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International audience ; Although nuclear energy forms an important and controversial part of polar history, its uses and misuses have so far received little attention from professional historians. Especially mobile nuclear reactors, as deployed for instance on the Antarctic continent, played an important role in the conquest of the polar regions. The Antarctic case presented here allows to illustrate the large diversity of issues involved in the American mobile nuclear reactor programme, ranging from economic considerations, over military strategy, to environmental and health concerns. During several decades, mobile nuclear power reactors were considered a cheap and clean solution, yet as this essay shows, history proved otherwise. None of the economic targets were met and in the case of the Antarctic reactor, repeated failures and even radioactive leakages lead finally to the shutdown of the whole programme. ; Même si l'énergie nucléaire joue un rôle important et controversé dans l'histoire polaire, son usage et son mésusage ont reçu très peu d'attention de la part des historiens. Les réacteurs nucléaires mobiles en particulier, tels qu'ils ont été mis en oeuvre sur le continent antarctique, ont occupé une fonction cruciale dans la conquête des régions polaires. Le cas antarctique présenté ici permet d'illustrer la grande diversité des éléments invoqués dans le programme étatsunien de réacteurs nucléaires mobiles, allant de considérations économiques, en passant par la stratégie militaire, à des inquiétudes environnementales et de santé publique. Pendant plusieurs décennies, les réacteurs nucléaires mobiles ont été considérés une solution peu couteuse et propre, mais comme nous allons arguer ci-dessous, l'histoire en a voulu autrement. Aucun des objectifs économiques ne fut atteint et dans le cas du réacteur en Antarctique, de nombreuses coupures et même des fuites radioactives ont amené enfin à l'abandon du programme.

This thesis aims at highlighting the ethical, metaphysical and aesthetic questions that arise in the mature works of the Austrian author Hugo von Hofmannsthal. After having dealt with Hofmannsthal's original dilemma between opposing conceptions of the world and of his own existence, this work considers the two versions of The Woman without a Shadow. This opus is the first expression at maturity of his aesthetic whose underlying metaphysical foundation it enlightens.The experience of First World War, subject of our third chapter, compelled Hofmannsthal to widen the scope of his thoughts. His later plays illustrate which ethical conducts should rule individuals in a given society as well as between the peoples in Europe. The Salzburg Great World Theaterwhich is the focus of our fourth chapter, sets the pattern of his social ethics inspired by the principles of the social doctrine of the Church. As for The Tower, a tragedy which we will deeply analyse in our fifth chapter, it sketches his ethics for political action. The purpose of this play is indeed to advocate peace in Europe while helping nations to achieve higher standard of Humanity. ; L'objet de cette thèse est de mettre en lumière les interrogations éthiques, métaphysiques et esthétiques qui accompagnent la production des œuvres de maturité de !'écrivain autrichien Hugo von Hofmannsthal. Après avoir rappelé ses hésitations initiales entre des conceptions du monde et de l'existence distinctes, ce travail envisage les deux versions de la Femme sans ombre. Cette œuvre offre une première expression de son esthétique de maturité dont elle éclaire aussi les fondements métaphysiques. L'expérience de la Première Guerre mondiale, analysée dans le troisième chapitre, conduit Hofmannsthal à élargir le champ de ses réflexions. Son œuvre dramatique devient l'illustration des principes éthiques devant régler les échanges entre les membres d'une même société ainsi qu'entre les peuples d'Europe. Le Grand Théâtre du monde à Salzbourg, dont l'examen occupe le quatrième ...

Although the term "cluster" has been widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that the cultural cluster takes different forms. We will try to show through this analysis, what are the specificities of a particular type of cluster: metropolitan cultural clusters. Their edification is part of a dual desire to build new political objects in a new way. These clusters can be considered new political objects by their hybrid nature. They depend on both public policies and urban, economic and cultural dynamics.To better understand our research subject we will adopt a multidisciplinary scientific approach to be at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach. In short, it is a question of seeing how the evolution of these clusters is structured through the relationships between actors, of clarifying the logics behind these projects, the choices, the conflicts and the changes of position of the actors. Less sectoral and more territorialized, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where processes matter more than results. These processes will be the core of our analysis and we will seek to understand their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes governance. These projects defend themselves from adopting a top down approach, decided «from the top to the bottom» and assume a development that would be organic, whose strategies would not be frozen and would evolve according to opportunities. Despite these wishes, the cultural clusters we are studying bear the stigma of the past. The term cluster is inherited from industrial policies. The coordination methods of the players in these clusters seem to be fixed in old models and much less open than they suggest. Starting from case studies, and thanks to an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind this cultural cluster term. Through a longitudinal approach we will retrace the evolution of their objectives, whose factors we will seek to identify. ...

