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Issue 35.5 of the Review for Religious, 1976. ; REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS IS edited by faculty members of St Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Braiding, 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copyright (~) 1976 by REVlEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $2.00. Subscription U.S.A. and Canada: $7.00 a year; $13.00 for two years; other countries, $8.00 a year, $15.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be accompanied by check or money order payable to REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Change of address requests should include former address. Daniel F. X. Meenan, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Robert Williams, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Book Editor Assistant Editor September 1976 I"olume 35 Number 5 Renewals,-new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to REVIEW FOR RELICtOUS; P.O. BOX 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts and books for review should be sent to REVIEW FOrt REL~CIOt~S; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boule-vard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gailen, S.J.; St. Joseph's College; City Avenue at 54th Street; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19131. The Prayer of Jesus' Paul VI The Holy Father delivered the following address~ in the General Audience of June 14, 1976. The text is taken from Osservatore Roma/to, no. 26 (430), June 24, 1976. In these times, in these days so busy with human events, we are ~till mind- " ful of the spiritual cyclone that Pentecost was for the world and especially for the Church. We turn our thought again to prayer, to its legitimacy, its necessity, its procedure. We are well aware that the study of religions, the study of Christian prayer, the study of human psychology, have dwelt upon this expression of the human spirit. This almost places in a quandary one who, from such a great mass of experiences, customs and literature, wishes to draw a comprehensive and guiding idea,, sufficient for the modern secular man to classify in the summary of a mental index-card that which it is enough to know on this subject, now alien to his empirical and positive mentality. Accepting this imperious simplifying method, we conclude our reflection on prayer with two major propositions. These are: prayer, first, presupposes oft God's side an interest, a listening to the voices addressed to him by man, that is, a "Providence"; and, second, it presupposes on man's side, a hope, an expectation of being satisfied 'and helped. Thus we see that we have, it is true, constructed the essential pattern of prayer, that is, a possible con-versation betweeh man. and God, but that we still know very little, if any-thing, about the validity of this conversation. Is it an imaginary hypothesis, or does it really establish a relationship; a bilateral relationship, a bene-ficial relationship? Meaning of Prayer Well, among the greatest favors tha~t Christianity, faith, nay more Jesus 641 642 / Review lor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 Christ in person, conferred on mankind, there is precisely this real, valid, indispensable, very opportune prayer. Christ established communication between man and God; and this communication, which prevails over all our marvelous modern technical and social communications, has as its first, normal expression, prayer. Praying means communicating with God. Christ is himself this fundamental communication with the manifestation o[ himself. We enter the sanctuary of the exploration of who Christ is, the subject, today still, of tormented and, fundamentally, inevitably negative investigations for those who break with the Chalcedon definition of the one person of the Word, living in two natures, divinerand human (cf. Denz- Schoen. 301-302; Bouyer, Le Fils eternel, 469 ft.); the "bridge," as St. Catherine said (Dial 25, ft.). Jesus himself is the most luminous example of prayer, which, documented in the Gospel, becomes for us the highway to prayer and spiritual life. People who follow him and believe are still tireless students in this school. "By what way can I reach Christ and his message?", a well-known modern Catholic thinker asks himself; and he answers: "there is one very short and simple way: I look into the soul of Jesus as he prays, and 1 believe" (C. Adam, Cristo nostro Fratello, 37, see the fine chapter: "la preghiera di Gesh,"). And likewise the powerful synthesig on the "'Message de Jdsus,'" by L. De Grandmaison, Jdsus Christ, 1I, 347, ft.). Jesus Prays But, how and when did Jesus pray? Oh, how beautiful and instructive an excursion into the Gospel pages would be, picking like wildflowers the almost incidental references to the Lord's prayer! The" evangelist Mark writes: "And rising up long before daybreak, he (Jesus) went out (probably it was Peter's house, at Capharnaum, see V. 29), and departed into a desert place, and there he prayed" (1, 35). See, for example, after the multiplica-tion of the loaves: "And when he had dismissed the crowd, he went up the mountain by himself to pray. And when it was late, he Was alone" (Mt 14, 23). The Lord's prayers, about which the Gospel informs us, would deserve such long meditation. The famous one, for example, in chapter XI of Matthew, which lets us "enter the deepest secret of his life';: "At that time Jesus spoke and said. 'I praise thee Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that thou didst hide these things from the wise and prudent, and didst reveal them to little ones' " (verse 25). And what can we say of the prayer that concludes the talks of the Last Supper? "And raising his eyes to heaven, he said, 'Father, the hour has come!~-.Glorify thy Son, that thy Son may glorify thee', . " We recall it: it is the prayer for unity: "that all may be one" (Jn 17, 21-22). And then the triple groaning, heroic praye~" at Gethsemane, just before the passion: "Father, if thou art willing, remove this cup from me! Yet not my will but thine be done" (Lk 22, 42). The Prayer o] Jesus / 643 Union in prayer What a revelation not only of the drama of the Saviour's life, but also of the complexity and depth of human destinies, which even in their most tragic and mysterious expressions can be linked, by means of prayer, to the goodness, the mercy, the salvation deriving from God. Pray, then, like Jesus. Pray intensely. Pray today: always in the con-fident communion that prayer has established between us and the Father. Because it is to a father, it is to the Father that our humble voice is ad-dressed. So let it be, always. .O ¯ . . be silent now and try to listen within yourselves to an inner proclama-tion! The Lord is saying: "Be assured, i am with you" (see Mt 28:20). I am here. he is saying, because this is nay Body! This is the cup of my Blood!'. Yes, he is calling you, each one by. name! The mystery of the Eucharist is, above all, a personal mystery: personal, because of his divine presence-- the presence of Christ, the Word of God made man; personal, because the Eucharist is meant for each of us: for this reason Christ has become living bread, and js multiplied in the sacrament, in order 'to be accessible to every human being who receives him worthily, and who opens to him the door of faith and love. Paul VI to the Eucharistic Congress in L'Osservatore Romano, August 19, 1976, p. 3. Prayer Father Joris,, O.F.M. Father Joris (Heise) has taught scripture at St. Leonard's College in Dayton, has recently completed an as-yet-unpublished translation of the Gospel o] St. Matthew, and regularly contributes Old Testament exegesis to "Homily Helps" published by St. Anthony Messenger: he is presently on detached service in metropoliffan Washington. He usually signs his name simply Joris, in imitation of evangelical simplicity. Prayer is not a thing, not even an action. It is a quality, a dimension of living. Prayer is not the words you say. Jesus says for us togo into our cryptic place, and pray in the dark. He tells us not to say, "Lord, Lord!" He tells us not to go up front and rattle off repetitious or self-centered information. Prayerbooks--we will always have them. The Book of Psalms is the prayerbook, and it is a good one. It has in it litanies and moods and orchestras (Psalm 150); it stiggests common prayer and has some very pri-vate ones that are shared with the world. But no prayerbook is a prayer. Prayer is us, me, when I stop and my soul's face turns to God, when I really edge into desperation and need and joy. Prayer is that quality of openness that happens in response to discovery of newness, whether of pain, of belief, or sharing, or insight--into the real state of things. Prayer is that dimension when the person's bud blooms into a maturity beyond just coping, just drifting. For instance, when I talk with God (talking sort of to "myself) about how to treat some visitors who have complicated my life, really, and no particular answer is ready--that is prayer. When I find myself in a new territory where I do not have an answer at all, and I am waiting for onew that is prayer. When I discover someone else shares a shame or a wonder 644 Prayer / 645 or an interest--that discovering is itself a prayer. That edge-of-truth, like a blade that enters skin, is prayer. Established Prayer (the Pr,ayerbooks of Liturgy and Childhood) I received in the mail recen.tly a "prayerbook" that included many of my childhood prayers and songs: "The Way of the Cross," litanies, prayers to Mary, prayers to "Most Sweet Jesus." It served to remind me of the differences between Prayer and prayers, between the things, called "prayer" pointed to by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount and the kind of prayer he thought was right. ,, I think that children need "prayers." They need to hear litanies and to memorize grace at meals. They need to hear the repetitions of Mass prayers, the "Our Father," songs that will be sung over and over as "old favorites." I think that the.child who continues to live inside us throughout our lives--that child--needs to hear old and familiar "prayers" that give us a comfortable feeling, a sense of belonging here to the club of tradition. I think that this set of simple prayers, memorized, repetitious and senti-mental, needs to be accompanied by other non-verbal features: stained-glass windows, incense, vestments, an intonation of authority in the priestly voice, familiar tunes that are even mawkishly sentimental (like some Mary-hymns based on old romatic or drinking songs). But it is essential that we remember that these traditional prayers, as they are done, are done so as to cater to the child-in-us. If these are the only prayers, the only forms of prayer we_ take seriously, then we are not adults who have "turned and become a child again," but rather we are simply immature persons. We never grew up in the first place; we "fixated," to borrow a term from psychological jargon. Furthermore, a person who limits himself to forms that just come close to these, a person not creating his or her. own forms of prayer, will not enter the Kingdom of Heaven, as Jesus warned. They are receiving their reward already: the comfortedness they feel, the sense of belonging, the nurturedness, the peace. These are all qualities, of the drug world, too-- qualities condemned throughout th~ Gospels. It is a false world, a self-centered, self-rewarding form of prayer. It is valid for children and valid to begin with. It is not valid to stay there. It is the validity of blossom that needs the autumn fruit. Conversation ~vith God All of us talk tO ourselves. Sometimes we really talk, in deep conversa-tion, with other people. We reach a stage of conversation that is just more than usual, it means something more than the day-to-day exchange of com-ments. Prayer is that talking--that talking when we have no answer, when our need or, question or wonder or shame or comments form into words but 646 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 without any answer ready,set and cut. Not ~rambling;~on the contrary, the words focus some human matter that is definitely bothering us--or helping us grow. It is a moment when we gather "it" together and say it, not know-ing what the answer is or whether there is an answer. That is prayer--that "talking out" of what is inside of me. It has that quality of truth-which-is-more-than-facts, more than honesty even, because "honesty" is "saying something that is true." This "talking out" is the very creation of truth, the appearance of truth that is discovery of it. Real prayer is the birth of the words of truth--it has been carried inside of oneself, but has not yet come to light. Everybody who matures, 1 think, begins this conversation with God, this phrasing of problems (and expression of wonder and they are often the same thing. They certainly have the same quality.) ~ This kind of prayer-~-these prayers--occur during moments of pause and work, during habitual actions. (like driving, scrubbing, planning jobs, parties, schedules). They touch .significant elements of life as well as little things. (God is interested in it all, of course.) ~The solitary person as well as the very active person can discover to their surprise that they both do the very same thing on the inside--and perhaps spend as much time at it. Some people do it with deliberate advertence to God: the words are ad-dressed to "You, God." (Both the Tevye of Fiddler on the Roof and Jesus used such ~xpressions of direct address--they half, praise God for such good-ness and half-haggle with God about the possibilities of the future.) Other people are officially atheistic. The conversations of such people may, surprisingly, contain references to "God" in the form of cursing or "bad language"; and the surprise is that the very reference indicates the quality of prayer that it really is. I have. known an agnostic administrator-- a Dr. Bill Fitzgerald--whose determination 'and decisions were colored by some kind of "swearing": "By God, . . o " or "Jesus Christ! We're going to . " I studied his habit and noticed that he used these words only in connection with this quality of truth, this edging into a real commitment, this formulating of a communion of the office people so that .action would result. It was a "creation of truth"--and I found it funny that the little '~flag of prayer" was his reference to God. Still others do not connect their serious