge of Amunition—than to take them as they appear in Common with Sixty Rounds of Cartridges.254However, Washington opposed the outfitting of the light infantry with distinctive uniforms, noting that "the Light Infantry being only considered as detachments from the line ought to bear the uniform of the Regiments from which they are taken."255Despite this, Wayne did order the light infantry under his command to adorn their caps with hair, which was not a regular standard for the army's headgear.256252Cuthbertson's suggestion that light infantry should wear "jackets made from old coats . . . and snug little caps composed from old hats, and the pairing of the coat skirts" is evident in the British light infantry uniforms during the Revolutionary War. Bennett Cuthbertson, Cuthbertson's System for Management for the Complete Interior of a Battalion of Infantry, rev. ed. (Bristol: Rouths and Nelson, 1776), 190-191.253"From Brigadier General Anthony Wayne," July 4, 1779, Fort Montgomery, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-21-02-0289[accessed 28 Jun 2020].254Ibid. 255"To Brigadier General Anthony Wayne," September 14, 1779, West Point, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-22-02-0353[accessed 28 Jun 2020].256Robert Gamble, "The Orderly Book of Captain Robert Gamble[. . .]," in Collections of the Virginia Historical and Philosophical Society[. . .] (Richmond: T. W. White, 1833), 256. Gerring 53Congruent with the light infantry under Wayne in the main army was the light infantry operating with MajorGeneral John Sullivan. Washington tasked Sullivan to engage and destroy most of the Indians of the Six Nations, including any Tory allies and any British troops,in western New Yorkin late spring of 1779. Washington originally devised that a quarter of the troops participating in this campaign would "harrass and distract the enemy, and create diversions, in favor of the principal operation," which are known aspects of lapetite guerre.257However, Washington's later conception of the campaign involved Sullivan operating in the irregular tactics of the Indians, coupled with regular tactics. Washington suggested to Sullivan:as general rules ought to govern your operations—to make rather than receive attacks attended with as much impetuosity, shouting and noise as possible, and to make the troops act in a loose and dispersed a way as is consistent with a proper degree of government concert and mutual support—It should be previously impressed on the upon the minds of the men when ever they have an opportunity, to rush on with the warhoop and fixed bayonet—Nothing will disconcert the Indians more than this.258This reflects that Washington relied on his experiences because he understood howto engage and defeat Indians using proven combat-tested methods. Sullivan began his campaign on June 18, 1779 after months of extensive preparations. During Sullivan's Expedition, there was a designated light corps composed of various troops under the command of BrigadierGeneral Edward Hand.259Some of these troops were regular light infantry companies. Captain Leonard Bleeker—the Major of the Brigade for BrigadierGeneral James Clinton—records that each of the four regular regiments in Clinton's brigadehad 257"To Major General Horatio Gates," March 6, 1779, Middlebrook, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-19-02-0391[accessed 07Jun 2020].258"To Major General John Sullivan," May 31, 1779, Middlebrook, in PGW, https://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/GEWN-03-20-02-0661[accessed 07Jun 2020].259Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,164; Adam Hubley to Hand, June 22, 1779, Sunbury, in Linn and Egle, Pennsylvania in the War, 2:11. Gerring 54light infantry companies.260Bleeker notes that these light infantry companies operated in conjunction with riflemen under Hand.261Therefore, these light infantry soldiers operated more in-line with the light troops at Saratoga, which were a combination of riflemen and designated light infantry troops. It is unlikely these light infantry troops receivedthe same training as Wayne's troops because the two bodies of troops were separate from each otherand Wayne was actively conducting operationsduring Sullivan's Expedition. Despite this, Hand's corps did containsome troops with experiencein light operations, such as some remnants of Morgan's Regiment.262During movement, Hand's light corps acted as the forward element, staying a mile in front of Sullivan's troops.263If attacked on the move, the light corps acted as a maneuver element to either surround the enemy or move through the regular troop formation to form a rear-guard.264The light corps routinely operated well in advance and detached from the main force.265Due to their ability to move quickly, Hand's light corps also operated as a quick reaction force.266On one occasion after Sullivan's troops repelled an ambush, the light infantry chased the fleeing Indians three miles.267On August 13, Hand led a portion of the light infantry in advance of the armyoutside the village of Chemung; Indians ambushed this force, and the light 260Leonard Bleeker, The Order Book of Captain Leonard Bleeker, Major of Brigade[. . .] (New York: Joseph Sabin, 1865), 104-105, 128. The Major of the Brigade was the Brigade Inspector, which operated under the auspice of the Continental Army's Inspector General, see Bleeker, Order Book,11-12. The four regiments under Clinton were the 3rd, 4th, 5th New York, and the 7th Massachusetts, see Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,165n28. 261Bleeker, Order Book, 128.262Richard B. LaCrosse, Revolutionary Rangers: Daniel Morgan's Riflemen and Their Role on the Northern Frontier, 1778-1783(Westminster, MD: Heritage Books, 2007), 46-48, 119.263Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,165.264Ibid., 166-168.265Linn and Egle, Pennsylvania in the War, 2:17.266Dearborn, Journals of Henry Dearborn,186; Adam Hubley, "Journal of Lieutenant-Colonel Adam Hubley," in Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General John Sullivan, ed. Frederick Cook (Auburn, NY: Knapp, Peck, Thomson, 1887), 150.267Ibid., 178. Gerring 75Martin, James Kirby and Mark Edward Lender. 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