Although the term "cluster" has been widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that the cultural cluster takes different forms. We will try to show through this analysis, what are the specificities of a particular type of cluster: metropolitan cultural clusters. Their edification is part of a dual desire to build new political objects in a new way. These clusters can be considered new political objects by their hybrid nature. They depend on both public policies and urban, economic and cultural dynamics.To better understand our research subject we will adopt a multidisciplinary scientific approach to be at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach. In short, it is a question of seeing how the evolution of these clusters is structured through the relationships between actors, of clarifying the logics behind these projects, the choices, the conflicts and the changes of position of the actors. Less sectoral and more territorialized, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where processes matter more than results. These processes will be the core of our analysis and we will seek to understand their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes governance. These projects defend themselves from adopting a top down approach, decided «from the top to the bottom» and assume a development that would be organic, whose strategies would not be frozen and would evolve according to opportunities. Despite these wishes, the cultural clusters we are studying bear the stigma of the past. The term cluster is inherited from industrial policies. The coordination methods of the players in these clusters seem to be fixed in old models and much less open than they suggest. Starting from case studies, and thanks to an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind this cultural cluster term. Through a longitudinal approach we will retrace the evolution of their objectives, whose factors we will seek to identify. ...

Although the term "cluster" has been widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that the cultural cluster takes different forms. We will try to show through this analysis, what are the specificities of a particular type of cluster: metropolitan cultural clusters. Their edification is part of a dual desire to build new political objects in a new way. These clusters can be considered new political objects by their hybrid nature. They depend on both public policies and urban, economic and cultural dynamics.To better understand our research subject we will adopt a multidisciplinary scientific approach to be at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach. In short, it is a question of seeing how the evolution of these clusters is structured through the relationships between actors, of clarifying the logics behind these projects, the choices, the conflicts and the changes of position of the actors. Less sectoral and more territorialized, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where processes matter more than results. These processes will be the core of our analysis and we will seek to understand their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes governance. These projects defend themselves from adopting a top down approach, decided «from the top to the bottom» and assume a development that would be organic, whose strategies would not be frozen and would evolve according to opportunities. Despite these wishes, the cultural clusters we are studying bear the stigma of the past. The term cluster is inherited from industrial policies. The coordination methods of the players in these clusters seem to be fixed in old models and much less open than they suggest. Starting from case studies, and thanks to an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind this cultural cluster term. Through a longitudinal approach we will retrace the evolution of their objectives, whose factors we will seek to identify. This thesis proposes a renewed reading of the dynamics of cultural clusters. It is based on concepts derived from evolutionary theories. How, by mobilizing them, can we better understand the strategic bifurcations of the Nantes, Barcelona and Québec clusters? In other words, what do these concepts teach us about the determinants of flexibility? The conclusions will highlight the regular mechanisms that drive the evolution processes of metropolitan cultural clusters." ; Bien que le terme de « cluster » soit largement répandu dans les milieux académiques et politiques depuis les années 1990, nous verrons que le cluster culturel revêt différentes formes. Nous tenterons de montrer à travers cette analyse, quelles sont les spécificités d'un type de cluster bien particulier : les clusters culturels métropolitains. Leur édification s'inscrit dans une volonté qui est double celle de construire de nouveaux objets politiques d'une nouvelle manière. Ces clusters peuvent être considérés comme de nouveaux objets politiques de par leur nature hybride. Ils dépendent à la fois de politiques publiques et de dynamiques urbaines, économiques et culturelles. Pour mieux appréhender notre objet de recherche nous adopterons une approche scientifique pluridisciplinaire pour se situer à l'intersection de ces trois perspectives. Telle est l'originalité de notre démarche. En somme, il s'agit de voir comment se structure l'évolution de ces clusters à travers les rapports entre acteurs, d'éclairer les logiques qui sont derrières ces projets, les choix, les conflits et les changements de position des acteurs. Moins sectoriels et plus territorialisés, les clusters culturels métropolitains sont basés sur des projets où les processus comptent plus que les résultats. Ces processus constitueront le cœur de notre analyse et nous chercherons à comprendre leurs dynamiques. La « nouvelle manière de faire » fait directement écho à la gouvernance. Ces projets se défendent d'adopter une approche top down, décidée « par le haut pour le bas » et assument un développement qui serait organique, dont les stratégies ne seraient pas figées et évolueraient en fonction d'opportunités. Malgré ces volontés, les clusters culturels que nous étudions portent les stigmates du passé. Le terme de cluster est hérité en effet de politiques industrielles. Les méthodes de coordination des acteurs de ces clusters semblent figées dans d'anciens modèles et bien moins ouverts qu'ils ne le laissent supposer. En partant d'études de cas, et grâce à une analyse comparée internationale, nous mettrons en exergue la complexité qui se cache derrière ce terme de cluster culturel. Grâce à une approche longitudinale nous retracerons l'évolution de leurs objectifs dont nous chercherons à identifier les facteurs. Cette thèse propose une lecture renouvelée de la dynamique des clusters culturels. Elle s'appuie sur les concepts issus des théories évolutionnistes. Comment, en les mobilisant, peut–on mieux appréhender les bifurcations stratégiques des clusters de Nantes, Barcelone et Québec ? Autrement dit, que nous apprennent ces concepts sur les déterminants de la flexibilité ? Les conclusions mettront en exergue les mécanismes réguliers qui conduisent les processus d'évolution des clusters culturels métropolitains ».

