Suchergebnisse

Debido a que las materias primas son producidas por actores locales en lugares (locales) específicos pero se comercializan globalmente, las IG son únicas en cuanto a su posibilidad de resolver la dicotomía entre lo local y lo global. En este artículo se analiza el caso de tequila para discutir los retos asociados con la implementación de las IG y su potencial para contribuir al desarrollo rural, particularmente en los países en desarrollo. Aunque el tequila es citado a menudo como una de las IG más exitosas en el Sur Global, la IG del tequila no ha logrado beneficiar a la población local o al entorno de la región de origen de la bebida. Se argumenta que tres factores inherentes del diseño de la IG ayudan a explicar el mal desempeño del mismo: 1) estándares de calidad exageradamente técnicos que no logran integrar criterios de calidad más amplios; 2) falta de atención al terruño (terroir) de la región; y, 3) una organización colectiva caracterizada por la fragmentación y por intereses encontrados. Adicionalmente, se muestra cómo la IG del tequila ha sido obstaculizada aún más por el contexto político e institucional en el que está incrustada. El gobierno mexicano no ha articulado objetivos más amplios que fundamenten su política de IG, más allá de proteger a los productos mexicanos de los sustitutos producidos en el extranjero. Por ende, se permitió que la IG del tequila se diseñara e implementara de una forma que excluye a los campesinos y no logra proteger los recursos locales. Palabras clave: Indicaciones Geográficas, globalización, desarrollo territorial, tequila, México. ; Geographical indications (GIs) are unique, in that they provide a means of ensuring that control over production and sales of a product stays within a local area, but at the same time make use of extralocal markets. In this article, the author analyzes the case of tequila in order to discuss the challenges associated with the implementation of GIs and their potential to contribute to rural development, particularly in developing countries. Although tequila is often cited as one of the most successful GIs in the Global South, the GI for tequila has not benefitted the local population or environment in its region of origin. I argue that three factors help explain this: (1) quality standards that are overly technical and fail to integrate broader measures of quality, (2) a lack of attention to the terroir of the region, and (3) a collective organization characterized by fragmentation and conflicting interests. In addition, I show how the GI for tequila has been hindered by the political and institutional context in which it is embedded. The Mexican government has not established any objectives for GI policy beyond protecting Mexican products from foreign-produced imitations. This has allowed the GI for tequila to be designed and implemented in ways that exclude the small farmers and producers and fail to protect local resources. Key words: Geographical Indications, globalization, regional development, tequila, Mexico ; Vue que les matières premières sont produites par les acteurs locaux dans des lieux (local) spécifiques, mais sont commercialisés au niveau mondial, les IG sont uniques dans leur capacité à résoudre la dichotomie entre le local et le global. Dans cet article on analyse le cas de la tequila pour discuter des défis associés à la mise en œuvre des indications géographiques et leur potentiel pour contribuer au développement rural, en particulier dans les pays en développement. Bien que la tequila est souvent citée comme l'une des IG plus réussie dans les pays du Sud, l'IG tequila n'a pas réussi à bénéficier à la population locale ou aux environs de la région d'origine de la boisson. Il est soutenu que trois facteurs inhérents de la conception de IG aide à expliquer la mauvaise performance de la même: 1) les normes de qualité sont trop techniques ce qui ne parviennent pas à intégrer des critères de qualité plus larges, 2) le manque d'attention à la terre (terroir) dans la région et, 3) l'organisation collective caractérisée par la fragmentation et les d'intérêts communes. En outre, nous montrons comment l'IG tequila a été entravée par le contexte politique et institutionnel dans lequel il est incorporé. Le gouvernement mexicain n'a pas formulé des objectifs qui consolident ses politiques de l'IG, au-delà de la protection des produits mexicains des produits de substitution proviennent de l'étranger. Ainsi, il est permis que l'IG de la tequila soit conçus et mis en œuvre d'une manière qui exclut les agriculteurs et ne parvient pas à protéger les ressources locales. Mots-clés: Indications Géographiques, globalisation, développement territorial, la tequila, le Mexique. ; 91-103 ; sarah_bowen@ncsu.edu ; semestral

Artikel ini membahas mengenai ketentuan hukum perdagangan orang, upaya pemberantasan dan pencegahan perdagangan orang melalui upaya-upaya yang bersifat internasional maupun di Indonesia serta implementasinya di lapangan. Adapun yang menjadi latar belakang penulis memilih judul ini karena semakin maraknya kasus perdagangan orang terutama khususnya yang terjadi di kalangan perempuan dan anak. Indonesia tidak hanya dianggap sebagai negara pengirim saja, tetapi juga sebuah negara transit dan tujuan untuk korban. Pokok permasalahan dalam artikel ini adalah bagaimanakah pengaturan upaya pemberantasan dan pencegahan perdagangan orang melalui instrumen hukum internasional, bagaimanakah permasalahan perdagangan orang yang berlangsung di Indonesia, serta bagaimanakah pengaturan upaya pemberantasan dan pencegahan perdagangan orang melalui hukum positif Indonesia. Kesimpulan dari permasalahan di atas adalah pertama, telah ada pengaturan dalam rangka upaya pemberantasan dan pencegahan perdagangan orang melalui instrumen internasional antara lain United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children) tahun 2000 atau dikenal juga sebagai Protokol Palermo yang sifatnya melengkapi the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, The International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women/ CEDAW, Peraturan lainnya adalah The International Convention on the Rights of the Child/CRC (Konvensi Hak Anak). Selain itu, The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. Kemudian Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Kedua, Di Indonesia, perdagangan orang telah terjadi dalam kurun waktu yang lama. Namun, karena tiadanya Undang-Undang yang komprehensif dengan hukum penegakan dan ditambah dengan kurangnya kepekaan pejabat pemerintah serta kesadaran masyarakat, kejahatan ini terus menjadi persoalan dan tantangan utama yang dihadapi oleh pemerintah dan masyarakat. International Organization for Migration (IOM), sejak tahun 2005 telah mengidentifikasi dan membantu korban perdagangan orang di Indonesia sebanyak 3.339 orang. Dimana hampir 90% dari korban adalah perempuan, dan lebih dari 25% adalah anak-anak. perdagangan orang di Indonesia menjadi permasalahan yang sangat penting untuk di bahas, mengingat bahwa banyak warga Indonesia yang menjadi objek dari perdagangan orang itu sendiri sehingga perlu adanya upaya terpadu dari semua pihak, terutama pihak pemerintah. Ketiga, upaya pemberantasan dan pencegahan perdagangan orang telah diupayakan dengan hadirnya UU No.21 Tahun 2007 Tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Perdagangan Orang dengan harapan agar dapat menjadi solusi atas penegakan hukum bagi korban-korban perdagangan orang di Indonesia.Abstract This article discusses the legal provisions of trafficking in persons, and prevention to combat trafficking in persons through the efforts of an international prevention as well as in Indonesia and its implementation. As for the background of the author chose this title because of the increasing number of cases of trafficking in persons, particularly the case among women and children. Indonesia is not only regarded as a sending country, but also a transit and destination country for victims. The issue in this article is how the regulation and prevention efforts to combat trafficking through international legal instruments, how the problem of trafficking that took place in Indonesia, as well as how regulation and prevention efforts to combat trafficking in persons through the positive law of Indonesia. The conclusion from the above is the first, there is an existing arrangements in the context of efforts to combat and prevent trafficking based on international instruments such as the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children) in 2000, also known as the Palermo Protocol complementary nature of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, The International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women/ CEDAW, other rules are the International Convention on the Rights of the Child/CRC (Convention on the Rights of the Child). In addition, The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. Furthermore, the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. Second, In Indonesia, trafficking in person has occurred in the period of time. However, in the absence of comprehensive legislation to law enforcement and coupled with a lack of sensitivity and awareness of government officials, this crime continues to be the main issues and challenges faced by government and society. International Organization for Migration (IOM), since 2005 has been to identify and assist trafficking victims in Indonesia as many as 3339 people and nearly 90% of victims are women, and more than 25% are children. trafficking in persons in Indonesia become a very important issue to be discussed, considering that many citizens of Indonesia which is the object of trafficking itself so it needs a concerted effort from all parties, especially the government. Third, the efforts to combat and prevent trafficking in persons has been attempted by the presence of Act 21 of 2007 on Eradication of Trafficking in Persons with hope that can be a solution of law enforcement for the victims of trafficking in Indonesia.