self-conversations with "re-ligion" or God. But they are prayer, they are real prayer. They are truth emerging and commitment forming. They are care rising into practice. They are small and large crises--listening then for what is the "right thing to do." They are a turning on of the radio to the "station" of God. The very turning on is the listening for God, the words that come to mind are the presence of fresh truth; the coining of the phrases the way the situation appears--is itself the belief in solution, the belief that some intrusion, from somewhere, from Someone, can measure up to the words uttered. Prayer / 647 Into the darkness the words go, and a response is expected that may be beyond words. Such a "conversation" is of God, is prayer. Beyond Conversation with God Years ago, some monk wrote a book titled something like Common Mystical 'Prayer. His point as I recall it, was tO ~.say that "mystical prayer" is far more common than we suppose. I'agree with that monk. Prayer is a quality, a facet, of the good person, it is a habit or even a limb of the good person.In the end, 1 cannot picture a good person without a "side" that is prayer--a side that faces God nor-mally, continuously. Bye that I mean that, besides successful actions~ deliberateness, care, kindness, strength and truth, there is in the good person an attention to what is, right, an internal facing forwards that is nothing else but prayer. By prayer here I mean that quality of a person which is his or her validity-and-awareness, an aliveness that is more than simply living. To be alive is a gift. It happens to every human being born and growing. But prayer is the "choice to live" and the many ramifications of that choice --all the nobility and pain and acceptance which mark the person who is doing more than "suffering through life." In other Words, prayer is as~integral to the good person as blood; as thought, as the electrical charge of all the body's cells. Prayer is the mystery gurrounding someone who is "different" when we cannot quite say why he is different. Prayer is the "reason" for our feeling that this person is mature and that ~person is not; prayer is the quality bf deliberateness that makes some mistakes "all right," but other mistakes are in fact ',guilty" ones. Prayer is the humble honesty of a person who retrieves a mistake or failure, and converts it into a more valuable event than could be thought. Prayer is the, power to make decisions on a basis deeper than the facts would indi, cate, on principles beyond the conflicting, shallower principles of popular debating. Prayer is the way we are--the whole root of, and then reflection on the meaning of the decisions that we make. Prayer is the connection we keep making .between the momentary commitments and the larger ripples--and ultimate results, those commitments which we make in our lifetime and in our world. Prayer is the belief that everything I do has meaning--and mean-ings-- touching far beyond what I can see. And so i need a constant help in doing them. God, of course, is the you for whom this attention, this search for principles, this belief in. value, is done. It is not that we pay attention to a mere "god of tradition" out there. The One we are paying attention to in this silent discourse is our God. We are paying attention to a Mystery, to a quiet source of answers, of truth, to someone who is beyond being just a 648 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 person or a "non-im-personal." T.his "wail" we address with our very self, so often without even any words at all, is God, the very meaning of a god. This is the value-giver, the ultimate, the Final One we "bounce against" at the end. Community, Shared Prayer ~ Without living these previous forms of mature, complex, and human prayer, community-shared prayer is meaningless. When 1 go into a church on Sunday, I find so often that there is so little effort to connect community prayer with these other elements of--- "elemental prayer." No effort at all, sometimes. Such liturgical prayers then are the empty voicing of words, gestures "and pomposity which Jesus condemned so strongly. They are magic and not prayer. They are sleight of mind and hand; but not prayer at all. We have Great Traditions. ' We have the Gathering of People regularly and the wonderful gift of ever-fresh Scripture. We have the hierarchical leadership of order and the application of talents, such as in music. We have all the right elements to comprise a living body of shared prayer. But there is almost a conspiracy to suppress quality, to reduce Prayer to prayers, to eliminate human communication as though that hinders Holy Communion, to supply clich6s instead of truth, to repeat anything that once proved good in the past, without realizing that such a repetition is to freeze and kill prayer that is alive. Shared prayer--contrary to all of this--is the sharing of elemental selves, the gathering of the greatness of our past and pouring it into our present as a "way of life." (Incidentally, I hate "relevancy" as simply a plastic imitation of real prayer. Prayer is relevant, but because it is prayer, not because its ideas or words or stories or music are "relevant:") Shared prayer is the spirit of wonder ("What really does it mean?") at the traditional Scripture. The repetition of the act of Jesus in giving, breaking, blessing the bread needs to be seen as a strange and puzzling thing, a curiosity that makes our minds wonder what is going on. The readings from the Bible become praye~ in the exploration of what it means--not the assurance of what that meaning is. The readings--when read with appro-priate emotional and intellectual sincerity--are themselves prayer and beget prayer. (How tragically often the Bible is read in church with an over-pious tone of voice. The finest reading I heard, 6ver, was a boy of ten who read Genesis, chapter one, as though he was just discovering the whole wonder of how creation has happened.) The community at prayer needs to receive everything as wonder and gift--the words from the past, the songs with their emotional impact, the presence of one another (and the mystery we are to one another). Hassling about ~clothing and place, about whether to stand or sit or kneel, about themes or style--these are distractions, inappropriate, even sinful--is alien Prayer / 649 to the quality which is the prayer of the gathering group of people. Every-thing there is to serve the prayer of the praying persons. The leader of such prayer, the priest, is the uncommon person whose heart and eyes, are as a sponge absorbing the people here. The leader uses the p~ast and the future to focus on these people; this is the nature of his prayer. The leader draws the sacred attention of. all together towards the mystery where all the threads meet, where all the human wants and joys hunger for fulfillment, where all the quests for meaning meet in their com-monness. The persons who enter the praying community on Sunday morning come not just for religious reasons, but for their entire lives and the meanings hunted and mysteries encountered in day-to-day events. They need religious jargon--but only insofar as it enlightens and judges the unfolding of daily ,work and play, of marriage responsibilities and growth, of jobs and adoles-cent children and political choices, andso on. The person of prayer is in the habit of scrutinizing all these things for what they mean--or might mean. In coming together, this person is searching with others to find where they, the ones who pray, are, what they have concluded, how they are cre-ating and finding true directions for living. The coming together becomes a matter of "spirit" when this quest and this finding is perceived in other persons who care and ripen like oneself. Without some "communion" between people in church (not just the leader to each individual, or the past .words to the present--but sideways, one to another), the whole gathering is only partial towards its fulfillment. The facets need to interlock, the side of true prayer in each good person to fit the sides of others. We need one another. We need the surprising side of each other, the edging into revelation that is faith that there is someone worthwhile--someone godly--there. We need to hear the admissions of guilt which this truthfulness so often is. We need to hear the shared needs, the outspoken hungers that are new discOveries. We need to feed one another with a handed-on Bread, the sharing of the single Cup. (This physical act, so rarely seen i~nd' practiced in our churches, is designed [by Jesus, no less] to represent and facilitate the.~ore significant one of hand-ing on our care, our truth towards one another, our passion, interest, in-volvement- our love.) Essential Prayer , Prayer is not a concept. It is even "inconceivable." Prayer is a "person facing." Prayer is a reflectiveness outward. Prayer is a tone of our life, a "how" we look at someth!ng. Prayer is a deliberate meaning towards choices--a meaning not in words, and certainly not a meaning that comes afterwards! Prayer is the meaning I sense for doing something, the ~ood I am when I am about to make a choice. Prayer erupts'into words (but is 650 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 not the words afterwards repeated); it is the developing process (like a photograph) from a need into making a decision that is the "good reason why," as well as the commitmeni itself involved in the ~lecision. Prayer, in other words, is never simply something we do or say: Prayer, rather, is the quality with which we do something, the rootedness and hope-fulness involved in living, our deliberate Jiving. It is the thinking and thank-ing which is our delicate dialogue with our environment and with ourselves. Prayer is facing God as God really is (and not just' some religious, narrow view of God, a religious jargon about God). Prayer presumes an ultimate of truth for some issue I face--and God provides it. Prayer means confronting' this new edge of truth for me, this searching for it and into it, and believing it when it is found. Prayer means involving the best we can do in what we do. Prayer, then, is an "always-freshness" about our lives, a constant ripen-ing towards fruition. Prayer is .my opening to discovery, my lifting up of myself towards exposure of some divine light, my waiting for whatever comes next from God. Prayer is placing myself to wait for what God wants. I ~m black, but comely, daughters o] Jerusalem . . . Do not regard me only as one dark With sin, for there is God-like beauty here. Too easily i'm seen to miss the mark Of all my high resolves, and it is clear That dark 1 will remain. With angry scorn My loved ones gave to me a servant's place Which I have filled, with patient merit borne, A Quie.t joy upon my dusky face, Because I am beloved. Like to the tents of Kedar on the glowing summer sand 1 take from each day's gift the light from whence My shadowed beauty shines. Simply to know I am beloved of Him--this is the band Of golden hope that gives my life its glow. Cornelius Askren P.O. Box 783 Bothell, WA 98011 Centering Prayer--Prayer of Quiet M. Basil, Pennington, O.C.S.O. Father Pennington is a frequent contributor to these pages. He resides at St. Joseph's Abbey; Spencer, MA 01562. We live in one of the greatest moments in the history of the human race. We live in the Christian era when God has sent his very own Son to bring to us the fullest revelation of his love and his inner life and to share that life with us. We live" in the time of a council, when there is a special out-pouring of grace and light to enable the People of God to achieve a deeper and fuller insight into the Revelation, And certainly the Second Vatican Council was one of the more significant of the twenty Councils which the Lord has granted to his Church in the course of her twenty centuries of life. But over and beyond this, we live in the time of a Second Pentecost. The humble-Vicar of Christ, Pope John XXIII, dared to call upon the Father to send forth the Holy Spirit in that same powerful and unique way in which he did at the birth of Christianity. The Spirit is abroad new, among us as never before, enlivening us and calling us forth to ever fuller life. In a very real sense this is absolutely necessary. For the human family has made such strides forward that .it is only by a greater infusion of the Spirit that the Christian can hope to respond to the many new challenges of our times in a faith-full way. One of the more significant changes for Western civilization, where Christianity largely resides, is the evolution from a conceptual era to an experiential one. Since Gutenberg's wood-_cuts first touched paper, the printed word and the ideas it disseminated more and more dominated Western culture. But in these last decades audiovisuals have led men to seek an ever fuller experience of reality. Technology's success has awakened desires.; its failure to satisfy awakens yet deeper desires. The spirit of man has come alive in a way that now transcends cultures. And the man of the West finds that the stirring within him is the same as that which stirs within 651 652 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 his brothers and sisters in what has sometimes been considered the "primi-tive" culture of the natives of many lands and in the more ancient cultures of the East. The Christian nurtured in this climate is no longer c6ntent to ruminate on truths of dogma to develop motivating thoughts and feelings in an effort towards union with God. He wants to ex.perience God as present, loving and caring. And the Lord seems to be very willing to respond to this aspira-tion which ultimately springs from his providential care of those whom his love has created. I think this is the significance of the widespread charismatic movement. Among those who open themselves to the Spirit of God, he seems to be granting, in what is commonly referred to as the "Baptism of the Spirit," that experience of himself which the classical mystical writers have called a grace of union. ,But not all are attracted to seek the experience of God in the enthusiastic and communicative climate which surrounds most charismatic groups. Many are drawn rather to seek this experience in the quiet of their own inner sanctuary where the Word dwells in his eternal stillness. There is ample evidence of this in the multitude of Christians who are flocking to the masters from the East to learn the methods of Zen and Yogic meditation, especially the