Although the term "cluster" has been widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that the cultural cluster takes different forms. We will try to show through this analysis, what are the specificities of a particular type of cluster: metropolitan cultural clusters. Their edification is part of a dual desire to build new political objects in a new way. These clusters can be considered new political objects by their hybrid nature. They depend on both public policies and urban, economic and cultural dynamics.To better understand our research subject we will adopt a multidisciplinary scientific approach to be at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach. In short, it is a question of seeing how the evolution of these clusters is structured through the relationships between actors, of clarifying the logics behind these projects, the choices, the conflicts and the changes of position of the actors. Less sectoral and more territorialized, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where processes matter more than results. These processes will be the core of our analysis and we will seek to understand their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes governance. These projects defend themselves from adopting a top down approach, decided «from the top to the bottom» and assume a development that would be organic, whose strategies would not be frozen and would evolve according to opportunities. Despite these wishes, the cultural clusters we are studying bear the stigma of the past. The term cluster is inherited from industrial policies. The coordination methods of the players in these clusters seem to be fixed in old models and much less open than they suggest. Starting from case studies, and thanks to an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind this cultural cluster term. Through a longitudinal approach we will retrace the evolution of their objectives, whose factors we will seek to identify. ...

Although the term "cluster" has been widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that the cultural cluster takes different forms. We will try to show through this analysis, what are the specificities of a particular type of cluster: metropolitan cultural clusters. Their edification is part of a dual desire to build new political objects in a new way. These clusters can be considered new political objects by their hybrid nature. They depend on both public policies and urban, economic and cultural dynamics.To better understand our research subject we will adopt a multidisciplinary scientific approach to be at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach. In short, it is a question of seeing how the evolution of these clusters is structured through the relationships between actors, of clarifying the logics behind these projects, the choices, the conflicts and the changes of position of the actors. Less sectoral and more territorialized, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where processes matter more than results. These processes will be the core of our analysis and we will seek to understand their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes governance. These projects defend themselves from adopting a top down approach, decided «from the top to the bottom» and assume a development that would be organic, whose strategies would not be frozen and would evolve according to opportunities. Despite these wishes, the cultural clusters we are studying bear the stigma of the past. The term cluster is inherited from industrial policies. The coordination methods of the players in these clusters seem to be fixed in old models and much less open than they suggest. Starting from case studies, and thanks to an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind this cultural cluster term. Through a longitudinal approach we will retrace the evolution of their objectives, whose factors we will seek to identify. This thesis proposes a renewed reading of the dynamics of cultural clusters. It is based on concepts derived from evolutionary theories. How, by mobilizing them, can we better understand the strategic bifurcations of the Nantes, Barcelona and Québec clusters? In other words, what do these concepts teach us about the determinants of flexibility? The conclusions will highlight the regular mechanisms that drive the evolution processes of metropolitan cultural clusters." ; Bien que le terme de « cluster » soit largement répandu dans les milieux académiques et politiques depuis les années 1990, nous verrons que le cluster culturel revêt différentes formes. Nous tenterons de montrer à travers cette analyse, quelles sont les spécificités d'un type de cluster bien particulier : les clusters culturels métropolitains. Leur édification s'inscrit dans une volonté qui est double celle de construire de nouveaux objets