In what could turn out to be his boldest decision of this election cycle, this past weekend presidential candidate Mitt Romney announced he was picking Wisconsin Congressman Paul Ryan as his vice-president, thus clearing many doubts the Republican base had about Romney. Paul Ryan is the author of an ultra-conservative budget plan that will drastically reduce the size of government programs. A Roman Catholic, he is a social conservative and strongly anti-abortion. This should be more than enough reassurance for Tea Partiers and the Evangelical right, and should assuage the anxiety about having to vote for a Mormon. The announcement was made early Saturday morning, at a rally on the Norfolk, Va., scenic waterfront, with the battleship Wisconsin framing the stage. They were received by a large cheering, mostly middle-aged and white crowd, and the symbolism was quite patent: Virginia, a swing state, is also the home of the U.S Atlantic fleet and the NATO Supreme Allied Command; the Ryan fiscal plan is quite lenient on military spending. This is clearly the turning point of his campaign: unable to c lose the gap that separates him from Mr. Obama (by 6 % points, according to polls right before the announcement), Mr. Romney made a decision that will excite the base and show Republicans that he is indeed committed to aggressively dealing with the deficit problem through drastic tax reform and cuts in domestic programs. With this announcement, he has defined himself as a bold reformer and made it clear to the electorate that entitlement reform will be the centerpiece of his administration. In its own way, it is also a singularly progressive ticket: this will be the first major party ticket in US history with no Protestant candidate. Wisconsin Congressman Ryan became well-known during the difficult Congress debt and deficit reduction debates when, as head of the House Budget Committee, he presented a very specific proposal to control federal spending, privatize Medicare and reform the tax system. While there is bipartisan consensus that deficit reduction is a must, Democrats propose to do it over a longer term, especially since cutting government spending is unthinkable during a recession, and to raise taxes on the wealthy as soon as the Bush tax cuts have expired. Republicans, on the other hand, want to cut programs for the needy as well as taxes for the upper bracket, since the wealthy are also the job creators, according to their view. As Paul Gigot said in an earlier Wall Street Journal editorial, he best "exemplifies the nature and stakes of this election". Paul Ryan is indeed a thoughtful, serious politician, a man of big ideas who focuses more on policy than on politics. And while Vice-presidential candidates do not determine elections, Ryan will certainly excite the base and shake up the turnout. Some Republicans in Congress, however, have expressed their uneasiness about Ryan's direct assault on Medicare and Social Security, which they find politically dangerous: it may affect the senior vote in key swing states like Florida, and retirees constitute the most reliable voter block on Election Day: rain or sun they will find their way to the voting booth. This election will again be determined mainly by turnout. But in spite of the risk, this bold choice puts the lackluster Romney campaign on more secure footing: he is now a leader with a vision and a plan for dealing with the national debt. Whether you agree with Paul Ryan's budget plan or not (he would cut entitlements, change the way Medicare is delivered and make the tax system less progressive), his youth, intelligence, good looks and candid approach is refreshing to most audiences. Because he is a true heir to the Reagan revolution (during his formative years as a congressional aid he was drafted as a policy aid to Empower America, a think tank focused on preserving the Reagan legacy) he is not only a magnet for the Tea Partiers but also to the supply-siders and Reagan admirers, in other words, a true fiscally conservative Republican. Surprisingly, most Democrats welcomed the choice if for nothing else because it opens new opportunities for more substantive and targeted attacks on Romney. The shift to a more philosophical discussion on the nature of government will be relished by Obama since it will give him a chance to explain his own vision instead of being on the defense from weak job reports, month after month. In the meantime, while Washington focuses on debt, deficit reduction and the ominous "fiscal cliff", the US remains a magnet for foreign investors who prefer US Treasury bonds as the safest haven on earth. This breeds complacency and defers serious efforts by either party to cut spending. Sobre la autora Profesora de Política Comparativa. Universidad del Old Dominion, Norfolk, Virginia.

Determinados aspectos de la sociedad norteamericana muestran tener una atracción especial para todo el mundo, al margen de creencias políticas y sociales. A menudo esas características tan familiares son las más frívolas del 'American way', mientras que rasgos más profundos e importantes de esa compleja nación parecen pasar desapercibidos más allá de sus fronteras, aunque su influencia sea manifiesta. La tecnología, negocios, comercio, cultura, etc., actuales están todos profundamente marcados por los 'ways' –maneras– de ese país. Sin duda alguna el sistema constitucional norteamericano es uno de esos 'rasgos ocultos' que, al margen de circunstancias locales y pequeños detalles, es omnipresente en lo que llamamos 'el mundo occidental'. Las respuestas a anteriores trabajos del autor –Orígenes del constitucionalismo americano and Nosotros, el Pueblo de los Estados Unidos–hicieron entrever un posible interés por parte de los estudiantes de Derecho de la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid hacia una asignatura optativa sobre el constitucionalismo norteamericano. De ahí surgió, como manual para ese curso, El constitucionalismo americano. Redactado en siete temas, cubre desde los inicios del siglo XVII y las normas fundamentales que los colonos ingleses llevaron a sus primeros asentamientos, hasta las Enmiendas y decisiones del Tribunal Supremo norteamericano sobre derechos civiles en la segunda mitad del siglo XX. De esta forma, la historia de los Estados Unidos se ha dividido en siete periodos: el periodo colonial británico, la revolución americana, el proceso federalista, las primeras Enmiendas y decisiones del Tribunal Supremo de los Estados Unidos, la guerra civil y la Reconstrucción, la era progresista y el New Deal, y el periodo de los derechos civiles. En cada periodo se estudian algunos de los eventos constitucionales más relevantes y de carácter universal. Cada tema incluye una presentación histórica y jurídica del periodo, seguida de las fuentes primarias relacionadas directamente con los eventos descritos. Suponiendo que los estudiantes a quienes va dirigido el manual podrían no estar muy familiarizados con la historia general de los Estados Unidos, se han añadido unas breves notas biográficas sobre los personajes mencionados en la narrativa. Al ser un manual de trabajo, se han incluido algunas cuestiones sobre los temas tratados para que los estudiantes pueden desarrollar los conocimientos aprendidos. (A título anecdótico, la versión on-line del manual en inglés recibió en 2013 uno de los premios de OpenCourseWare.) Este trabajo ha sido parte de los estudios doctorales del autor. ; Certain attributes of American life hold a special attraction to people all over the world, regardless of their social or political beliefs. Often those familiar features are simple banalities of that 'American way,' while more profound and remarkable traits of that complex nation seem to have gone almost unnoticed outside its borders, although their prevalent influence is evident. Current technology, business ways, commerce, culture, etc., are all deeply marked by that country 'ways.' Unquestionably, the American constitutional system is one of these hidden traits that, regardless of the circumstances, is present all over our –so called– Western world. Nevertheless, it is, for most and to most, unknown. Responses to the previous works by this author –Orígenes del constitucionalismo americano and Nosotros, el Pueblo de los Estados Unidos– hinted of a possible interest by law students at the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid for an elective course on American constitutionalism. Thus, that was the reason behind El constitucionalismo americano, as a textbook for that course. Drafted around seven themes, they cover from the beginning of the seventeenth century and the fundamental laws that English settlers brought with them at their early landings on the American continent, to the constitutional Amendments and U.S. Supreme Court decisions of the second half of the twentieth century. Thus, the history of the United States has been divided into seven periods: the British colonial period; the American Revolution; the Federalist effort; the early Amendments and Supreme Court decisions; the Civil War and Reconstruction era; the Progressive era and the New Deal; and the Civil Rights period. For each period, some of the main relevant constitutional events get analyzed. Each theme includes a historical and legal presentation of the period, followed by the primary sources directly related to the events described. Assuming the targeted students may not be very familiar with the overall history of the United States, brief biographical notes are added for the most prominent personalities mentioned in the narrative. As a textbook, each theme includes a number of questions for the students to develop. (Incidentally, the course made it to OpenCourseWare, where its English version got a somewhat good response, receiving one of the organization's awards for 2013.) This work was part of the author's PhD effort.