Transcendental Meditation taught by Maharishi Mehesh Yogi. Turning to the East A ~:ouple of years ago I had occasion to visit a Ramakrishna temple in Chicago. Here I found twenty-four disciples gatheredaround a relatively young swami. The man was not unusually impressive, but he lived what he taught and spoke out of a~ personal inner experience. His disciples were an impressive group, twenty-two to fifty-five years of age. They expected an-other twenty-four disciples to join them that year and were inaugurating a subsidiary ahsram in nearby Michigan. All twenty-four disciples were from Christian backgrounds. When I asked them what had drawn them to the temple, they invariably answered that they were not able to find anyone in their own Church who was willing to lead them into the deeper ways of the spirit where they could truly experience God. Then they met the swami and he was willing to do that. They still worshipped Christ, but now, un-fortunately, as only one of many incarnations of God. In their search they have somewhat lost their way because there was no Christian master (or, to be: more faithful to our own traditional terminologyi no spiritual father) ready to guide them, sharing with them from the fullness of his own lived experience. Over the years in retreat work I have talked to many, many priests and religious. I have found that in most cases, though not all, in the .seminary or the novitiate they have been taught methods, of prayer and active meditation. In many cases they have also had a course in ascetical and Centering Prayer--Prayer of Quiet / 653 mystical theology in which they have heard about the various stages of con-templative prayer. Unfortunately they have usually been left with the im-pression or have been actually taught that it is a very rare sort of.thing, usually found only in enclosed monasteries. To seek it is presumptuous. One must plug away faithfully at active meditation and perhaps some day, in the far distant future, after long years of fidelity, God might give one this precious but rare gift of contemplative prayer. In no instance have 4 yet found anyone who had been taught in the seminary or the novitiate a simple method for entering into passive meditation or contemplative prayer. This is sad. Especially in face of the fact that St. Teresa of Avila.had taught that those who were faithful to prayer' could expect in a relatively short time--six months or a year--to be led into a prayer of quiet. Dom Marmion believed that by the end of his novitiate, a religious was usually ready for contemplative prayer. One of the signs that St. John of the Cross pointed to as an indication that one is ready for contemplative prayer is that active meditation no longer works--an experience very many priests and religious do have. Faced with this experience, and ~vith no one showing them how to move on to contemplative prayer, many give up regular prayer. A faithful few plug on, sometimes for years, in making painful meditations that are any-thing but refreshing. Given this state of affairs, it is not surprising that Christians seeking help to enter into the quiet, inner experience of God find little guidance among their priests and religious. If a person desiring, to seek the experience of God. in deep meditation does go to one of the many swamis found in the West today, he or she will be quickly taught a simple method to pursue this goal. "Sit this way. Hold your hands this way. Breathe thus. Say this word in this manner. Do this twice a day for so many minutes." And if the rec'ipient does this, he usually has very good experiences. We can see this~ practice, up to a point, as a good thing. For often, whether the person kno~ws his name or not, he or she is in fact seeking God. And in carrying through this exercise, in devoting mind and heart to,this pursuit, he is actually engaging in a very pure form of prayer. The sad part of it is that his pursuit and his experience, probably of God's very real presence in him in his creative love, is not informed by faith. Sadder still is the fact that, in .not a few cases, grateful recipients, so helped by the swami's meditation-technique, begin to accept from him as well his philoso-phy of life, thus abandoning their Christian heritage. Some of the greater swapnis, such as Swami Satchidinanda and Maharishi Mehesh Yogi, certainly advise against this. But such advice can fall on ears deafened by an almost cultic veneration for a truly' selfless master. These good masters from the East are truly a challenge, whether they intend to be or not, and in more ways than one. For one thing they cer-. tainly remind us that the effective teacher, at least in the area of life-giving 654 / Review lor Religious, VoluJne 35, 1976/5 teaching, must be one who lives what he teaches. For a minister to try to teach the Christian Gospel with its strong bias for the poor' and its way of daily abnegation ("If you would be my disciple, take up your cross daily and come follow me.") and still to be busy pursuing the same pleasures and immediate goals as the wc~rldly'materialist is to condemn himself to a fruit-less ministry. We must teach more by what we are and how we live than by what we say, if we want our hearers to take us seriously. The swamis' response to seekers makes us ask ourselves, are there not in our own Christian tradition some simple methods, some meditation techniques, which we can use to enter into quiet, contemplative union with God? Before responding, I would like .to say, we Christians should not hesitate to make use of the good techniques that our wise friends from the East are offering, if. we find them,' in fact, helpful. As St: Paul said: "All things are yours, and you are Christ's and Christ is God's." Many Chris-tians, in fact, who take their prayer life seriously have been greatly helped by Yoga, Zen, TM and similar practices, especially where they have been initiated by reliable teachers and have a solidly developed Christian faith to giv~ inner form and meaning to the resulting experiences. But to return to our question: Do we have, in our Christian tradition, simple methods or techniques for entering into contemplative prayer? Yes, we certainly do. The Use of "Technique" First of all, "techniques," methods, are certainly not foreign to the prayer experience of the average Catholic. The rosary is a "technique"-- and certainly not one to be readily discounted. It has led many, many Chris-tians to deep contemplative union with God. The Stations of the Cross are another "techn!que." So are the Ignatian Exercises, which are directly ordered to contemplation. Well enough known in the West today, at least by name and reputation, is the ancient Eastern Christian technique of the "Jesus Prayer." We have, in fact, many Christian techniques. The use of a technique or method in prayer to help us come into con-tact with God present to us, in us, and to bring our whole selves into quiet-ness to enjoy that presence and be refreshed by it, is certainly not, in itself, Pelagian. Mystical theologians have not.hesitated to speak of an "acquired contemplation" (in distinction to "infused contemplation"), a state or experience which the contemplator has taken some part in bringing into being. All prayer is a response to God and begins with him. To deny this would be Pelagian. God's grace is not operative only in infused contemplation. When the little child lisps his "Now I lay me down to sleep . . ." if there is any movementi of faith and love there, any true prayer, grace is present and operative. Every prayer is a response to a movement of grace, whether we are explicitly aware of it or not, whether we conscious!y experience the Centering Prayer--Prayer of Quiet/ 655 movement, the call, the attraction, or not. God present in us, present all around us, is calling us. to respond to his presence, his love, his caring. We are missing reality if we think otherwise. When we use a technique, a method, to pray, we are doing so because God?s grace, to which we are freely responding, is efficaciously, inviting us to do this. That we have been taught the technique and have responded to the teaching is all his grace at work, inviting us, leading us, guiding us to have a deeper experience of our union with him. That iswhy it takes a certain courage---or foolhardiness--to learn such a technique. For it is, indeed, an invitation from the Lord to enter and abide within. The Prayer of the Cloud Yes, we do have in our Christian tradition simple methods~ "tech-niques," for entering into contemplative prayer, a. prayer of quiet. I would like to share one such method with you, drawn from a little book called The Cloud of Unknowing. This is indeed a.popular book in our time.1 At the time of our author's writing there was a vibrant spirituality alive and widespread in ~the Christian West. The swell had begun with the great Gregorian reform in the eleventh century and the ensuing monastic revival. This was followed by the enthusiasm of the sons of St. Francis and the other mendicant orders. All, even the poorest, the most illiterate, the vil-lainous, were invited to intimacy with the Lord. The fourteenth century was a high tide for the Christian spirit in the West. Unfortunately it would soon enough ebb. With the Reformation, the monastic centers of spiritual life would be swept away by the new currents that flowed through much of Europe. And on the rest of the continent the prosecution of Quietists and Illuminists by an overly zealous and defensive Inquisition would send contemplation to hide fearfully in the corners of a few convents and monasteries. A great movement of the Christian spirit flowed away with the undercurrent, only to surface and return under the impulsion of the mighty .winds of a Second Pentecost, These winds blow across the face of the whole earth. They certainly are not contained by the Church. But the Church, the Christian commuhity, cannot afford to be slow to respond to them: True renewal must begin with each .Christian, respond-ing to the call of the Spirit within, to the call to the center where God dwells, waiting to refresh, revitalize, renew. There is a simple method of entering into contemplative prayer which has been aptly called "centering prayer." The name is inspired by Thomas 1At p.resent the book is available in 'four different paperback editions. The one edited by William Johnston and published by D~ubleday is the best. The author is an un-known English Catholic writer of the fourteenth century. He could hardly have put his name to the work, for all that it teaches belongs to the common heritage of the Christian c~mmunity. 656 / Review Ior, Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 Merton. In his writings he stressed that the only way to come into contact with the living God is to go to'one's center and from there pass into God. This is the way the author of The Cloud of Unknowing would lead us, although his imagery is somewhat different. The simple method he teaches really belongs to the. common heritage of man. I remember on one occasion describing it to a teacher of Tran-scendental Meditation. He repli,ed, "Why, that's TMo" I could not agree with him. There are very significant differences, but perhaps it takes faith really to perceive them. I can also remember, when I was in Greece a. couple of years ago, finding a Greek translation of The Cloud. The late Orthodox Archbishop of Corinth had written the Introduction. In it he stated that this was the work of an unknown fourteenth-century, English, Orthodox writer. He was certain it belonged to his own Christian tradition. If one reads The Cloud of Unknowing on his own, as perhaps many of my readers have, he is not apt effectively to draw from the text the simple technique the author offers. This is not to be wondered at. One would have the same experience reading books on the "Jesus Prayer." As the spiritual fathers on Mount Athos pointed out to me, no spiritual father would seek to teach this method of prayer by a book~ It is meant to be handed on per-sonally, through a tradition. The writings are but to support the learner in his experience and help him place the practice in the full context of his life. This, too, I believe is the case with The Cloud o] Unknowing. Simply read-ing it will not usually teach the method. And so let me try to spell out the "technique" of The Cloud of Un-knowing quite concretely, adding some practical advice and explanation. To do this I would like to sum up the method in three rules. Posture and Relaxation But "first let me say a word about posture. Some wonderful ways of sitting have come to us from the East. They are ideal for meditation. But unless we are 10ng practiced, and in most cases, have gotten an early start, our muscles and bones do not too readily adapt° themse.lves to these pos-tures. I think for most of us Westerners the best posture for prayer is to be comfortably settled in a good chair--one that gives firm support to the back, but at the same time is not too hard or stiff. As the author of The Cloud says, "Simply sit relaxed and quiet . " Most imprrtant, the body should be relaxed. When our Lord said, "Come to me all you who labor and are heavily burdened, and I will refresh you," he meant the whole man, body, soul and spirit--not just the spirit. But the body is not apt to be refreshed if we begin the prayer physically tense. Settling down in our chair ahd "letting go," letting the chair fully support the body, is sacramental of what is to take place in the prayer. In centering prayer we settle in God, "let ourselves go," let him fully support us, rest us, refresh us. Centering Prayer--Prayer o] Quiet / 657 Posture and relaxation-are important. It is good, too, if we close our eyes during this prayer.: The more we can gently eliminate outside distur-bances the better. That is why it is good, if possible, to make this prayer in a quiet place, a place apart, though this is not essential. More important is it that it be a situation in which we will not be disturbed in the course of the meditation. Quiet will usually be found helpful. Psychologically, also, it is experienced as helpful if one has a sort of special place for meditation--a place apart, even though "apart" may be only a corner of a room where there is a presence sacramentalized in Bible, icon or sacred image, and the going apart simply involves swinging around in our chair from desk to shrine. The physical set-up and the bodily movement itself reinforce the sense of passing now from the frenetic activities of the day to a deeper state of prayerful rest and divine refreshment. Three Rules the But now let us get on with the "rules" for entering into centering prayer, prayer of quiet, contemplation. Rule One: At the beginizing o] the prayer we take a minute or two to quiet down and then move in ]aith to God dwelling .in our depths; attd at the end oI the' prayer we take several minutes to come out, mentally praying the "Our Father." Once we are settled down in our chair and relaxed, we enter into a short period of silence, Sixty seconds can initially seem like a long time when we are doing nothing and are used to being constantly on the go. Better to take a little more time rather than less. Then we move in faith to God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, dwelling in creative love in the depths of our being. This is the whole essence of the prayer. "Center all your attention and desire on him and let this be the sole concern of your mind and heart" (The Cloud oI Unknowing, c.3). Faith moving towards its Object is hope and love--this is the whole of the theological, the Christian life. All the rest of the method is simply a means to enable us to abide quietly in this center, and to allow our whole being to share in this refreshing contact with its Source. Faith is fundamental for this prayer, as for any prayer. We will have no desire to enter into union and communion, to pray, if we do not have at least some glimmer in faith of the all-Lovable, the all,Desirable. But it is more especially a "wonderfUl work of love," a °response to him who is known, by living faith. -"It is true, some techniques like Zen call for keeping the eyes open. But these are usually effortful techniques. This method, however, is effortless; it is a letting go. "It is simply a spontaneous desire, springing from God . . ." (The Cloud, c.4). 