politiques d'une nouvelle manière. Ces clusters peuvent être considérés comme de nouveaux objets politiques de par leur nature hybride. Ils dépendent à la fois de politiques publiques et de dynamiques urbaines, économiques et culturelles. Pour mieux appréhender notre objet de recherche nous adopterons une approche scientifique pluridisciplinaire pour se situer à l'intersection de ces trois perspectives. Telle est l'originalité de notre démarche. En somme, il s'agit de voir comment se structure l'évolution de ces clusters à travers les rapports entre acteurs, d'éclairer les logiques qui sont derrières ces projets, les choix, les conflits et les changements de position des acteurs. Moins sectoriels et plus territorialisés, les clusters culturels métropolitains sont basés sur des projets où les processus comptent plus que les résultats. Ces processus constitueront le cœur de notre analyse et nous chercherons à comprendre leurs dynamiques. La « nouvelle manière de faire » fait directement écho à la gouvernance. Ces projets se défendent d'adopter une approche top down, décidée « par le haut pour le bas » et assument un développement qui serait organique, dont les stratégies ne seraient pas figées et évolueraient en fonction d'opportunités. Malgré ces volontés, les clusters culturels que nous étudions portent les stigmates du passé. Le terme de cluster est hérité en effet de politiques industrielles. Les méthodes de coordination des acteurs de ces clusters semblent figées dans d'anciens modèles et bien moins ouverts qu'ils ne le laissent supposer. En partant d'études de cas, et grâce à une analyse comparée internationale, nous mettrons en exergue la complexité qui se cache derrière ce terme de cluster culturel. Grâce à une approche longitudinale nous retracerons l'évolution de leurs objectifs dont nous chercherons à identifier les facteurs. Cette thèse propose une lecture renouvelée de la dynamique des clusters culturels. Elle s'appuie sur les concepts issus des théories évolutionnistes. Comment, en les mobilisant, peut–on mieux appréhender les bifurcations stratégiques des clusters de Nantes, Barcelone et Québec ? Autrement dit, que nous apprennent ces concepts sur les déterminants de la flexibilité ? Les conclusions mettront en exergue les mécanismes réguliers qui conduisent les processus d'évolution des clusters culturels métropolitains ».

International audience ; La finalité poursuivie par les interventions étatiques ne peuvent pas suffire à les faire échapper à la qualification d'aides d'Etat au sens du traité. Une écotaxe aussi spécifique soit-elle ne constitue pas un système fiscal autonome.

International audience ; La finalité poursuivie par les interventions étatiques ne peuvent pas suffire à les faire échapper à la qualification d'aides d'Etat au sens du traité. Une écotaxe aussi spécifique soit-elle ne constitue pas un système fiscal autonome.

Although the term "cluster" is widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that cultural clusters take different forms. This analysis will underline the characteristics of a very specific type of cluster: the metropolitan cultural cluster. Their construction is part of a double intention : building new policy objects in an original way. These clusters can be considered as new public policy tools because of their hybrid nature. They depend on urban, economic and cultural dynamics. To better understand our research object we will use a multidisciplinary scientific approach at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach.To sum up our work, we will see how the development of these clusters is structured through the relationship between stakeholders. We will focus on the logics that are behind these projects, choices, conflicts and changes in stakeholder's positions.Less sectional, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where the process is more important than the result. These processes are at the centre of our analysis and we will focus on their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes with governance. The projects at the basis of metropolitan cultural clusters advocate an organic development where strategies are not static and where they evolve according to opportunities. Despite these intentions, the cultural clusters we study are largely influenced by earlier forms of clusters. The term itself is inherited from industrial policy. The methods of governance in these clusters seem frozen in old models and less flexible than they are supposed to be. They derive from a top-down approach, decided "by the top for the bottom". Starting from case studies and through an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind the term cultural cluster. Adopting a continuous approach, we will trace the evolution of their objectives and seek to identify evolution factors. This thesis proposes a new ...