Does the Hispanic tradition offer an alternative perspective to the problem of copyrights and digital piracy? This dissertation examines the narrative that connects copyrights and creativity. It focuses on how prevailing representations of the practice, circulation, and experience of creativity that link it to copyrights are governed by specific epistemological structures and a rhetoric of fear. The dissertation focuses on three competing and overlapping traditions of conceiving and codifying property and national identity: first, the personal, natural and deontological tradition of continental Europe which comes to be crystallized in droits d'auteur; then the commercial and utilitarian Anglo-American tradition represented by copyright; and finally the public domain-centered Hispanic tradition represented by its preprinting license and tasa.My investigation traces the genealogy of each tradition and registers the increasing tension in the Hispanic world between notions of possessive individualism, droit moral and reason of state while documenting the relentless dominance of copyrights in postnational times. I argue that different codifications of individual property lead to opposing views of the public domain, which in turn relate to competing exemplars of sociopolitical organization. I show that the codification of intellectual property in the Hispanic transatlantic is peculiar in that it was aristocracy which defeated liberal bourgeois revolutions in the early modern and enlightenment eras. The debate seen as a hallmark of European modernity opposing, on the one hand, classic participative republicanism and droits d'auteur, and, on the other hand, liberal contractual republicanism and copyrights, is often superseded in the Hispanic tradition by a discourse stressing the importance of the public domain and the rights of «well-crafted works.» I argue that while copyrights and author laws are the response of corporate England and revolutionary France to the increasing power of printing guilds and corporations, the Spanish enlightened state of Carlos III addressed the similar problem of the power of religious corporations by protecting readers, through the empowerment of a secular sui generis printing tribunal, and through the legislation of the public domain. I put forward the idea that the codification of intellectual ownership as copyright is one of the key mechanisms by which literature becomes commodified. As such, copyright is one of the engines of a historical process of reification that asserts the materiality of culture over its «spiritual» content. In this regard, copyright replaces literal canonicity and becomes a technology of Schumpeterian creative destruction that ensures the affirmation of the new or emergent over the established: Enlightenment over Renaissance modernity; Liberal over Classic republics; and the global and hybrid postnational over an older universalizing humanism.Within this framework, I develop a new genealogy of the legal codification of intellectual property starting with common property of the public domain in Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and continuing with northern Europe's codification of individual intellectual property in the seventeenth and nineteenth. My dissertation registers the implications of the the different conceptions of intellectual property and the public domain in the seventeenth and eighteenth century in Spain, as the Spanish imperial project failed in the nineteenth century, and then in contemporary times when the internationalization of copyrights through multinational treaties and the struggles to codify first cinema and then the Internet, reproduced a context similar to the one in which copyrights were first crystallized: a context of imperial justification and expansion.My dissertation, then, engages in a double movement. On the one hand, it shows how recent controversies opposing Spain and the United States in regard to peer-to-peer file exchange are part of a long struggle over the codification of international law, and the construction of an international community to enforce it that evolves from the European struggle to legitimate its overseas empires in the early-modern era. On the other hand, it examines how these controversies are presented through rhetorical strategies that pose romantic creative expression and intellectual property legal protection as two universal human rights. This artifice ties an ethical- legal conceptualization of creativity to a neorepublican form of sociopolitical association, both of European origin, to the European imperial legacy.The systematic analysis of the correlation between copyrights and creativity leads me to conclude that the volatility of copyrights does not put creativity at risk, but rather shows itself linked to imperial projects and institution associated to copyrights. Conversely, the Hispanic intellectual property tradition provides a new framework to think new media differently, and a more nuanced alternative to the idea of the death of creativity that the imperial narrative of copyrights presents. Of particular interest to me are the implications of such debates for Modern and Postmodern Spanish American transatlantic and transcontinental cultural production, with Spain and Mexico as my primary case-studies.

How to approach medical ethics at the time of the great confusion between business ethics, morals, ethics, ethics of biomedicine, applied ethics, ethics of care, meta-ethics, bioethics .? Perhaps by a return "to the things themselves" as Husserl would have said, a return to medicine itself to find in its "nest" the ethics of medicine and not the fabricated ethics that would ultimately and definitively become ethics for medicine.A particular type of practice, emergency medicine, allows to study the procedure, its power and its updates (in the sense that these terms are in Aristotle) and its intersections with the technical movement. What is a medical procedure, what is a technical movement and how can we distinguish them? Also, how can we recognize an act without a gesture and a gesture without an act? It's the doctor, author of the act, that makes the act a medical procedure. Even when the technical gesture covers an entire act, it can only be distinguished from the medical procedure if the applicant is not a doctor, doctor being intended not in the statutory sense but as in the holder of medical knowledge (episteme). The act with no gesture met in medical regulation is evidence that emergency medicine is not limited to technical moves.Like many disciplines in science policy, emergency medicine tends to transform time into space to better quantify its practice but it eventually has to face the necessity of adaptation to other medical specialties. The truth, which is reduced to mathematical accuracy, gives para-clinics the central place of medical practice, gradually separating patients away from their physician.The triage, unique exercise in mass medicine and disaster medicine, is unexpected proof of medical ethics. The categorization of victims, which is a principle of triage, is a reflection of heightened rational thought. Because thinking is sorting. The advent of third parties in the doctor-patient relationship limits medical liability, which would otherwise be unbearable. The infinite responsibility of everyone vis-à-vis the other, intensified by the role of nursing, precedes and is at the origin of freedom. The Third party makes it impossible to do the impossible for others, it forces to share. Introduced at the time of triage, it gives the opportunity to politics to be deeply rooted into ethics. ; Comment aborder l'éthique médicale à l'heure de la grande confusion entre déontologie, morale, éthique, éthique de la biomédecine, éthique appliquée, éthique du care, méta-éthique, bioéthique…? Peut-être par un retour « aux choses mêmes » comme aurait dit Husserl, un retour à la médecine pour y chercher, comme nichée en son sein, matière à penser l'éthique de la médecine et non une éthique fabriquée de toute pièce qui constituerait, au final et de façon définitive, une éthique pour la médecine.Un mode d'exercice particulier, la médecine d'urgence, permet d'étudier l'acte médical, dans sa puissance et son actualisation (au sens que prennent ces termes chez Aristote) et ses intersections avec le geste technique. Qu'est-ce qu'un acte médical, qu'est-ce qu'un geste technique et comment les distinguer ? Ou encore, comment reconnaître un acte sans geste et un geste sans acte ? C'est le médecin, auteur de l'acte, qui fait de l'acte un acte médical. Même lorsque le geste technique recouvre la totalité d'un acte, il ne peut que se distinguer de l'acte médical si son auteur n'est pas médecin, non en qualité statutaire mais en celle de dépositaire du savoir (épistémè) médical. L'acte sans geste rencontré au cours de la régulation médicale est la preuve que la médecine d'urgence ne se réduit pas à des gestes techniques.Comme beaucoup de disciplines à orientation scientifique, la médecine d'urgence tend à transformer le temps en espace pour mieux quantifier sa pratique mais finit par se heurter à la vérité d'adéquation des autres spécialités médicales. La vérité qui se réduit à l'exactitude mathématique donne à la paraclinique la place centrale de l'exercice médical, participant peu à peu à éloigner le médecin du patient.Le tri médical, exercice singulier de la médecine de masse, de la médecine de catastrophe, met en évidence, de façon inattendue, l'éthique médicale. La catégorisation des victimes, au principe du tri médical n'est qu'un reflet exacerbé de la pensée rationnelle. Car penser, c'est trier. L'irruption du tiers dans la relation médecin malade limite la responsabilité médicale laquelle, sinon, serait insupportable. La responsabilité infinie de chacun vis-à-vis de l'autre, redoublée par la condition de soignant précède et fonde la liberté. Le Tiers empêche de faire l'impossible pour Autrui, il contraint à partager. Introduit au moment du tri médical, il donne la chance au politique de s'enraciner profondément dans l'éthique.