658 / Review [or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 The Inner Presence When God. makes things, he does not just put them together and toss them out there, to let them fly along in his creation. "One is good--God.'':~ And One'is true, and beautiful, and all ':being--our God. And everything else is only insofar as it here and now actively participates in him and shares his :being. At every moment God is intimately present to each and every particle of his creation, sharing with it, in creative love, his very own being. And so, if we really see this paper, we do not just see the paper, but we see God bringing it into being and sustaining it in being. We perceive the divine presence. If this i~ true of all the other elements, how much more true is it for the greatest of God's creation: man, made to his own image and likeness. When we go to our depths we find not only the image of God, but God himself, bringing us forth in his creative love. We go to our center and pass from there into the present God. Yet there is still something even more wonderful here for the Christian. We have been baptized into Christ. We are in some very real, though mysteri-ous way, Christ, the Son of God, the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity. "I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me." As we go to the depths, we realize in faith our identity with Christ the Son. Even now, .with him and in him, we comeforth from the Father in eternal generation, and return to the Father in that perfect Love which is the Holy Spirit. What prayer! This is really beyond adequate conception. Yet our faith°tells us it is so. It is part of that whole reality that revelation has opened up to us. And it is for us to take possession of it. We have been made sharers in the divine nature by baptism. We have been given the gi]t of the Holy Spirit. We have but to enter into what is ours, what we truly are. And that is what we do in this prayer. In a movement of faith that is hope and love, we go to the center and turn ourselves bver to God in a simple being there, in a presence that is perfect and complete .adoration, response, love, an "Amen" to that movement that we are in the Son to the Father. This is what St. Paul was talking about when he said, "We do not know how to pray as we ought, but the Spirit himself prays for us . " Coming Out 'of Contemplation In this prayer we go .very deep into ourselves. Some speak of a fourth state of consciousness, a state beyond waking, sleeping or dreaming states. Tests have shown that meditators do achieve a state of rest which is deeper than that attained in sleep. We do not want to come out of contemplative prayer in a jarring way. Rather we want to bring its deep peace into the whole of our life. That is why it is prescribed that we take several minutes :~See Mt 19, 17. Centering Prayer Prayer o] Quiet / 659 ~zoming out, moving from the level ot~ deep, self, forgetful contemplation to silent awareness and then a conscious interior prayer, before moving further into full activity. When the time we have determined to pray is over, we stop using the prayer word we have chosen," savor the silence, the Presence, for a bit, and then begin interiorly to pray the "Our Father." I suggest saying the "Our Father." It is a perfect prayer, taught us by the Lord himself. We gently let the successive phrases come to mind. We savor' them, enter into them. What matter if in fact it takes a good while. It is a beginning of letting our contemplative prayer flow out into the rest of our live~. A Valuable Asceticism I strongly recommend two periods of contemplative prayer in the course of a day. It introduces into our day a good rhythm: a period of deep rest and refreshment in the Lord flowing out into eight or ten hours of fruitful activity, and then anotho: period of renewal to carry us through (what is for almost everyone today) a long evening of activity. This is certainly much better than trying to base sixteen hours of activity on the morning prayer. Twenty minutes seems to be a good period to start with. Less tharl this hardly gives, one a chance to get fully into the prayer and be wholly re-freshed. Some will feel themselves drawn to extend the period to twenty-five or thirty minutes or perhaps thirty-five. On a day of retreat or when we are sick in bed, and our activity is curtailed, we can easily add more periods of .contemplative prayer. This might be better than prolonging individual periods. Those who are generally living a contemplative life'may find somewhat longer periods helpful. For most of. us, the real asceticism of this form ot~ prayer comes in scheduling into*our daily life two periods for it. Once we are going full steam, it is difficult to stop, drop everything, go apart and simply be to the Lord. And yet there is a tremendous value ,here. All of us theoretically subscribe to the theme, "Unless the Lord build the house, in vain the masons toil." But in practice most of us work as though God could not possibly get things done if we did not do them for him.The fact is there is nothing that we :are doing that God could not raise up a stone in the field to do for him. The realization of this puts us in our true place. Though, lest we do get too defeated by such a realization, let me hastento add that there is one thing that we alone can give God-- our personal love. The very God of heaven and earth wants, and needs because he wants, our personal love. And if, while we pray, someone 'has to wait at our door, for ten or fifteen minutes, he will probably learn a lot about prayer while he waits-- certainly more than if he were inside listening to us talk about prayer. 4See below, under Rule 2. 660 / Review Ior Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 Actions speak louder than words. Those around us will not fail to notice, even though we might prefer they would not, when we begin to give prayer prime time in our busy lives. Rule Two: Alter resting ]or a bit ~it~ the center in ]aith-lull love, we take up a single simple word that expresses this response attd begiu to let it repeat itsel] within. As the author of The Cloud puts it: "If you want to gather all your desire into one simple word that the mind can easily retain, choose a short word rather than a long one. A one-syllable word such as 'God'. or 'love' is best. But choose one that is meaningful to you. Then fix it in your mind so that it will remain there, come what may . Be careful in this work and never strain your mind or imagination, for truly you will not succeed in this way. Leave these faculties at peace" (c.4,7). What we are concerned with here is a simple, effortless prolongation ~'or abiding in the act of faith--love--presence. This is so simple, so effort-less, so restful, that it is a bit subtle and so needs some explanation. A spiritual act is an instantaneous act, an act without time, "The will needs only this brief fraction of a moment to move toward the object of its desires" (The Cloud, c.4). As soon as we move in love to God present in our depths, we are there. There a perfect prayer of adoration, love and presence is. And we simply want to remain there and be what we are: Christ responding to the Father in perfect Love, the Holy Spirit. To facilitate our abiding quietly there, and to bring our whole being as much as 'possible to rest in this abiding, after a brief experience of silent presence we take up a single~ simple word that expresses for us our faith-love movement. We have seen that the author of The Cloud suggests such words as "God" or "love." A word in the vocative case seems usually to be best. We begin very simply to let this word repeat itself within us. We let it take its own pace, louder or softer, faster or slower; it may even drift off into silence. "It is best'when this word is wholly interior without a definite thought or actual sound" (The Cloud o[ Unknowing, c. 4). We might think of it as though the Lord himself, present in our depths, were quietly repeating his own name, evoking his presence and very gently summoning us to an attentive response. We are quite passive. We let it happen. "Let this little word represent to you God .in all his fullness and 'nothing less than the fullness of God. Let nothing except God hold sway in your mind and heart" (The Cloud, c.4). The subtle thing here is the effortlessness. We are so .used to being effortful. We are a people out to succeed, to accomplish, to do. It is hard for us to ',let go" and let God do. Yet we have but to let go and let it be done unto us according to his revealed Word. The temptation for us is to change the quiet mental repetition of the prayer-word (which simply pro-longs a state of being-present) into an effortfui repetition of an ejaculation Centering Prayer Prayer ol Quiet / 661 and to use it energetically to knock out any thoughts or "distractions" that come along.' This brings us to our third rule. Rule Three: Whenever in the course o[ the prayer we become aware o] any-thing else, we simply gently return to the prayer word. I want to underline that word aware. Unfortunately we are not able to turn off our minds and imaginations by the flick of a switch. Thoughts and images keep coming in a steady stream. "No sooner has a man turned toward God in love when through human frailty he finds himself distracted by the remembrance of some created thing or some daily care. But no matter. No harm done: For such a person quickly returns to deep recollec-tion" (The Cloud, c.4), In this.prayer we go below the thoughts and images offered by the mind and imagination. But at times they will grab at our attention and try to draw it away from the restful Presence. This is so because thoughts or images refer to something that has a hold on us, something wefear, or desire, or are in some other way intensely involved with. When we become aware of these thoughts, if we continue to dwell on them, we leave our prayer and become involved again in tensions. But if, at the moment we become aware, we simply, gently, return to our prayer-word (thus implicitly renewing our act of presence in faith-full .love), the thought or image with its attendant tension will be released and flow out of our awareness. And we will come into a greater freedom and peace that will remain with us after our prayer is ended. Should some thought go on annoying you demanding to know what you are doing, answer with this one word alone. If your mind begins to intellectualize over the meaning and connotation of this little word, remind yourself that its value lies in its simplicity. Do this and I assure you these thoughts will vanish (The Cloud o! Unknowing, c.7). We can see how pure this prayer is. In active forms of prayer we use thoughts and images as sacramentals and means for reaching out to God. In this prayer we go beyond them, we leave them behind, as we go to .God himself abiding in our depths. It is a very pure act of faith. Perhaps in this prayer we will for the first time really act in pure faith. So often our faith is leaning on the concepts and images of faith. Here we go beyond them to the Object' himself of faith, leaving all the concepts and images behind. We can see, too, how Christian this prayer is. For we truly die to our-selves, our more superficial selves, the level of our thoughts, images and feelings in order to live to Christ, to enter into our Christ-being in the depths. We "die" to all our thoughts arid imaginings, no matter how beau-tiful they may be or how useful they might seem. We leave them all be-hind, for we want immediate contact with God himself, and not some thought, image or vision of him-~only the faith-experience of himself. "You are to concern yourself with no creature, whether material or spiri- 662 / Review 1or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 tual, nor with their situation or doings, whether good or ill. To put it briefly, during this work you must abandon them all" (The Cloud o[ Un-knowing, c.5). "By Their Fruils . . ." There is another consequence of this transcending of thought and image. This prayer cannot be judged in itself. As it goes beyond thought, beyond image, there is nothing left by which to judge it. In active medita-tion, at the end of the prayer we can make some iudgments: "I had some good thoughts, I felt some good affections, I had lots of distractions, and so forth." But all that is irrelevant to this prayer, If we have rots of thoughts--good, lots of tension is being released; if we have few thoughts --good, there was no need for them. The same for feelings, images, and more. All these are purely accidental; they do not touch the essence of the prayer, which goes on in all its purity, whether these be present or not. There i~ nothing left by which to judge the prayer in itself. If we simply follow the three rules, the prayer is always good, no matter what we think or feel. There is, however, one way in which the goodness of this pra)Ter is con-firmed for us. Our Lord has said, "You can judge a tree by its fruits." If we are faithful to this form of prayer, making it a regular part of our day, we very quickly come to discern--and often others discern it even more quickly--the maturing in our lives of the fruits of the Spirit: love, joy, peace, patience, benignity, kindness, gentleness--all the fruits of the Spirit. I have experienced this in my own life and I have seen this again and again in the lives of others, sometimes in a most remarkable way. What happens, ¯ the way the Spirit seems to bring this about, is that in this prayer we experi-ence not only our oneness with God in Christ, but also our oneness with all the rest of the Body of Christ, and indeed with the whole of creation, in God's creative love and sharing of being. Thus we begin, connaturally as it were, to experience the presence of God in all things, the presence of Christ in each person we meet. Moreover, we sense a oneness with them. From this ~flows a true compassion--a "feeling-with." This contemplative prayer, far from removing us from others, makes us live more and more conscious of our oneness with them. Love, kindness, gentleness, patience grow. Joy and peace, too, in the pervasive presence of God's caring love in all. Not only does contemplative prayer help us to take possession of our real transcendent relationship with God in Christ, but also of our real relationship with each and every person in Christ. 