Although the term "cluster" is widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that cultural clusters take different forms. This analysis will underline the characteristics of a very specific type of cluster: the metropolitan cultural cluster. Their construction is part of a double intention : building new policy objects in an original way. These clusters can be considered as new public policy tools because of their hybrid nature. They depend on urban, economic and cultural dynamics. To better understand our research object we will use a multidisciplinary scientific approach at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach.To sum up our work, we will see how the development of these clusters is structured through the relationship between stakeholders. We will focus on the logics that are behind these projects, choices, conflicts and changes in stakeholder's positions.Less sectional, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where the process is more important than the result. These processes are at the centre of our analysis and we will focus on their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes with governance. The projects at the basis of metropolitan cultural clusters advocate an organic development where strategies are not static and where they evolve according to opportunities. Despite these intentions, the cultural clusters we study are largely influenced by earlier forms of clusters. The term itself is inherited from industrial policy. The methods of governance in these clusters seem frozen in old models and less flexible than they are supposed to be. They derive from a top-down approach, decided "by the top for the bottom". Starting from case studies and through an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind the term cultural cluster. Adopting a continuous approach, we will trace the evolution of their objectives and seek to identify evolution factors. This thesis proposes a new ...

Although the term "cluster" is widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that cultural clusters take different forms. This analysis will underline the characteristics of a very specific type of cluster: the metropolitan cultural cluster. Their construction is part of a double intention : building new policy objects in an original way. These clusters can be considered as new public policy tools because of their hybrid nature. They depend on urban, economic and cultural dynamics. To better understand our research object we will use a multidisciplinary scientific approach at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach.To sum up our work, we will see how the development of these clusters is structured through the relationship between stakeholders. We will focus on the logics that are behind these projects, choices, conflicts and changes in stakeholder's positions.Less sectional, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where the process is more important than the result. These processes are at the centre of our analysis and we will focus on their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes with governance. The projects at the basis of metropolitan cultural clusters advocate an organic development where strategies are not static and where they evolve according to opportunities. Despite these intentions, the cultural clusters we study are largely influenced by earlier forms of clusters. The term itself is inherited from industrial policy. The methods of governance in these clusters seem frozen in old models and less flexible than they are supposed to be. They derive from a top-down approach, decided "by the top for the bottom". Starting from case studies and through an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind the term cultural cluster. Adopting a continuous approach, we will trace the evolution of their objectives and seek to identify evolution factors. This thesis proposes a new perspective on the dynamics of cultural clusters. It draws on concepts from evolutionary theories. How do these concepts allow us to better understand the bifurcation strategies in the clusters of Nantes, Barcelona and Quebec? In other words, what do these concepts teach us on the determinants of flexibility?The conclusion will highlight the regular mechanisms that drive the evolution processes of metropolitan cultural clusters. ; Bien que le terme de « cluster » soit largement répandu dans les milieux académiques et politiques depuis les années 1990, nous verrons que le cluster culturel revêt différentes formes. Nous tenterons de montrer à travers cette analyse, quelles sont les spécificités d'un type de cluster bien particulier : les clusters culturels métropolitains. Leur édification s'inscrit dans une volonté qui est double celle de construire de nouveaux objets politiques d'une nouvelle manière. Ces clusters peuvent être considérés comme de nouveaux objets politiques de par leur nature hybride. Ils dépendent à la fois de politiques publiques et de dynamiques urbaines, économiques et culturelles. Pour mieux appréhender notre objet de recherche nous adopterons une approche scientifique pluridisciplinaire pour se situer à l'intersection de ces trois perspectives. Telle est l'originalité de notre démarche.En somme, il s'agit de voir comment se structure l'évolution de ces clusters à travers les rapports entre acteurs, d'éclairer les logiques qui sont derrières ces projets, les choix, les conflits et les changements de position des acteurs.Moins sectoriels et plus territorialisés, les clusters culturels métropolitains sont basés sur des projets où les processus comptent plus que les résultats. Ces processus constitueront le cœur de notre analyse et nous chercherons à comprendre leurs dynamiques. La « nouvelle manière de faire » fait directement écho à la gouvernance. Ces projets se défendent d'adopter une approche top down, décidée « par le haut pour le bas » et assument un développement qui serait organique, dont les stratégies ne seraient pas figées et évolueraient en fonction d'opportunités. Malgré ces volontés, les clusters culturels que nous étudions portent les stigmates du passé. Le terme de cluster est hérité en effet de politiques industrielles. Les méthodes de coordination des acteurs de ces clusters semblent figées dans d'anciens modèles et bien moins ouverts qu'ils ne le laissent supposer.En partant d'études de cas, et grâce à une analyse comparée internationale, nous mettrons en exergue la complexité qui se cache derrière ce terme de cluster culturel. Grâce à une approche longitudinale nous retracerons l'évolution de leurs objectifs dont nous chercherons à identifier les facteurs. Cette thèse propose une lecture renouvelée de la dynamique des clusters culturels. Elle s'appuie sur les concepts issus des théories évolutionnistes. Comment, en les mobilisant, peut-on mieux appréhender les bifurcations stratégiques des clusters de Nantes, Barcelone et Québec ? Autrement dit, que nous apprennent ces concepts sur les déterminants de la flexibilité ? Les conclusions mettront en exergue les mécanismes réguliers qui conduisent les processus d'évolution des clusters culturels métropolitains. Le cluster culturel apparait comme un prétexte pour étudier plus finement les logiques de construction de projets dans les villes contemporaines.