Índice Introducción. La construcción del urbanismo como disciplina hasta 1945. La crisis de la ciudad durante la larga etapa de la reconstrucción entre 1945 y 1970. Las variables fortunas de una difícil institucionalización durante las tres últimas décadas (1970-2000). Nuevos oficios y nuevas figuras. La carrera universitaria de urbanismo. El difícil reconocimiento profesional de los urbanistas y la nueva reforma universitaria. Bibliografía. Resumen La enseñanza y la práctica del urbanismo como disciplina independiente en Italia se ha consolidado en los últimos años, como consecuencia de la reorganización de los organismos profesionales, la reforma universitaria y el replanteamiento del ejercicio profesional integrando nuevas aptitudes profesionales. El autor hace un recorrido a través de la historia del urbanismo en Italia desde sus orígenes, como efecto de las discusiones entre arquitectos e ingenieros a un lado y funcionarios técnicos municipales al otro, que dan como resultado la aparición de la enseñanza del urbanismo en las facultades de arquitectura, negándose la necesidad de establecer formaciones por separado para urbanistas. Así establecida, la disciplina no incluye planteamientos interdisciplinarios y conoce el declive de la labor de los funcionarios técnicos municipales. En los años treinta, el fascismo se sirve del urbanismo para diseñar planes para las ciudades más importantes e incluso algunas de nueva creación. En 1942 se promulga la ley del urbanismo (que aún hoy en día es el principal cuerpo de legislación sobre la materia), y legitima el papel de los urbanistas. Este éxito progresivo se detiene con la caída del régimen fascista y el final de la guerra, cuando la prevalencia de los intereses de la industria de la construcción lleva a la suspensión de la ley del 42 y a proceder sin regulaciones. Los grandes movimientos de la población del campo a las ciudades van acompañados de una urbanización rápida y desregulada que finaliza hacia los años sesenta. En los setenta aparece la primera licenciatura en urbanismo y planificación regional en la Universidad de Venecia. Además, la instauración de gobiernos regionales hace del urbanismo una práctica estandarizada en todas las administraciones locales. En los años ochenta prevalece una actitud pragmática centrada, ya no en estrategias generales, sino en proyectos individuales. En los últimos años estas tendencias han empezado a corregirse al margen de la profesión, debido a las nuevas demandas en forma de planes estratégicos multidisciplinares, a menudo incentivados por políticas europeas. Actualmente existen ocho escuelas de urbanismo en Italia que se verán afectadas por las reformas de la declaración de Bolonia de 1998. Abstract In Italy, the teaching and practice of Town Planning as an independent discipline has been consolidated over recent years as a consequence of the reorganisation of the professional bodies, university reform and a rethinking of the professional activity to integrate new professional skills.The author takes a look at the history of Town Planning in Italy from its early days, as the result of discussions between architects and engineers, on the one hand, and specialist municipal civil servants, on the other, which led to the appearance of Town Planning courses in architecture faculties, denying the need to establish separate training courses for town planners. Thus established, the discipline did not include interdisciplinary approaches and saw a decline in the work of the municipal civil servants. In the thirties, fascism made use of town planning to design plans for the most important cities and even some newly-created towns. In 1942, the law on town planning was enacted and legitimised the role of town planners (this is still, today, the main legislative body on the subject).These gradual successes came to a halt with the fall of the fascist regime and the end of the war, when the prevalence of the construction industry's interests led to a suspension of the 1942 law and an absence of regulatory control. Large population movements from rural to urban areas were accompanied by a rapid and unregulated urban development which came to an end towards the sixties. In the seventies, the first Town and Country Planning degree was created by the University of Venice. Furthermore, the establishment of regional governments made town planning a standardised practice in all local administrations. In the eighties, a pragmatic attitude prevailed which no longer focused on general strategies but instead on individual projects. In recent years, these tendencies have begun to be corrected outside the profession, due to new requirements in the form of multidisciplinary strategic plans, often encouraged by European policies.There currently exist eight Town Planning faculties in Italy which will be affected by the reforms of the Bologna Declaration of 1998.

В статье рассматриваются вопросы, связанные с особой актуальностью и важностью проблематики формирования широкой зоны интеграции и стабильности в Содружестве Независимых Государств, экономической политики России на пространстве СНГ. Особое внимание при этом уделяется экономическим и предпринимательским возможностям и средствам укрепления позиций России в СНГ В результате проведенного исследования автор приходит к выводу, что для формирования жизнеспособной реинтеграционной по-литики на пространстве СНГ необходимо признать ряд сложившихся закономерностей, под влиянием и с учетом которых будут развиваться отношения России с этими странами в длительной перспективе. Во-первых, Россия и ее значительный, хотя и не в полной мере реализуемый потенциал содействия экономическому развитию стран-партнеров (через торговлю, инвестиции, через предоставление на взаимовыодных условиях энергоресурсов, транспортных путей, технических компетенций, телекоммуникационного пространства, через возможности трудовой миграции, образования, социально-культурного обмена, русского языка как языка межнационального общения и др.) будет оставаться главным «локомотивом» и ключевым звеном экономической интеграции на постсоветском пространстве. Неготовность России в достаточной мере предоставить эти возможности партнерам автоматически чревата свертыванием интеграционных проектов (не исключая Таможенный союз). Во-вторых, расстановка внешних сил, участвующих в определении будущей конфигурации экономического пространства СНГ, к настоящему времени определилась. Россия более не является безальтернативным стратегическим партнером для совместного развития стран Содружества. Экономически эту роль готовы взять на себя, прежде всего, Китай и Евросоюз. Оба этих центра силы будут определять свои дальнейшие действия с учетом политических сигналов, которые они получат (или не получат) из Москвы, но в любом случае их проникновение в экономику и степень влияния на формирование экономической политики стран СНГ будут возрастать. Поэтому принципиально важна ориентация на то, чтобы основные экономические интересы стран СНГ не оказались за пределами этого объединения. В-третьих, Россия не располагает достаточными ресурсами и не достигла уровня экономической привлекательности, необходимого для того, чтобы «замкнуть на себя» основные внешнеэкономические (не говоря о внешнеполитических) интересы стран СНГ. Следовательно, «интеграционный проект» СНГ может развиваться при условии, что в нем будет устраивающим участников образом определено место внешних партнеров. В-четвертых, с учетом геостратегического приоритета постсоветского пространства для России, потеря здесь опережающего влияния будет означать снижение международного веса страны вплоть до уровня региональной державы. С точки зрения национальных интересов, такую перспективу следует оценивать как неприемлемую. ; The questions related to the particular relevance and importance of the issues of forming a broad zone of integration and stability in the Commonwealth of Independent States, Russia's economic policy in the CIS. Particular attention is paid to economic and entrepreneurial opportunities and means of strengthening the position of Russia in the CIS. The study author concludes that a viable reintegration policy in the CIS is necessary to recognize a number of established laws, influenced and against which to develop Russia's relations with these countries in the long run. First, Russia and its significant, though not fully realized the potential of promoting the economic development of partner countries (through trade, investment, through the provision of energy resources on mutually advantageous conditions, transport routes, technical skills, telecommunications space, through the possibility of labor migration, education, socio-cultural exchanges, Russian as a language of interethnic communication, etc.) will be the main "engine" and a key element of economic integration in the former Soviet Union. Unwillingness ofRussia to provide sufficient opportunity these partners are automatically carries folding integration projects (including the Customs Union). Secondly, the alignment of the external forces involved in determining the future configuration of the CIS economic space, to date, was determined. Russia is no longer the uncontested strategic partner for joint development of the Commonwealth. Economically, this role are ready to take on, especially China and the EU. Both of these power center will determine their next steps in light of the political signals they receive (or not receive) from Moscow, but in any case, their penetration into the economy and the degree of influence on economic policy of the CIS countries will increase. Therefore, the orientation of fundamental importance to the fact that the fundamental economic interests of the CIS countries were outside the association. Third, Russia does not have sufficient resources and had not reached the level of economic attractiveness, required in order to "close to a" major foreign trade (not to mention foreign policy) the interests of the CIS countries. Consequently, the "integration project" CIS may develop the condition that it will suit the way participants defined the place of external partners. Fourth, given the geo-strategic priority of the former Soviet Union to Russia, the loss of this anticipatory effect will mean a decrease of the country's international weight down to the regional power. From a national perspective, this perspective should be considered as unacceptable.