'Charismatic Spirituality and. the Catechist Johannes Ho[inger, S.J. Father Hofinger is well known for his work and writing in the field of catechetics. He resides at the Center of Jesus the Lord~; 1236 N. Rampart St.; New Orleans, LA 70116. The true value of any ramification of Christian spirituality must always be judged according to its potential of leading to authentic union with God in a life lived according to God's saving plan. Some valuable side-effects or some partial aspects of this basic criterion cannot ultimately determine the worth of a given spirituality. But good side-effects, too, have their value and deserve to be properly estimated, of course always in the light of the cen-tral aim: an ever closer union with God. With this in mind it may be worthwhile to ask what charismatic spiritu-ality can contribute to a fruitful-engagement in the apostolate of catechetics. A large percentage of religious serve the Kingdom of God in one or other activity'involving religious education. A continuously growing number of them also participate in charismatic prayer meetings. Thus the question may well arise: what can authentic charismatic spirituality contribute to their cate-chetical apostolate?. How can genuine charismatic spirituality dispose them to become ever more perfectly what Christ expects of them if they are to proclaim with him the Good News of God's saving love.? No one would say that all who regularly participate in charismatic prayer meetings have therefore grasped genuine charismatic spirituality and really live it, just as no one would contend that all who live in Jesuit communities have grasped and really live genuine Jesuit spirituality. Be-cause of this, it is definitely meaningful to make explicit inquiry into the apostolic values of the spirituality of Jesuits---or of charismatics. 663 664 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 The Pentecostal Origin of Christian Catechesis Before entering into an analysis of charismatic spirituality and its potential for the catechetical apostolate, it may be worthwhile to remember the pentecostal origin of Christian catechesis. The New Testament is very explicit in this regard. True, all gospels mention how, even before Pente-cost, Christ had commissioned his disciples to preach the Good News in his name, but John (14, 15-17) and Luke (24, 49; Ac 1, 8) insist that Christ explicitly promised them the indispensable assistance of the Holy Spirit in order to fulfill their difficult task. In Acts 2 we are given a detailed report as to how the first powerful proclamation of the Good News started with Pentecost. It may truly be said, then, that Christ formed his first messengers through the Holy Spirit. The catechesis of the primitive Church was plainly charismatic in character. To this historical fact Acts and the epistles of the apostles give irrefutable testimony. The starting point of the original evangelization is the pentecostal experience of the life and exaltation of the risen Christ, the emphatic proclamation that he is Lord. "All the people of Israel, then, are to know for sure that it is this Jesus, whom you nailed to the cross, that God has made Lord and Messiah" (Ac 2, 36). This experience of the apostles was so overwhelming that they could simply not cease to speak of what they had seen and heard (see Ac 4, 20). The extraordinary results of this apostolic preaching were not due to any particular method, but to the religious depth of their charismatic ex-perience and the power of the Holy Spirit which accompanied it. "When I came to you," St. Paul reminded the Corinthians, "I was weak and trembled all over with fear, and my teaching and message were not de-livered with skillful words of human wisdom, but with convincing proof of the power of God's Spirit. Your faith, then, does not rest on man's wisdom, but on God's power" (1 Co 2, 3-5. See also Ga 3, 1-5). Is there any indication in the Scriptures or in ecclesial tradition that God later on wanted to lose the original intimate connection of charismatic experience and the proclamation of his Good News? What does the testi-mony of history tell us about the spirituality of the most outstanding heralds of the Gospel throughout all the centuries? Surrender to Christ Even a good number of charismatics may not be sufficiently aware of what constitutes the basic charismatic experience. They may overrate some valuable, particular gift such as prophecies, healing, or the gift of speaking or singing in tongues, and not see these particular gifts clearly enough against the background of the much more' fundamental gift which consists in the total surrender to Christ under the impulse of the Holy Spirit. Surely we cannot blame the Scriptures for such misunderstandings. Although they were showered with the particular gifts we have just men- Charismatic Spirituality and the Catechist / 665 tioned, the e.mphasis of the primitive Church and of its leaders rested unequivocally upon the overwhelming experience they had of God's saving power and love as experienced in their Spirit-given encounter with Christ the Lord and Savior. This holds good not only for the very first disciples who personally have seen and heard the risen Christ, but also for the others who, on the word of the apostles, believed in Christ and accepted him as the Lord of their lives. The original preaching of the Gospel was the enthusiastic proclama-tion of God's saving power with the Christ-event at its very center. "It is the.Good News," St. Paul wrote to the Romans: "I preach, the message about Jesus Christ . . . the secret truth which was hidden for long ages in the past. Now, however, that truth has been brought out into the open" (Ro 16, 25f). It is "a message that is'offensive to the Jews and nonsense to the Gentiles; but for those whom God has called . . . this message is Christ who is the power of God and the wisdom of God" (1 Co 1, 23f). The effect which this faith-surrender to Christ should have on our lives is perhaps nowhere described as impressively as in the writings of St. Paul. In Chapter 3 of his letter to the Philippians--his favorite Christian com-munity- he described the first impact of this surrender to Christ as he experienced it in his own life. After his encounter with Christ (which was real, but definitely charismatic in character) he says, "All things that I might count as profit I now reckon as loss, for Christ's sake. Not only those things; I reckon everything ~s complete loss for the sake of what is so much more valuable, the knowledge of Christ my Lord. For his sake I have thrown everything away; I consider it all as mere garbage, so'that--I might gain Christ, and be completely united with him . All I want is to know Christ and to experience the power.of his resurrection; to share in his sufferings and to become like him in his death, in the hope that I myself will be raised from death to life" (Ph 3, 7-11 ). St. Paul leaves no doubt that he .expects a similar Christ experience in the lives of all His friends. Significantly he concludes this passage of his epistle with the remark: All of us who are spiritually mature should have this attitude . Keep on imitating me, my brothers. We have set the right example, for you, so pay attention to those who follow it" (Ph 3, 15-17). Admittedly every surrender to Christ isn't always charismatic to this same degree. The impulse of the Holy Spirit that leads to it is not always experienced with the same awareness and depth of experience that was Paul's. But any true surrender to Christ is in fact always the result of the impulse of the Spirit. "No one can confess 'Jesus is Lord' unless he is guided by the Holy Spirit" ( 1 Co 12, 3). . What is important here is simply this. On the one hand we know that genuine Pentecostalism, as we find it at the beginning of Christianity, has the surrender to Christ as its fundamental experience. On the other hand, we all agree that authentic catechetical activity continues the preaching 666 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 of the Apostles; thus, it, too, must have Christ as its center and it, too, must communicate an existential knowledge of Christ that leads to a life of union with Christ the Lord'. What does this mean for the spiritual life of the religion-teacher him- .self? Must he not first himself live in an exemplary way what he teaches others? Could not the charismatic renewal bring him the spiritual encounter with Christ which is indispensable for his catechetical apostolate? Herald of the Good News The first "Pentecostals" were also the first catechists of the early Church. Although Christ had commissioned the Twelve with the proclama-tion of the Good News, and although they must have been aware of their apostolic obligation, there is nothing to indicate that their preaching was primarily the discharge of an incumbent task, but was rather the spontane-ous consequence of their overwhelming experience of God's saving power. Their own deep and joyful experience simply compelled them to com-municate their own spiritual riches. In the pentecostal movement of our times there is question again of a very similar experience. Whatever one may think of this movement, it is impossible to deny the fact of its tremendous evangelizing power which results from the experience of God's forgiving love. For various reasons the pentecostal experience may not always be equally sotind, but we should not overlook its unusual power of communication. Fundamentally it is the joyful experience of liberation and salvation through the undeserved love of God. Fcr a long time we did not stress enough in Catholic catechetics and homiletics the essentially joyful character of God's message which, by its very nature, is the "gospel," the "Good Tidings." The way, for example, that the message was presented for a long time in the Baltimore Catechism surely did not do justice to the "evangelic" character of God's saving mes-sage. Sorry to say, very few priests and even bishops noticed that some-thing was wrong. The kerygmatic renewal of the late 50's and early 60's opened our eyes; yet there was still much to be desired. All too many re-ligion teachers considered kerygmatics only as a new "method," and did not even grasp its basic point. What kerygmatics intended before all else was a new religious attitude on the part of the teacher himself, not simply a change of textbooks. The teacher of religion is called to proclaim. God's message as Good News. But he cannot do this properly if he has not first in his own life experienced the Christian religion as a liberating power and as the source of deep, interior peace and joy. As long as Christianity for the teacher of religion ,means primarily a matter of inescapable duty or a complex of "good and venerable traditions" which, after all, still deserve to be kept, he will never become a true "evangelizer." His message may be correct, but Charismatic Spirituality and the Catechist / 667 it will not be the "Gospel" which God intended to be given to his beloved children. It would be naive to think that only within the charismatic renewal of our times can the Christian message and Christian life be experienced as the source and guarantee of deep and lasting joy., But it is sufficient ,for our purpose here simply to show that authentic charismatic renewal can make a valid and powerful contribution in this regard. Catechetical and Religious Concentration Before Vatican II Catholic preaching and religious observance often suffered from a deplorable lack of concentration on the essentials, a fact which caused real scandal to our fellow-Christians. That devotional themes, often presented in a sentimental way, could for so long a~ time hold a preferential position .before essential themes, such as the meaning of the Holy Spirit, of true conversion and justice--and this even in the priestly catechesis in the course of the Eucharist--was a fact which clamored for correction. This is not the place to demonstrate how much the Council was aware of this shortcoming, and how it tried to remedy it (see, e,g., J. Hofinger, Our Message is Christ/Notre Dame, Fides, 1974; pp. 6-8). Preconciliar religion teachers (priests, religious, and lay-teachers alike) were usually very cohcerned about the orthodoxy of their teaching. Their c6ncern resulted from the conviction that, in the teaching of religion, the teacher is acting as a messenger of. God whose saving word must be faith-fully transmitted from generation to generation without any falsification. (In fact, we religion teachers of today could learn much from our predeces-sors and their concern to be faithful messengers of God!) But, while giving full credit to the validity of this concern, we might also mention that authentic orthodoxy in the messenger was often understood in much too narrow a way. In