Although the term "cluster" is widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that cultural clusters take different forms. This analysis will underline the characteristics of a very specific type of cluster: the metropolitan cultural cluster. Their construction is part of a double intention : building new policy objects in an original way. These clusters can be considered as new public policy tools because of their hybrid nature. They depend on urban, economic and cultural dynamics. To better understand our research object we will use a multidisciplinary scientific approach at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach.To sum up our work, we will see how the development of these clusters is structured through the relationship between stakeholders. We will focus on the logics that are behind these projects, choices, conflicts and changes in stakeholder's positions.Less sectional, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where the process is more important than the result. These processes are at the centre of our analysis and we will focus on their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes with governance. The projects at the basis of metropolitan cultural clusters advocate an organic development where strategies are not static and where they evolve according to opportunities. Despite these intentions, the cultural clusters we study are largely influenced by earlier forms of clusters. The term itself is inherited from industrial policy. The methods of governance in these clusters seem frozen in old models and less flexible than they are supposed to be. They derive from a top-down approach, decided "by the top for the bottom". Starting from case studies and through an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind the term cultural cluster. Adopting a continuous approach, we will trace the evolution of their objectives and seek to identify evolution factors. This thesis proposes a new ...

Although the term "cluster" is widely used in academic and political circles since the 1990s, we will see that cultural clusters take different forms. This analysis will underline the characteristics of a very specific type of cluster: the metropolitan cultural cluster. Their construction is part of a double intention : building new policy objects in an original way. These clusters can be considered as new public policy tools because of their hybrid nature. They depend on urban, economic and cultural dynamics. To better understand our research object we will use a multidisciplinary scientific approach at the intersection of these three perspectives. This is the originality of our approach.To sum up our work, we will see how the development of these clusters is structured through the relationship between stakeholders. We will focus on the logics that are behind these projects, choices, conflicts and changes in stakeholder's positions.Less sectional, metropolitan cultural clusters are based on projects where the process is more important than the result. These processes are at the centre of our analysis and we will focus on their dynamics. The "new way of doing things" directly echoes with governance. The projects at the basis of metropolitan cultural clusters advocate an organic development where strategies are not static and where they evolve according to opportunities. Despite these intentions, the cultural clusters we study are largely influenced by earlier forms of clusters. The term itself is inherited from industrial policy. The methods of governance in these clusters seem frozen in old models and less flexible than they are supposed to be. They derive from a top-down approach, decided "by the top for the bottom". Starting from case studies and through an international comparative analysis, we will highlight the complexity behind the term cultural cluster. Adopting a continuous approach, we will trace the evolution of their objectives and seek to identify evolution factors. This thesis proposes a new perspective on the dynamics of cultural clusters. It draws on concepts from evolutionary theories. How do these concepts allow us to better understand the bifurcation strategies in the clusters of Nantes, Barcelona and Quebec? In other words, what do these concepts teach us on the determinants of flexibility?The conclusion will highlight the regular mechanisms that drive the evolution processes of metropolitan cultural clusters. ; Bien que le terme de « cluster » soit largement répandu dans les milieux académiques et politiques depuis les années 1990, nous verrons que le cluster culturel revêt différentes formes. Nous tenterons de montrer à travers cette analyse, quelles sont les spécificités d'un type de cluster bien