Круглый стол под таким названием прошел в Фонде «Либеральная миссия в конце 2010 г. Он был приурочен к годовщинам со дня кончины двух известных русских либералов разных эпох Тимофея Николаевича Грановского (1813-1855) и Сергея Андреевича Муромцева (1850-1910). Вспоминая этих выдающихся исторических деятелей, участники дискуссии размышляли о том, какова миссия российского либерала сегодня, в каких формах она может и должна выражаться. В чем ее сходство и в чем отличие от миссии либералов в другие эпохи отечественной истории? Чем поучителен для нас опыт предшественников? В обсуждении приняли участие А.А. Кара-Мурза, М.А. Краснов, Б.И. Макаренко, В.А. Рыжков, О.В. Крыштановская, Л.С. Васильев, Б.Б. Надеждин, Л.М. Баткин, И.Б. Чубайс, Ю.Н. Афанасьев, Е.Г. Ясин, П.С. Филиппов, И.В. Стариков, А.С. Мадатов, В.В. Кизилов. Вел разговор вице-президент Фонда «Либеральная миссия» И.М. Клямкин. ; The article is a reflection of the eponymous round table discussion, which took place at the Liberal Mission Foundation in the end of 2010. It has been timed to coincide with the dates of passing of two famous Russian liberals Timofey Granovskiy (1813-1855) and Sergey Mouromtsev (1850-1910). By remembering these outstanding historical figures, the participants of discussion have been trying to outline the liberal's mission today: what should it be and how must it be expressed? What does it have in common and how it is different from liberals' missions in previous historical ages? How could this previous experience prove useful today? The author suggests that the liberal's mission today is to provide one's own solutions to the problems that Russia faces today. The major problem, however, is the archaic state system and its inability to provide the development of country. Thus, an alternative to this system has to be put forward, but no such alternative has been suggested yet. It has not been developed on an intellectual and expert level, which is why it looks rather vague and uncertain in political programs an declarations. There are constant calls to economic and political competition, honest elections, independent justice and mass media. However, there is no doubt that even in such a fantastic situation, when liberals somehow seize power, they will not know what to do with it. There are serious reasons to suggest that the archaic system will not change, it would only lead to the respective change within elites. To replace personal power with power of democratic and legal institutions we have to have a better idea of how the latter actually work. There are various civilization standards for those, which are usually referred to as European. However, in Russia they have not yet been appropriately introduced to the public. How precisely should the system of justice work? How should the state apparatus be organized? How can corruption be reduced? There are simply no answer to such questions. The Russian culture, including its liberal segment, has an inherent feature of an institutional carelessness. In his own years the famous monarchist Lev Tikhomirov wrote that the weakness of Russian autocracy results from the fact that noone has ever thought about how it actually works. The Bolsheviks, who replaced the Tzars, have only thought about power, rather than the institutional set-up. As a result a new version of autocracy emerged. The same way has been followed by the Russian democrats, who brought their Eltsin rather than created institutions that make democracy a democracy. The results are well known today. But what has been suggested to let the things change? Nothing, as far as we know, apart from replacing 'bad' Putin with 'good' Medvedev. It looks like foreign, not to mention our own, experience means absolutely nothing to us. When considering the emergence of democratic and legal institutions in post-communist Eastern Europe, it is commonly concluded that 'their experience is different from ours'. However, the experience of institutional creationism in Eastern Europe is universal, not local. It is universal in the sense that it represents the gradual, 5-7 years long movement towards European civilizational standards. If this experience is not for Russia, then the most appropriate would be another 'particular way' to some another 'particular goal'. There is, of course, a problem of adapting universal standards to a particular country. This problem, however, is all about the adaptation of standards and not their imitation by masking the Russian archaic specifics with some universal European outlook. Specifics are primary to the standards in Russia, which leads to the deformation of the latter rather than adaptation. For example, the current Russian constitution bears a French model. However, this model has been re-edited in such a way, that it has become a legal arrangement of the renewed version of Russian autocracy or

El estudio examina el muy novedoso Reglamento (UE) nº 211/2011, sobre la iniciativa ciudadana europea (ICE). Es una norma que proyecta esta institución por primera vez al ámbito supranacional y también es revolucionaria por estar pensada esencialmente para internet. La ICE será electrónica o no será. Se examina la evolución de la regulación en los tratados constitucionales y la relativamente rápida y no conflictiva elaboración del Reglamento, pese a la materia que toca el «nervio político» de la Unión. Se analiza la regulación del sistema de recogida de apoyos ciudadanos a través de páginas web. Estos sistemas serán posibles gracias al software de código abierto que pondrá a disposición la Comisión, siguiendo las las normas técnicas que tiene que aprobar. Se avanzan algunos posibles problemas jurídico-políticos. Ya por cuanto a los requisitos de los apoyos ciudadanos por vía electrónica el autor se inclina por los sistemas de firma electrónica menos robustos pero más sencillos de usar. Asimismo se apuesta porque sea posible hacer apoyos electrónicos de forma anónima o seudónima. También se adelanta la futura práctica de que se busque acreditar las plataformas de recogida de firmas en los Estados miembros que menos exigencias impongan. Una inercia similar también a la hora de elegir el territorio de almacenamiento de los apoyos electrónicos, pues se buscará el Estado más flexible en materia de protección de datos. El estudio también analiza quién ha de verificar y acreditar en cada Estado los apoyos recibidos por una concreta ICE y cómo han de hacerlo. El segundo bloque del estudio es relativo a la protección de datos de los ciudadanos que apoyan una ICE. Es un tema clave para el futuro éxito de la ICE y es objeto fundamental del Reglamento. Se considera que los ciudadanos tienen que dar demasiados datos para apoyar una ICE. Se estudia el alcance de 11_Derecho público Europeo2 07/09/2011 8:55 Página 375 la clara limitación de la finalidad de los datos. También se subraya la importancia de que el reglamento considere a los organizadores y las autoridades como «responsables del tratamiento», a la vez que se subraya su responsabilidad jurídica. Finalmente, se analiza el régimen de protección de datos a seguir respecto de los ficheros de datos de ciudanos que apoyan una ICE: la notificación y registro, el alto nivel de seguridad exigido por tratarse de datos ideológicos y, por último, se concretan las exigencias de destrucción de los ficheros por esta avanzada norma.The study examines the very new Regulation (EU) No. 211/2011 on the Citizen' Initiative (ECI). It is the first regulation of the citizen' initiative to the supranational level. It is also revolutionary because it is designed primarily for the Internet. It is examined the evolution of the ECI in the constitutional treaties and the relatively rapid and non-contentious drafting of the regulation, despite the matter affects the «political nerve» of the Union. It is analysed the regulation of the online collection systems. These systems will be possible by open source software available by the Commission and It has to follow the technical standards that it must approve. Some possible legal and political problems are put forward. About the requirements of the electronic supports the author prefers electronic signature systems simpler to use. Also it is affirmed the possibility of electronic support anonymously or with pseudonymous. It is also commented two future practices. Member States which impose fewer requirements to give the accreditation of the online collection systems will be preferred too. It will happen a similar phenomenon to choose the country to storage the electronic supports of the citizens. The States with more flexible data protection requirements will be chosen. The study also examines who has to verify and certify in each State the concrete supports received by a specific ECI, and how they must do it. The second part of the study is on data protection of citizens who support ECI. It is a key issue for the future success of the ECI and fundamental content of the Regulation. It is considered that the citizens have to give too much data to support ECI. The rule is clear about the data must not be used for any purpose than their indicated support for that ECI and the consideration of the organizers and the authorities as «controllers» within the meaning of Directive 95/46/EC. At the same time it is stressed their legal responsibility. Finally, it is studied the data protection regime that concerns to the data files of citizens that support an ECI: communication and registration, the high level of security required because the data are ideological and, finally, the specific obligations to destroy all statements of support received for that ICE.