order to transmit a given message correctly and faithfully, it is not endugh merely to avoid particular statements which contradict the original message. A faithful messenger must also concentrate upon the central idea of the message that is given to him. He must make sure that all who listen to him grasp at least the main message and act accordingly. Secondary e~lements must be relegated to the peril0hery, or even .omitted altogether in circumstances in which the solid presentation of the more important ele-ments might demand it. Teachers of religion who speak more about the Little Flower or about Fatima than they do about the Holy Spirit are not heretics in the technical sense. But they do commit, objectively, a serious fault against one indispensable element of' their role as conscientious messengers. Historical studies of the last thirty years have proven convincingly that the. evangelization of the early Church excelled in its concentration upon the core of the Christian message. In our times, we might almost be 668 / Review lor Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 shocked by this resolute concentration, putting, as it does, its whole empha-sis on the core, while it remains surprisingly broad-minded in treating of the rest. The early catechesis forcefully proclaimed God's saving love "now," in the fullness of time, offered to everyone who accepts this love and believes in~.Christ the Lord and Savior. The center of the original message was, beyond any doubt, the Christ-event: tile exaltation of Christ crucified as the Lord of all. It is a joyful message of salvation, but it de-mands a thorough change of life. Ih the name of his Heavenly Father, the risen Christ calls his beloved brothers and sisters to a new life; he fills them with his Spirit; he unites them with himself in a communion .of life and love. The charismatic renewal has as its special purpose a ~horough renova-tion of Christian faith and Christian life in the spirit of its origins. Catholic charismatics are sufficiently aware that we cannot simply copy the primitive Church. Mere .pristine returns never work in history. But from the spirit of the early Church we can all learn. In dealing with the renewal of religious life, th~ Council rightly insisted that authentic renewal in a religious community must be characterized by the revival of the original spirit of the particular institute. This principle is equally valid for any authentic renewal in the Church as a whole. And the return to the original spirit of Pentecost and of the early Church includes, as one of its main points, a healthy concentration upon the essentials of both the Christian mes-sage- and the Christian life. Charismatic renewal in our times has under-stood this, and so has resulted in a noticeable improvement among its adherents precisely in this regard. It is only realistic to note the fact that many of our most dedicated religion teachers come from those segments of the Christian people who were deeply influenced by the earlier, more devotional approach to re-ligion. These individuals often excel in their abundance of good will. But, at the same time, in their spiritual life they lack this necessary concentra-tion which, thus, was also lacking in their catechetical activities. It is en-tirely possible that participation in one or other solid charismatic p~:ayer group could help them to develop still more what was best in their earlier experience and, at the'same time, introduce into their lives and into their teaching the concentration that is so necessary to any life of faith and of apostolate. Importance of Prayer and Religious Experience The concentration that characterized evangelization and life in the early Church was not the product of professional theological reflection, but rather the result of God's gracious outpouring of the Holy Spirit. This outpouring was received in a situation of personal encounter with God expressed, above all, in prayer. The Pentecostal experience, throughout, was distinguished by exuberant and powerful religious emotions, but 'not in Charismatic Spirituality and the Catechist / 669 the sense of a purposeless emotionalism in which emotions figured as ends in themselves. Rather the experience was the result of their vivid aware-ness of our Lord's presence among them and of their astonishment about the marvels God had accomplished in their midst (see Ac 2:11 ). The Acts and all the epistles of the canon present" in this regard a similar picture. Apostolic preaching and apostolic ministry'was not geared to the cultivation of exuberant but irrational emotions. Rather they were geared to the implantation of faith in the sense of an unconditional accept-ance. of the gospel which was then, under the guidance of the Spirit, to lead to an authentic r61igious experience with profound and vigorou.s emotions. Whenever it came to the point of an overflow of emotions, the Apostles insisted upon the necessity of discernment and balance (see, for example, 1 Co 12:3; 14:23, 33; 1 Th 5:19-22). The pentecostal movement of our century must be understood as a re-action against a one-sided rational approach to religion; one which did not do iustice to its emotional side. In this reaction, the movement may at times have expressed itself exaggeratedly in the opposite direction. Still, overall, it would be easy to show that Catholic charismatics have moved toward a sound balance of religious insight, commitment and sentiment just as they have also demonstrated an awareness of their Catholic identity, keeping themselves open to the recommendations and warnings of. the best Catholic spiritual traditions. Even in cases where groups have yet to reach this de-sired balance, we still have to acknowledge their valuable contribution to religious renewal in bringing so many people to a new appreciation and practice of genuine prayer, and through their insistence on more spontaneity in the expression of religious conviction and sentiments. The significance of this contribution for catechetics becomes immedi-ately evident as soon ~as we try to evaluate it against the backg~:ound of our present catechetical situation. An impartial assessment o1~ this present situa-tion would disclose an unprecedentedly low general interest in religion, which stems primarily from our present culture with its secularized outlook on life. In this kind of situation, we need a powerful catechetical movement, one which insists above all on a new awareness of God in life, one which helps those affected to encounter God again in a very existential way. Yet, in fact, we have to admit that the catechetics of the past ten years have more and more stressed the merely human aspects of religious education, that catechetics have quite often favored a secularized outlook on life in-stead of a genuinely religious approach to it. Misled by a wrong interpreta-tion of God's immanence in his world, teachers of religion today seem.to be inclined to content themselves more and more with the "discovery" of inner-worldly values and with a proper use of such values in life without ascending from them to God, to a personal encounter with God in genuine prayer. Thus, catechetics in the past ten years may often have neglected, the 670 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 vertical dimension in the process of religious education, but they have surely not neglected at ail to stress the great importance of spontaneity, of gen-uine human experience and emotions in all spheres of'human activity. Mod-ern man, growing up as he is in a secularized culture, may find great difficul-ties in discovering God. But whenever he does discover God and does come to personal contact with ~him, modern man definitely favors the kind: of dialogue which is characterized by great spontaneity and by 'the engage-ment of strong emotions. Especially among younger people, today's person shox~s interest only in a religious movement which gives a great deal of room for spontaneity, for emotional expression. The Spirit of Community The charismatic spirituality of the early Christians was distinguished by conspicuous spontaneity. But this spontaneity must not be misinterpreted as religious individualism! Their pentecostal experience united them inti-mately into a single, closely knit community. When Luke describes (Ac 2:42-47) the life of the first Christians, he may well have idealized somewhat the historical reality. But he certainly expressed well the ideal image which the early Church had formed of herself and which she labored to realize in the various Christian communities of those early days--of course without ever realizing this ideal. Luke, of course, is fully aware of the leaciing position of the Apostles and of their important task, and even stresses it in unambiguous fashion. However, as he portrays her, the early Church is above all a communion of life and of love. His pentecostal community is exactly the ideal of what we call now-a-days the "basic community." There is no ~need to enter here upon an historical investigation of the causes which led this initial ideal of the Christian life to lose its original ur-gency and attraction. Suffice it to say that the change definitely did not come from a change on the part of the Holy Spirit and of his basic in-spiration. Rather it stemmed from a change on the part of ~the Christians-who did not listen to the Holy Spirit in the same way as did the first Chris-tians. As a result of unfavorable influences from without, and from a faulty development within the Church, Catholic theology and its catechetics have, for a long time, overly stressed the ingtitutional aspect of the Church. It needed the assistance of the Holy Spirit in the last council to restore once more the right balance, to see the Church again as, above all, a "communion" (withou.t forgetting or minimizing the God-given aspects of its institutional character). The General Catechetical Directory, published by the Holy See in 1971 as a guideline for all catechetical work, tries to make teachers of religion aware of this shift in emphasis: "The Church is a communion: She herself acquired a fuller awareness of that truth in the Second Vatican Council" (n. 66). Charismatic Spirituality and the Catechist / 671 In order to experience once again the Church as a communion of life and love, there is need for more than a mere shift in catechetical emphasis. There is. need for the formation of relatiVely sma.ll but dynamic Christian communities which can truly come to this experience. Our typical mammoth parishes cannot achieve this experience unless they build up within their structure much smaller groups of deeply committed Christians. Since the begin~ning of this century, small groups have been forming themselves in this renew~il of pentecostal experience. For the most part non- Catholic, these bands have regularly shown strong cohesion within the par-ticular group, while at the same time manifesting little concern for the universal church, coupled with a noticeable tendency to split among them-selves into yet smaller groups with markedly~ sectarian attitudes. Many years' later, when the pentecostal movement began to lay hold of Catholic circles, many feared that something similar would happen among Catholic charismatics. In fact, however, just the opposite took place. Pre-cisely at the time when many Catholics began to waver in their loyalty to the Church, the overwhelming majority of Catholic charismatics "were giv-ing convincing proofs of their loyalty. In fact, through the charismatic move-ment,, many Catholics found a new and vital contact with the institutional Church. In fact, an impartial assessment would lead to the impression that, in the overall scene; there is more interest on the part of charismatic groups in the institutional Church than there is interest on the part of the parochial clergy to provide pastoral care for the charismatic groups within their area --and this at a time when we desperately need the development of such small groups within the Church. It is not impossible that participation in some solid charismatic group. could give to today's religion teacher a valuable experience of Christian community of precisely the kind that he would need in order to present the Church'as a communion! A Zest for Scripture One characteristic feature of pentecostal spirituality is a zest for Scrip-ture. We encounter this everywhere in pentecostal prayer-meetings and in the members' daily prayer-life. This zest for Scripture comes from the first "Pentecostals"; it is a basic element of the spirituality of the early Church. In fact, we can even say that it is a valuable heritage which the young Church received from the Synagogue. The painful break with the Synagogue did not affect Christian attitudes toward the Scripture. Rather, early Chris-tians continued in their deep appreciation and ardent use of them. In our own time, many Catholics found new access to Scripture through the charismatic renewal. True, long before the beginning of Catholic charis-matic renewal, there was in the Church a powerful biblical renewal which had a decisive impact on the discussions and decisions of Vatican II. Just a few years before the first Catholic charismatic groups started, the Council had 672 ,/ Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 already vindicated, with unusual emphasis, the role of the Scriptures in authentic Christian spirituality (see Constitution on Revelation, nn. 21-26). There is no need for us to decide here which had in fact brought more Catholics back once again to the Scriptures: the teachings of Vatican II or the later charismatic prayer-meetings, It is sufficient for our purpose simply to point out that a genuine zest for Scripture and its religious wealth is not just a fad among charismatics, but an indispensable element of the spiritual-ity which is to be expected from any true Christian, and, of course, most especially, from the teacher of religion who acts as a messenger of God. Vatican II tells us: "In the sacred books, the Father who is in heaven meets his children with great love and speaks with them; and the force and power in the word of God is so great that it remains the support and energy of the Church, the strength of faith for her sons, the food of the soul, the pure and perennial source of spiritual life" (Constitution on Revelation, n. 21). If the Council really meant what it so emphatically stressed, what must follow for anyone who would take the Council seriously? In describing charismatic spirituality, we