particulier : les clusters culturels métropolitains. Leur édification s'inscrit dans une volonté qui est double celle de construire de nouveaux objets politiques d'une nouvelle manière. Ces clusters peuvent être considérés comme de nouveaux objets politiques de par leur nature hybride. Ils dépendent à la fois de politiques publiques et de dynamiques urbaines, économiques et culturelles. Pour mieux appréhender notre objet de recherche nous adopterons une approche scientifique pluridisciplinaire pour se situer à l'intersection de ces trois perspectives. Telle est l'originalité de notre démarche.En somme, il s'agit de voir comment se structure l'évolution de ces clusters à travers les rapports entre acteurs, d'éclairer les logiques qui sont derrières ces projets, les choix, les conflits et les changements de position des acteurs.Moins sectoriels et plus territorialisés, les clusters culturels métropolitains sont basés sur des projets où les processus comptent plus que les résultats. Ces processus constitueront le cœur de notre analyse et nous chercherons à comprendre leurs dynamiques. La « nouvelle manière de faire » fait directement écho à la gouvernance. Ces projets se défendent d'adopter une approche top down, décidée « par le haut pour le bas » et assument un développement qui serait organique, dont les stratégies ne seraient pas figées et évolueraient en fonction d'opportunités. Malgré ces volontés, les clusters culturels que nous étudions portent les stigmates du passé. Le terme de cluster est hérité en effet de politiques industrielles. Les méthodes de coordination des acteurs de ces clusters semblent figées dans d'anciens modèles et bien moins ouverts qu'ils ne le laissent supposer.En partant d'études de cas, et grâce à une analyse comparée internationale, nous mettrons en exergue la complexité qui se cache derrière ce terme de cluster culturel. Grâce à une approche longitudinale nous retracerons l'évolution de leurs objectifs dont nous chercherons à identifier les facteurs. Cette thèse propose une lecture renouvelée de la dynamique des clusters culturels. Elle s'appuie sur les concepts issus des théories évolutionnistes. Comment, en les mobilisant, peut-on mieux appréhender les bifurcations stratégiques des clusters de Nantes, Barcelone et Québec ? Autrement dit, que nous apprennent ces concepts sur les déterminants de la flexibilité ? Les conclusions mettront en exergue les mécanismes réguliers qui conduisent les processus d'évolution des clusters culturels métropolitains. Le cluster culturel apparait comme un prétexte pour étudier plus finement les logiques de construction de projets dans les villes contemporaines.

Varia ; International audience ; The assassination of the last Intendant of Paris, Bertier de Sauvigny, which happened on the 22nd July 1789, was a milestone in the French Revolution. Because of the 14th July 1789's stir, in Europe and worldwide, this murder was overshadowed not only in historians' analysis but also in the minds of coevals and the following generations. We thought interesting to explain this event in the light of the monarchist authorities' behaviour confronted to the Parisian people's actions.The Parisian people reacted amply and violently during the month of July 1789: these popular reactions will be studied in a first part. This civil commotion was the result of a harsh social and economic context. In a second part, a focus will be made on the Intendant of Paris, considered as the embodiment of the people's troubles, and of the pressure from the royal troops. The Intendant was arrested in Compiègne, then executed by the riotous crowd on the Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville in Paris.This assassination had important political and penal consequences, studied in part three. The tragic end of the Intendant shows how successive dearths during the 18th century aroused the Parisian people's frustrations. An American historian–Steve Kaplan–called it the famine plot. ; L'assassinat du dernier Intendant de Paris, Bertier de Sauvigny, le 22 juillet 1789, constitue une date qui marqua les débuts de la Révolution française. Mais, dans le récit des premiers mois de cette dernière, ce fait fut quelque peu occulté par le retentissement au moins européen, sinon mondial, du 14 juillet 1789, pas seulement dans les analyses de beaucoup d'historiens, mais aussi dans la vision des contemporains de la Révolution et des générations suivantes. Il nous est apparu intéressant d'expliquer cet évènement à la lumière du comportement des autorités monarchiques face aux actions de la population parisienne.En juillet 1789, au moins à Paris, ces actions constituèrent même une véritable effervescence populaire, dont les causes font ...