На примере каширской десятни 1556 г. в статье ставится вопрос о происхождении десятен, одного из важнейших источников по истории организации службы Русского государства. Анализ расположения имен в этом источнике свидетельствует о существовавших различиях между дворовыми и городовыми детьми боярскими. Список первых из них, отличается однородностью и полностью соответствует структуре документа. Среди городовых детей боярских выделяется несколько различных групп, каждая из которых была связана с определенным станом Каширского уезда. Вполне вероятно, что в случае с детьми боярскими Безпуцкого, Турова, Тешилова и Мстиславского станов, речь шла о приписке к сложившейся более ранней структуры каширской корпорации. Обнаруживается также связь некоторых «нетипичных» окладов в этой части с писцовыми книгами (фиксация фактических, а не номинальных окладов). Сделанное наблюдение свидетельствует о существовании, с одной стороны, отдельных отрядов внутри каширского «служилого города», с одной стороны и доказывает, с другой стороны, его формирующийся характер. Автор статьи ставит вопрос о допустимости использования термина «служилый город» к первой половине середине XVI в. Пример каширской корпорации говорит о том, что структура и пофамильный состав этого «города» были сформированы московским правительством только в середине века, объединив в единое целое каширских дворовых и городовых детей боярских разных станов с различными традициями службы. Подобная ситуация не представляла собой чего-то особенного. Существование в системе Русского государства целого ряда обособленных корпораций, в том числе, межтерриториального характера, а также имевшее место разделение на дворовых и городовых детей боярских, приводили к тому, что многие уездные группы служилых людей напоминали своеобразный, неоднородный по своему составу, «слоеный пирог». Каждая из подобных групп служила по отдельному списку, часто не смешиваясь друг с другом. Возможно, именно это обстоятельство предопределило, отсутствие упоминаний о десятнях в делопроизводственной среде вплоть до середины XVI в. Реформы середины XVI в., в том числе, создание корпуса тысячников выборных дворян, требовали создания принципиально иной системы. Единая, унифицированная структура уездных корпораций, «служилый город», должна была создать основы для упорядочения службы. Фиксацией подобного объединения и стали десятни, новый вид делопроизводственной документации, который за отсутствием предшествующих аналогичных списков использовали при своем создании писцовые книги. В дальнейшем, десятни, в соответствии с утвердившейся чиновной структурой каждого «служилого города» выработали собственный формуляр записи информации, который просуществовал без серьезных изменений вплоть до середины XVII в. ; By the example the Kashira desyatnya of 1556 in this article raises the question about origin of desyatnyas, one of the important sources for the history of service Russian state. The analysis of location names in this source indicates that there were differences between court and provincial knights (deti boyarskie). The list of the first of them stands homogeneity and fully corresponds to the structure of the document. From the provincial knights allocates a number of different groups, each of which was connected with certain stan of Kashira district. Possible in the case of knights from Bezputskiy, Turov, Teshilov and Mstislavskiy stans, it was a postscript to the earlier established structure of Kashira corporation. The connect is founded between some atypical salary in this part of the document also with cadastre descriptions (reflect actual rather than nominal wages). This observation suggests the existence of separate units inside sluzhily gorod of Kashira, and demonstrates the emerging nature of the corporation. As a case study the author raises the question of the admissibility of the term sluzhily gorod to the first half the Middle of the 16th century. The example of Kashira corporation calls that structure and personal membership of this regional corporation were formed by Moscow government in the middle of the 16th century only, combining into a single unit court and provincial knights from different stans with different traditions of service. Such a situation is not represented something special. Existence in the Russian state a number of separate corporations, including, inter-territorial nature as well as the separation of court and provincial knights, led to the fact that a lot of district groups of service Class resembled the original, heterogeneous in its composition, layer cake. Each of these groups served on a separate list, often mixed with each other. Perhaps this fact predetermined, no mention of desyatnyas a clerical environment until the Middle 16th century. The reforms of middle 16th century, including the creation of corps tysjachniki elected (vibornie) nobles, demanded the creation of a fundamentally different system. United, universal structure of district corporations sluzhily gorod would create a basis for ordering military service. The desyatnyas had a record of the such association. This new kind of clerical documentation in the absence of prior similar listings used at its creation cadastre descriptions. In the future, desyatnyas, in accordance with the established bureaucratic structure of each. corporation have developed their own form to record information, who survived without major changes until the Middle 17th century