are fully aware that any move-ment like the pentecostal renewal is going to include groups which express and live this spirituality with enormous differences of perfection. It could easily happen that a given individual sincerely appreciates charismatic spirituality, yet is not at all satisfied with its realization in the group which meets next door. In such a situation, his remedy may well be to seek out another, more congenial group. The ideal solution for teachers of religion who work as a team~would be to form their own group from the members of the. team. That wotild, be the best answer to their special needs and to their particular aspirations. The Rope When a man reaches the' end of his rope, he comes to the beginning of God. Edward A. Gloeggler P.O. Box 486 Far Rockaway, NY 11~91 On Burying Our Isaacs Sister Mary Catherine Barron, C.S.J. Sister Mary Cath~erine has been a frequent contributor to ,our pages, her last having appeared in the March issue. Her address in the coming year will be: St. loseph's Provincial House; 91 Overlook Ax;e.; Latham, NY 12110. Th~ word of God is something alive and active: it i~uts',like any double-edged sword but more finely: it can slip through the place ~vhere the soul is divided from the spirit, or joint.s from the mar~row; it can judge the secret emotions and thoughts. No created thing can hide from him; everything is uncovered and open to the eyes of the one to whom we must give an account of ourselves (Heb 4, 12-13). It happened Sometime' ,later that God put Abraham to the test (Gn 22, 1). Abraham was a vulnerable man. He could never-quite master the art ~of resisting God. Always, he was too available. Had he been a more pragmatic human being, he would have quickly cultivated a quality of deafness where God.was concerned---rr at least a fair pretense of it. But that was his weak-ness: he was too receptive. Whenever God called, he answered. Such alacrity can be dangerous, especially wtiere Yahweh is involved. He is all-consuming. And so when, after a short span of years of relative peace and quiet, God once again cried out his name: "Abraham~ Abraham," our Old Testa-ment forefather responded as could be expected: "Here I am." He should have known better. He should have realized toe incipient danger of those words, because he had uttered them before and they had cost him quite a bit of pain. In ~fact, they had brought him to where he was then: in a strange land of strange people with a young son, the fruit of his and Sarah's old age. It had been a weary journey to this destination, filled with suffering and hope, alienation and promise, discouragement and fulfillment. But today, existence was peaceful and ,.God was benign and Abraham was happy in the new life growing up around him: Isaac, his son. So he never should have " 673 674 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 answered with such openness, such literalness, when he said: "Here I am." Those three words capsulized a whole lifetime of givenness and surrender on Abraham's part and God knew that. He knew the implied depths of Abraham's response because long ago he had blasted his foundation, carved him out, and molded him in faith. So God was not surprised at Abraham's reply. Hehad tested him before. Purgation is a messy business. No matter how finely wrought the.instru-ment, there is always pain and a certain amount of blood-letting. Ironically, although we are quite familiar with the concept, we are never much at ease in the throes of the process. Double-edged swords are dangerous, especially the ones that slip into the hidden place "where the soul is divided from the spirit," because eventually they strike the heart. Abraham had been prodded and probed before. But he had also lived long enough to realize that there are always untouched recesses, crevices of the heart, where the finger of God has not yet been felt. One of those crevices contained Isaac. And so Yahweh commands: "Take your son, your only child Isaac, wh~m you love, and go to the land of Moriah. There you shall offer him as~a burnt offering, on a mountain I will point out to you" (Gn 22, 2). God couldn't have~ been more blunt nor, apparently, more unfeeling~ With near ferocity, he highlights the very nadir points involved in Abraham's sacrifice: '~'son," "only child," "Isaac," "whom you love." And then he conjures up a picture of that supple-limbed first fruit of endless expectation: blackened--a burr~t offering on a wilder-ness mountaintop. Abraham makes no response because he has already made the 'total one of "Here I am." We are. simply told that early next .morning he rises and begins the three days' journey to Moriah. Whatever the outcome, the journey itself is part of the purgation, is already a piece of the burnt offer-ing, and the fact that.it is leading to final consummation only intensifies the pain. Anguish is not a very communicable emotion. It is too deep for utter-ance. So insistent is it that all other~feelings.give way before its flood. So Abraham says little on the pilgrimage to holocaust, but in grim irony loads Isaac with the wood and himself takes the knife and the fire. In stolid faith, Abraham bears in his own hands the purgative instruments that will cut. and sear his son. But more deeply, he bears the instruments that will cut and sear himsel[.olsaac is to suffer a holocaust ,of body; Abraham suffers a holocaust of heart. iOutrage always accompanies the destruction.of an innocent---outrage on the part of the non-participants. But who can fathom the outrage Abraham feels as he binds his only son and lays him on the altar? We cannot begin to plumb the depths of his grieving heart that still believes in the~irrevocable word of Yahweh. "Abraham stretched out his hand and seized the knife to kill his son" (Gn 22, 10). On Burying Our "lsaacs / 675 Once again the cry comes: "Abraham, Abraham" and once again the familiar responseis given:. ','I am here." And then come the sal~,ific words: "Do not raise your hand against the boy; do not harm him, for now I know you fear God. You have not refused me your son, your only son" (Gn 22, 11~13). Isaac is spared. What about Abraham? The holocaust of the body does not occur; the holocaust of the heart is complete. We are accustomed to naming Abraham our "Father in Faith." Is he not also the ',Father of Freed Love!'? All the time he thought the journey was made to annihilate Isaac. Now he discovers that it was made to annihi-late Abraham. Father van Breemen in his book, Called By Name, offers the following analysis: When Abraham descends from tl~e mountai'n~ with his son, both he and Isaac have changed; something has happened on that hilltop . Like a tree which has been turned full circle in the ground, Abraham's~roots have been cut loose, and he has returned a new man (p. 19). in what does his newness consist?' Abraham comes down the mountain with a living Isaac: Yetsomething in both of them is dead. Because he wag bent over the prone Isaac on the altar, we Could not 'see the pain in Abra-ham'S eyes, the look of utter bewilderment at what he was about to do, the trembling terror at the death of love by his o~wn hand. But Isaac could see~ And in that look of love that 'was exchanged b6tw~en them--father and son--the holocaust of the heart is accomplished. In that inst"~n't, Isaac cedes over his life to his father in trust and surrender. And Abraham cedes over his heart to Yahweh in a similar fashion. Because part of Abraham's heart is Isaac, that part of Isaac in Abraham's heart dies forever on Mount Moriah. Abraham returns to Beersheba with a son, but no longer with his son. Isaac is irrevocably gone, yielded over to Yahweh. Isaac returns ~vith a father who is no longer solely his father, but more radically is father to Yahweh's people. Both lose and gain life; both surrender the other and are given the other in return--but transformed. In The Letter to the Hebrews we are told: It was by faith that Abraham, when put to the test, offered up Isaac. He offered to sacrifice his only son even though the promises had been made to him and he had been told: It is through Isaac that your name will be carried on. He was confident that God had the power to raise the dead; and so, figuratively speaking, he was given back Isaac from the dead (Heb 11, 17-19). Centuries later, when speaking of losing and gaining life, Jesus would use the analogy of the wheat grain dying in the earth to produce a rich harvest. We might say that out of.the seed of love for Isaac which Abraham allows to die in the holy ground of Yahweh, com~s the rich harvest of transformed life. For Abraham, indeed, has Isaac back from the dead, but only after he has first let him go. In a sense, he leaves Mount Moriah having buried part of himself and his son there. 676 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 So what does the story mean to us? Certainly we are relieved that Isaac is not slain. We are glad that: Abraham's faith was vindicated: And we hope that we are never put to such a test. It is just such a latter mentality that is our mistake and our misfortune. For we all have our Isaacs--those, hidden crevices of the heart.where we do not even realize that "the soul is divided from the spirit." Unless we are willing to bur), them (our Isaacs) in a holo-caust of: the heart, our faith is weak and our love is unfree. And to that extent We,are poor spiritual progeny of our great desert patriarch. ' The Book of Judith tells us: We should be grateful to the Lord, our God, for putting us to the'test, as he did Our forefathers. Recall how he dealt with Abraham, and how' he tried Isaac; and all that happened to Jacob in Syrian Mesopotamia while he was tending the flocks of Laban, his mother's brother. Not for vengeance did the Lord p,ut them in the crucible to try their hearts, nor has he done so with us. It is by way of admonition that' fie chastises those who are close to him (J~t 8:25-27), Admonition for what? Admonition, so that eventually our hearts in the crucible will be so tot~ally purified'that we will, indeed, have lai~ to final rest all our Isaacs. Admonition, so that eventually our hearts in the cruc!.- ble will be so totally free that we too will be able to respond as did Abraham to Yahweh's cali :~ "Here I am." "The @ord of God is something alive and active"--in Abraham'~ day and in our own.'~Will we let it pierce us, double-edged though it might be? Some Practical Reflections on the General Congregation Pedro Arrupe, S.]. Father, Arrupe, General of the Society of Jesus, originallY, gave this talk as part of a series of cbnferences on the 32rid General Congregation which was sponsored by the Centrum lgnatianum Spiritualitatis (CIS; Borgo S. Spirito, 5; C. P. 9048; 00100 Roma, Italy),~which ~s presently preparing the conferences (in the languages in which they were delivered) in book form. I would like to speak tO you about the last section of Decree 4 of the recent 32nd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus. As you know, Decree 4 was on "Our Mission Today," and the last section of it dea!.t with "Prac-tical Dispositions." These practical dispo~sitions are applications that follow from t,h~e general decisions and guidelines developed throughout the decree. When the, Congregation states~, in this.decree, that "the mission of the Society of Jesus today is the service of faith, of which the promotion of jus~tice is an absolute requirement," it is not in the slightest way restricting the purpose, of the Society. That Society was founded, as you know, princi-pally "to serve the divine Majesty and his holy Church, under the Roman Pontiff, th~ Vicar of Christ on earth" and "to devote itself totally to.~the defense and spre~ad of the holy Catholic faith." Those words are taken from the F'ormula ol the Institute, approved by Pope Julius III (MI [ser. 3] I, 375-~76). The Soci.ety's purpose thus remains the same as ever: the ex-pression that,the 32nd General Congregation used is.simply a reformulation to meet the needs of the present-day world, which is characterized by so many and such flagrant injustices. And so, in discussing this D.ecree 4, we are simply showing how the So-ciety i~sflu~f!,~ll!ng its overall purpose:, how it is living up to its mission. The principle~s, attitu~.es and methods that the decree proposes thus acquire a 677 6711 / Review for Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 universal value much more far-reaching than the Decree itself, since every- ~thing is included in, and exemplified by, the way the Society carries out its purpose. The Originaiity of St. Ignatius The originality of St. Ignatius is to be found, not so much in the rea-sons that he "put down in writing, so as to be able to reflect on them" (Spiritual Diary, Feb. 11, 1544), as in "other illuminations" that he re-ceived from the Holy Trinity, with "feelings of intense emotion" (ibid.). 