Im Rahmen des Bundesgedenkstättenkonzeptes konnten im letzten Jahrzehnt 20 Dauerausstellungen in Gedenkstätten für Opfer des NS-Regimes neu gestaltet werden. Diese werden in der vorliegenden Dissertation unter pädagogischen und museologischen Fragestellungen untersucht. Experteninterviews mit den Kuratoren der Ausstellungen dienen als empirische Grundlage. Aktionsforschung, im deutschsprachigen Raum als Handlungsforschung entwickelt, ist die wissenschaftliche Methode der Untersuchung des Forschungsgegenstandes, in dem der Autor seit vielen Jahren beruflich tätig ist. Die Arbeit analysiert die Tätigkeitsmerkmale von Museen, Gedenkstätten und Lernorten sowie das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen Gedenken und Lernen in der Bildungsarbeit der Gedenkstätten für NS-Opfer und deren praktische Auswirkungen. Die spezifische Stigmatisierung von Opfergruppen während der NS-Zeit nach politischen, rassistisch-biologischen und sozialen Merkmalen sowie der Umfang des Massenmordes begründen die in Deutschland besonders intensive Form der Gedenkstättenarbeit. Sowohl das Gedenken an die "anderen" Opfer als auch die Verantwortung der "eigenen" Täter in der Gesellschaft markieren dessen gesellschaftspolitische Brisanz. Die theoretische Begriffbestimmung wird mit der empirischen Erforschung der neuen Dauerausstellungen überprüft. Zu den zentralen Ergebnissen der Untersuchung gehört, dass die neuen Ausstellungen auf eine deutlich umfangreichere historische Materialbasis (historisches Wissen, Erkenntnisse über die Baugeschichte und Archäologie der Tatorte sowie schriftliche, audiovisuelle und Objekt-Zeugnisse von Überlebenden) zurückgreifen. Durch die Professionalisierung der "Gedenkstättenkunde" entwickelt sich ein intensiv reflektierter und sensibler Einsatz von Dokumenten, Abbildungen und Objekten in den musealen Präsentationen. Hervorzuheben sind der Ortsbezug der Objekte, deren Quellennachweis, die Würdigung ihrer Provenienz sowie die kritische Reflexion ihrer Aussage. Dies betrifft besonders Fotographien. Die Bedeutung der Objekte für eine prägnante Ausstellungsgestaltung wird in der Dissertation herausgearbeitet. Trotz der Annäherung an Darstellungsweisen zeithistorischer Museen werden die fortwährenden, sachlich bedingten Unterschiede zu Gedenkstätten dargelegt. Die Fokussierung der Darstellung auf den Tatort ermöglicht eine zugleich detaillierte, vielschichtige und das historische Thema komplex darstellende Auseinandersetzung mit einem Ausschnitt der deutschen Geschichte. Die multiperspektivische Darstellung der Geschichte bietet Besuchern die Möglichkeit, einen eigenen Zugang zu ergreifen und dabei möglichst selbsttätig Handlungsperspektiven sowie Werte- und Moralvorstellungen zu überprüfen oder neu zu entwickeln. Damit sind die Gedenkstätten trotz aller noch vorhandenen Forschungslücken erstmals in der Lage, die Geschichte der NS-Verfolgten in ihrer Komplexität umfassend aus deren Perspektive und mit den von ihnen geschaffenen Zeugnissen und Objekten darzustellen. Die auf den Ausstellungen beruhenden Bildungskonzepte werden in den aktuellen Entwicklungen, die dem zeitlichen Abstand zur NS-Zeit und einem zunehmend heterogeneren Publikum geschuldet sind, reflektiert. Die verschiedenen Erwartungshaltungen von Einzelbesuchern und Besuchergruppen werden dabei betont. Insgesamt bieten die Forschungsergebnisse Anschlussmöglichkeiten besonders hinsichtlich pädagogischer Fragestellungen und der Besucherevaluation. ; Over the last decade, as part of the federal concept for memorial sites, twenty new permanent exhibitions were created at memorial sites for victims of the Nazi regime. This dissertation undertakes to examine these exhibitions from an educational and museological viewpoint. Expert interviews with exhibition curators serve as the basis for the empirical study. The author has worked for many years in the field of memorial museums education. He applied "action research", developed in German-speaking countries under the term "Handlungsforschung", as the method of scholarship in his dissertation. The study analyzes the specific characteristics of the work conducted in museums, memorial sites and educational centres and also addresses the strained connection between commemoration and learning in the educational work of the memorial museums for the Nazi victims. The study also evaluates the practical impact of these aims. The very intense form of commemorative work that is conducted in Germany is justified by the nature of its subject matter: the stigmatization of specific victim groups during the Nazi era according to a system of political, racist-biological and social characteristics and the vast dimensions of the genocide. The socially and politically explosive nature of this task is manifested by the commemoration of the "other" victims as well as by the responsibility that Germany bears for addressing its "own" perpetrators in society. The study examines the theoretical terminology with the empirical research conducted on the new permanent exhibitions. The central findings of the study show that the new exhibitions embrace a much more comprehensive foundation of historical material (historical knowledge, building history and archeological significance of the crime sites, written and audio-visual survival testimony and artifacts) as was previously the case. The professionalization of the "field of memorial museums" has led to a more intensively reflected and sensitive approach to handling documents, illustrations and objects on display in a museum. In particular, the significance of the relationship between the artifacts and their location, their sources, an appreciation for their origins and a critical reflection of what it is they convey is achieved. This also applies to photography. The dissertation considers what role these objects play in achieving a concise, coherent exhibition design. Although contemporary museums tend to employ similar methods of presentation, the study attempts to identify the sustained differences that are inevitable given the memorial museums' different subject matters. The focus on the crime site facilitates a detailed, multifaceted and complex confrontation with the presentation of one chapter of Germany history. The presentation of history from multiple perspectives allows visitors to find their own way through the subject matter and to develop their own independent methods for judging the actions, values and morals presented to them. Although research gaps still exist, the memorial museums are nonetheless able for the first time to present the history of Nazi persecution in its complexity from the victim perspective using their own testimony and objects that they created. The study considers the educational concepts that are currently developed from the exhibitions, derived from the distance to the historical events and the need to accommodate an audience that is increasingly heterogeneous. A special emphasis is placed on the divergent expectations of individual and group visitors. The research results should be useful to future work, especially in regard to the pedagogical questions raised and the visitor evaluations.

The National Advisory Council on Art Education report of 1961 - the Coldstream Report - contained recommendations to Government as to the constituent parts of the new Diploma in Art and Design which was to replace to a higher standard the existing National Diploma in Design. One recommendation was the inclusion in all Dip.A.D.-awarding programmes of 'history of art and complementary studies'. Coldstream recommended that an independent body be established to scrutinise content and structure of those institutions seeking to validate their provision at Dip.A.D. level. Following Coldstream's guidance, the Ministry of Education set up the National Council for Diplomas in Art and Design, chaired by Sir John Summerson. In 1962, the Summerson Council visited institutions seeking the new accreditation, with the auditing carried out by five designated panels viz: Fine Art, Graphic Design, Three Dimensional Design, Textiles/Fashion, and History of Art and Complementary Studies (HACS). While it can be said that the recommendations of the Coldstream Report saw traditional academic standards rise in keeping with the ambition of the new Dip.A.D., it is also true to say that the Report contributed in a significant way to a trajectory for history of art and complementary studies which ended up, in many HEIs, with a separation, both operational and psychological, between the disciplines of history & theory and studio. The Summerson Report of 1964, which reflected on the transition from N.D.D. to Dip.A.D., was particularly critical of institutions' efforts in respect of History of Art and Complementary Studies. That assessment was perhaps unkind, as academic teams had had little more than a year post-Coldstream to implement new programmes in this area to meet the standards of Summerson's visiting panels. Whatever the case, the report was indeed sceptical, not only towards HACS, and many institutions did not at first secure approval for the award of Dip.A.D. At this point, for the purposes of securing Ministry approval, many programmes in HACS were devised expediently by newly recruited staff tasked to develop, and quickly, a discrete discipline area, one amongst five as described by Coldstream. An unfortunate - although predictable - upshot of the strategic work in the 1960s was the adoption by HACS faculty members of the mantle of protector of academic standards, which served to establish and/or reinforce an ontological distinction between theoretical and conceptual work on the one hand, and practical and technical work on the other. Counterforces to this authority were the far-reaching conclusions of poststructuralism and postmodernism in the academy of the 1970s and 80s. Not twenty years after Summerson, it became untenable to claim from the vantage point of 'history of art and complementary studies' that there was an inviolable form of culture that must be meted out in uniform ways to students of art, design and architecture. While it is beyond doubt, the poststructuralists said, that certain artworks, designed objects and buildings were brought into the world at certain times in our cultural history, what is undoubtedly a matter of doubt is the definitive meaning of those creative phenomena. So, an omnipresent message in education of the late 20thC, for better or for worse, was (and still is in less militant form) that knowledge is not delivered beyond doubt by the HACS department nor for that matter by the productions of the creative practitioner. Rather, knowledge is a constructive process which involves the reader as much as the author; the artist as much as the theorist; the social as much as the individual; the student as much as the teacher, and so on. An interesting consequence of this late-century challenge to accepted canons of knowledge was the pragmatist's association of the working process of the artist and designer with the manner in which knowledge is brought into the world, namely, through a networked process of testing through practice. Drawing, for example, was cited by commentators as a touchstone of new conceptions of knowledge production: all 'marks' or 'facts' are subject to erasure, overlay, rubbing out, and all marks are, in part, determined by the structure of the drawing itself as well as by factors external to its own logic. As blogging, wiki-ing and twittering now suggest, all individuals can 'draw', all individuals can make their mark in the fluid construction of fields of knowledge. Acknowledging the epistemological and philosophical pressures outlined above, and taking cognisance of 'open school' discourse prevalent today, this paper looks at what shape a contemporary HACS operation might take in the art academy of the 21stC, with reference to contemporary policy priorities in the fields of art, design and architecture education. It looks to contemporary activity in studio and curatorial practice for explanatory models of knowledge production and dissemination, and reflects on the significance of the Coldstream and Summerson reports for art education today.

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el comportamiento del consumidor venezolano en general, y del habitante de la capital de Venezuela, en particular, a partir de información correspondiente a datos de corte transversal de los gastos realizados por aquéllos, medidos a partir de la más reciente Encuesta de Presupuestos Familiares (EPF) realizada y disponible en Venezuela (correspondiente al periodo de recolección de datos 2004-2005). El caso de estudio se ubica en un entorno caracterizado por la transición desde una situación de caída significativa del ingreso real de los consumidores en los primeros años de la década iniciada en el 2000 (con sus consecuentes efectos registrados en la caída del consumo alimentario), a otro en el que los ingresos reales del consumidor venezolano comienzan a crecer gradualmente (fundamentalmente debido al ingente aumento de precios internacionales del petróleo registrados desde el 2003, lo que a su vez permitió al gobierno nacional aumentar el gasto público con orientación social). En este contexto se estimaron los sistemas de demanda para el caso del Distrito Federal, a partir de dos modelos: el denominado por el autor Modelo 1, en donde el gasto de un hogar i (o vivienda, que era la unidad de observación muestral) en una subcategoría j de gasto alimentario era una función del gasto total mensual en alimentos realizado por ese hogar; y el Modelo 2, en donde el gasto del hogar (vivienda) i en la subcategoría j de gasto alimentario es una función del ingreso total mensual de ese hogar. Dada la forma de especificación de las variables y del modelo utilizado, los valores obtenidos corresponden directamente a los coeficientes de elasticidad. Los valores de los estimadores obtenidos en el primero de los modelos resultaron ser significativos a cualquier nivel, siendo casi todos inelásticos. Los coeficientes de elasticidad-renta que resultaron ser menores que la unidad mostraron valores entre 0,02 y 0,91, corroborando así su carácter de bienes normales necesarios. Los valores más inelásticos se observaron en la subcategoría de Gastos de alimentación fuera del hogar. Los resultados de la estimación del Modelo 2 resultaron todos menores que la unidad, siendo los más inelásticos obtenidos para la subcategoría de gastos en Pescados, Leche y derivados, Huevos, Grasas. La mayor utilidad de la investigación radica en la posibilidad de estimar modelos de demanda (comportamiento del consumidor) a partir de fuentes secundarias como las EPF (hecha con meros fines de ponderación de índices de precios), así como la posibilidad de predecir el signo y orden de magnitud de los cambios en el comportamiento del consumidor en un entorno donde los precios de los alimentos y los ingresos de los consumidores cambian constantemente. ; The main objectives of this paper it to analyze the Venezuelan consumer behavior, in general, particularly the case of Caracas inhabitant consumer. Thus, the author uses cross-section data of Households Budget Surveys (HBS), the most recently available in the Venezuelan case (this survey was applied between years 2004 and 2005). This is a period characterized by a strong decreasing in the real income of consumers -which began at the early 2000 decade, with a significant decreasing food consumption-, followed by another period when Venezuelan consumer incomes began to grow –due to, mainly, the raise on international oil prices since 2003, which let to the Venezuelan government to increase the social public expenditure. Two demand system were estimated by using the Linear Expenditure System (LES) of Stone: i) Model 1, where household i expenditure (or house, in fact the sample unit in the survey) in any j category of food expenditure is a function of the total monthly food expenditure of this household; and ii) Model 2, where household i expenditure in any j category of food expenditure is a function of the total monthly income received by this household. Due to functional ways of variables specification and the kind of used model, the estimated values were directly the elasticity coefficients. In the first model, the whole of estimated coefficients were statistically significant at any level, most of the inelastic. However, some of the income elasticity showed values between 0.02 and 0.91, suggesting a necessary normal goods case. Most inelastic values were found in the case of Food expenditures out of home category. All the coefficients in the Model 2 were less than 1, being most inelastic the estimated coefficients for Fish, Milk and derivatives, Eggs and Fats category. Such models let to researchers to calculate demand models since data initially collected for Price Index models calibration. Moreover, in an environment where food prices and consumer's incomes are frequently changing, these models let to predict –even their own limitations-, the sign and magnitude of consumer behavior in such cases. ; anidoriv@ula.ve

Education has always been a concern shared by the public, private and by the Church as a real power. The importance of education is given by many factors including the ability to disseminate ideas and the possibility of building new ones.The law has worked to rebuild the consecrations of the constitutional right to education and its legalization and regulation in different historical periods, so the analysis has been focused on the rules, staying in a purely positivist approach is that while Indeed, it is the center of the legal to do, so that research is today part of positivism and goes to the dogma, because this being a work that seeks to commemorate the bicentennial of the Constitution is necessary to bring the reconstruction and construction of the an inclusive history analysis, where the facts, context and principles are used as lenses for thinking about existing regulations in the period indicated.This article is dedicated to reconstructing the history of the period between 1830 and 1853 as a single source and takes the newspaper the Constitutional Cundinamarca This is intended to outline the controversies in education in this department, the research aims to conduct comparative analysis on the evolution and development of rights in every region of the country, then compare with the national statements and subsequent regulation generally.The article is divided into two parts, one devoted to the study of education in Colombia, its significance and content, is divided into three parts, the importance of education as the leaders of the era of Cundinamarca, the moral and healthy subjects Colombian education and the characteristics of the primary, the second part is devoted to the study of education from the scope and regulation, and is divided into three parts, the teaching of political economy, home education and the Code of public education. It is clarified that all appointments are not an author, since in the newspaper The Constitutional referenced are not the authors of the articles, it is clear that the editing and publication of the article. Additionally, it notes that this movement is bi-weekly newspaper, and the editors are trained in Christian doctrine. ; La educación ha sido siempre una preocupación compartida por los sectores públicos, privados y por la Iglesia como factor real de poder. La importancia de la educación está dada entre otros muchos factores por la capacidad de difusión de ideas y la posibilidad de construcción de otras nuevas.El derecho se ha ocupado de reconstruir las consagraciones constitucionales del derecho a la educación, así como su reglamentación y legali zación en los diferentes periodos históricos, con lo cual el análisis ha estado focalizado en la normatividad, quedándose en un enfoque netamente positivista que si bien es cierto, es el centro del que hacer jurídico, también lo es que la investigación que hoy nos ocupa parte del positivismo y llega hasta la dogmática, pues siendo este un trabajo que busca conmemorar el bicentenario constitucional es necesario aportarle a la reconstrucción y construcción de la historia un análisis incluyente, en donde los hechos, los contextos y los principios son utilizados como lentes para la reflexión sobre las normatividades existentes en el periodo señalado.Este artículo está dedicado a reconstruir la historia del periodo comprendido entre 1830 y 1853 y toma como fuente única el periódico "El Constitucional de Cundinamarca", con ello se pretende reseñar las controversias en materia educativa en este departamento, ya que la investigación busca realizar análisis comparativos acerca de la evolución y desarrollo de los derechos en cada una de las regiones del país, para luego confrontarlas con las declaraciones nacionales y su posterior regulación general.El artículo se divide en dos partes, la primera dedicada al estudio de la educación en Colombia, su importancia y contenidos, se divide en tres partes la importancia de la educación según los líderes de Cundinamarca de la época; la sana moral y otras asignaturas en la educación colombiana;y las características de la instrucción primaria; la segunda parte está dedicada al estudio de la educación desde su alcance y regulación, y se divide en tres partes, la enseñanza de la economía política, las casas de educación y el Código de instrucción pública. Se aclara que todas las citas no tienen un autor, puesto que en el periódico El Constitucional no aparecen referenciados los autores de los artículos, lo que si deja claro es la edición y la fecha de publicación del artículo. Adicionalmente, se anota que este periódico es de circulación quincenal, y que el cuerpo de sus redactores son políticos conservadores con formación en la doctrina cristiana.