'Clearly, his originality will keep the same creativity and apostolic vigor down through .history, and the Society of today wants to continue to be--and should continue to be--what St. Ignatius made it. But there are certain moments in history when an inner force appears, stirring that originality to new external manifestations, and its dynamism acts with greater exuberance and creativity. Today is such a moment. In the aggiornamento that Vatican II called for, the Holy Spirit speaks more clearly to the Church (See Per- [ectae Caritatis, 2), and hence to the Society too, inviting us to a "thorough-going reassessment of our traditional apostolic methods, attitudes and in-stitutions, so as to adapt them to the changed conditions of our day" (De-cree 4:9). Our effort, then, after the congregation even more than during it, has to be to discern how we can provide the Society's distinctive service and carry out its mission with all its consequences. The new way of exercising this mission will require of the updated Society new or renewed attitudes, en-deavors, undertakings and institutions, which in turn presuppose new men, similarly reriewed fo~ today's generation. All these elements--"the Society of Jesus, its mission, its apostolate, its way of life"--are closely in~e'rrelated and cannot be considered or achieved separately. We cannot, therefore, discuss how the decree would have us carry out our apostolate, prescinding from our Order's special charism, or from the Jesuit'of today and his life style. In the constant advance of the pilgrim Church, which, vivified' by the Holy Spirit and under his impulse, comes ever closer to Christ (s~e LG 4), amid persecutions from the world" and consolations from God, the 32nd General Congregation is merely one episode in 'the life of this universal Church moving toward its eschatological perfection. The congregation too, as part of humanity and of the people of God, has felt itself inspired, guided and strengthened by that Spirit "who writes and impresses on hearts the law of charity and love" (Introd. to Constitutions, 1.) and keeps pressing toward "what is most conducive" (Sp. Ex. 23). A Return to Sources At this moment of history, the challenge the world offers has'brought the Society to a limit-situation, forcing it to go: back to the original soui'ces Some Practical Reflections on the General Congregation / 679 of Ignatian spirituality, to find there more effective means, to be able to face today's problems vigorously, not only in order to survive, but to come out of them purified and rejuvenated, and thus to.be more apt for giving the Church the service it desires. The return to Loyola, Manresa, Paris, La Storta and Rome was a .spontaneous movement in the Society of Jesus, and especially in the fathers of the General Congregation. We were, and we are, conscious that any renewal must always be inspired by those funda-mental :graces that St. Ignatius received for himself and the whole Society, by those mystical intuitions that begar~ with the spiritual infancy of Ignatius (.God treated him as an infant then, he tells us in his Autobiography) and continued through his full spiritual maturity, when he composed the Con-stitutions. The-me(hod that the congregation suggests for our ~practical applica-tion of what Decree 4 recommends is very simple, yet it is based on a deep theology and a logic and practical sense that give us the greatest guarantees. The Method Is the Message It has been said in another context that "the medium is the message." Here we may say that "the method is the message," because it includes such a wealth of elements that, though perhaps not altogether new, are under-stood and applied in so profound a way that their meaning and implications and correlations give them a great novelty. It is a method that uses new concepts, and when applied, sheds a new light on those concepts on which it is based. This method was not excogitated in an abstract or a priori way, but results fr6m a number of enriching ideas and concepts, of better studied, better tested situations. Thus it arose almost spontaneously, not so much as a logical deduction, but rather as the fruit of many vital° elements and their mutual Correlations, e.g., the concepts of mission, ofcommunity, of interpersonal relations, of service, of authority, bf poverty, and so' forth. It would be very easy to describe superficially thee manner of applying this decree, but that wa3~ we would not reach the real profundity of its method, nor would we catch the meaning and concrete manner of its application. It would b~ totally ineffective to proceed that way. Our deeper know!edge of certain concepts and circumstances enables us to work out a method v,e~ suited to the situations of this new world of ours. Thus, the application of this method, plus the experience, the intuitions and tile difficulties that contact with reality adds to it, enriches the ~concepts and gives them a greater r6alism. But that is not all: our new understanding of the ideas and their prac-tical apostolic applications call for renewed men~.who, incarnating this men-tality, will react in a fresh way, or at least will be able to adapt their ser-vice to the new needs of a Church and of a mankind we see rapidly becom-ing the great, universal human family. 680 / Review ]or Religious, l/olume 35, 1976/5 A Process of Reflection and Revision The final section of this decree, subtitled "Practical Dispositions," 6pen~ with a clearly Ignatian principle: "Considering the variety of situations in which Jesuits work, the°General Congregation cannot pi~ovide a single, uni-versally applicable program for producing this awareness and reducing it to 15ractice acco~rding to th~ decisions and guidelines gi,~en. Each province or group of provinces 'must undertake a program of reflection.and a review of our apostolate to discover what action is ,appropriate in each particular con-text" .(4.'71): It is the same princip!e that P.ope Paul stated for the whole Church in his Octogesima adveniens: "Faced with such varying situations, it is hard for Us~to formulate a single statement and propose a Solution with universal validity . It is for the Christian communities to analyse objec-tively their country's situation, to clarify' it in the light ofr'the unchanging words of the gospel" (4). ~ To find the appropriate mode of action, the congregation .gives us tWO basic principles that are implicitly contained in the Constitutions, the norms for the selection of ministries and those for the preparation of the instru-ment. We express these principles today by the terms "discernment" and "continuing formation." They are like two roads leading us to a personal knowledge, a conviction, and a more perfect pe~rformance of what God wants of us at each moment. Discernment , Discernment is, in all its profundity, the best way (I would say, con-sidering it in all its breadth, the only way) to be able to plan and choose among our concrete options, the proper apostolic strategy, in other words, to discover God's will for us here and now. The congregation recommends precisely this to us when it says that we need, "not so much a research program, as a process of reflection and evalua-tion, based on the.Ignatian tradition of spiritual discernment" (4:72). Psy-chological or purely t~chnical procedures are not sufficient; we need a deter-mination to .really "find God," using all the means, objective and subjective, indiVi~dual and collective, social, political, and so forth, through which he manifestos his will to us. A process of this sort requires a special divine assistance and a constant effol:t on our part to rid ourselves of every inordinate affection. For that reason, the °decree very properly underlines the word "indifference," when it tells us: "The primary stress is on prayer and the effort to attain 'indiffer-ence,' that is, an apostolic readiness for anything" (72). The seriousness of this discernment 6alls for thos~e perfect dispositions that St. Ignatius demands' inthe election, that culminating point in his Exer-cises. This .is a divine-human, personal, ecclesial act, inserted into the one plan of salvation that leads to the building up of the Kingdom of Christ in time, and comes, even now,~under eschatological judgment. St. Paul d~fines Some Practical Reflections on the General Congregation / 681 it: "Think+before you do anything; hold on,to what is good and avoid every form of evil" (1 Th 5,21~22)., .4 This~Pauline discernment is not~only a key to the New Testament; it is also a key for apostolic planning in the exercise of our :~'mission," remind-ing us of the interplay of divine grace and human freedom in Christian ilife. Thus the apostle feels integrated into salvation history, associated with the central kairos of the Incarnation and Resurrection, and:the final eschatologi-cal~ kairos. Understood in this,way, discernment explains and renews the meaning of,Ignatian solid pruden(e, "discreet charity," And thus the "mis-sion" received under0obedience can be applied concretely to the different and changeable situations of the problematic of today's world. At the same time, discernment is the great force that enables us" to grow spiritually,,in a rapid but solid way, since it obliges us to have our soul always inca disposition of total detachment from created things. As a conse-quence Of this active-passive "indifference,, discernment disposes the soul for the inspirations of the Spirit, no-matter .how they come or where ~they come-from. In particular, it disposes the soul for that basic inspiration of faith,~ hope and "discreet charity" that awakens it to desire the magis, i.e., to choose always what is better, what iS~"~.'God's will'here and now." An ac-tive indifference, always seeking the'magis, is, indeed, the Ignatian equiva-lent~ of ~"finding God in all things," or as Nadal put it in a dense and pro-found, phrase, the "contemplativus in actione" (contemplative in action). In addition to this inner disposition of Spirit, so necessary for a real dis-cernment, we also need as complete and deep a knowledge as possible of the reality that is the object of our .discernment, so that we can discover in that reality the expression of God's will f6r the world. To discover this, we need, first of all, a real "conscientization,, or critical contact with reality; and after that, an "insertion," an "evaluation," and finally an "incultura-tion." The basic elements of.,this process of discernment and conscientization, of insertion and inculturation~ are described briefly in Octogesima adveniens, which the 32nd General Congregation. quoted. They are: experience, re-flection, choices, action,, a constant reciprocal relationship. These are steps that lead, by their own inner force, to a "change in our.thought patterns and a conversion of souls and hearts so that we can make apostolic decisions" (4:73). ¯ Conscientization To know thoroughly the reality that we meet or in which we live, we need more than a superficial glance at it in a random contact, or a one-time experience of that reality. "Knowing thoroughly"means going beyond a mere spontaneous grasp, to a critical understanding. Real conscientization is a critical insertion into historical reality. This obliges man to accept the role of a subject who makes the world---or better, remakes it. It forces man to 6112 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 create his existence out of the material that life offers him. This is based, naturally, on the human capacity to work consciously on reality: hence conscientization necessarily includes the combination of our reflection on the world and our action on it. It also follows from this that real conscientization has to be a process constantly in act, so that the new reality that is evolving can in turn be grasped in a new conscientization, which again will produce a still newer reality. It is an ongoing process; conscientization is always creative. "Think-ing of the new reality as something-untouchable is simplistic and reactionary, just as much as saying that the old reality was untouchable; if men, as working beings, continue to accept a 'made' world, they will very soon be plunged into a new darkness."' And so, as conscientization increases, the manifestation of.reality also increases, and the penetration of its phenomenological sense. If we merely contemplate reality, we are no more than false intellectualists. Without the binomial action-reflection, there can be no conscientization; in other words, there can be no conscientization apart from practical action. The dialectical unity "action-reflection" will always be man's most distinctive mode of being, his only effective way of changing the world (see ibid. 30). There has to be, therefore, an insertion into reality 'and a reflection on reality. This double function enables us to know and act on re.ality, which in turn then acts on us. In other words, the external reality that we change then changes us in our very. depths, and that very change makes us become "agents for change." This interaction is a manifestation and an effect of the intimate action of the Holy Spirit, who integrates, simultaneously and har-moniously, the progress of a pilgrim mankind toward its true fatherland and each one's growth in divine life that the Spirit cbmmunicates to him. Insertion To~ know reality, to change our attitudes and achieve a true discern-ment, we must first be inserted into reality in an effective way, When I speak of insertion, I am referring to a real, critical insertion among the men of today, in order to create and shape society in an evangelical way. A genuine, insertion thus requires a change of personal attitude, the giving up, under many aspects, of our manner of being, thinking and acting, so we can understand and come closer to the new realities that we want to evangelize. It is a real problem of life and experience, which gives us a special profound and realistic knowledge which makes us solidary with men, particularly with the poor and the weak. Scripture itself and the entire theology of evangelization invite us to this insertion: "To become all things to all men" (1 Co 9, 22), to make other 1(See Paulo Freire, Conscientizaci6n [Sp. version], 2a ed., 30-36, in Coll. Educaci6n hoy, 4, Asociaci6n de publicaciones educativas, Bogot~i). ~ Some Practical Reflections on the General Congregation / 6113 people's problems ours, "to make ourselves servants of others" (Decree 2". 29), to. be "segregatus in evangelium" ["specially chosen to preach the Good News"] (Rom 1, 1), and to become the "salt of the earth" (Mt 5, 13). For that re.ason, the 31st Congregation recommended that our residences be built and set up among workers and the most downtrodden classes, so that Ours, spending their lives with the poor Christ, may [thus] practice their various apostolates (27: 8). This insertion or "incarnation" means solidarity with those who suffer, even to being identified with their lives. Here we find the most profound meaning of the poverty of the poor Christ, whom we want to imitate and follow. That phrase of the Exercises that describes our contemplation "as if I were actually present" (Ex 114)~-takes on a vivid meaning that re-flects the gospel words: "What you did to the least of my brothers, you did to me" (M~ 25, 40). If we juxtapose St. Ignatius's tw.o key lines from the Exercises: "What shall I do for Christ?" (Ex 53) and "being poor with the poor Christ" (Ex 167), with those words of Christ: "What you did to the least of my brothers, you did to me," everything takes on a new light, whose brilliance shakes our consience. It_is the apparition of Christ among the poor, his real presence among them.: This reality of Christ in the world of today plays a decisive role in our choice of ministries and in our lives. "Have we realized that conversion to Christ implies a conversion to our neighbor, particularly our most abandoned neighbor? This requires a change of mentality that is not at all easy, a change of attitude and of life on the personal, collective and apostolic level. In a word, it transports us. to the heart of the painful tension of the election" (ibid. 199). Not every insertion has~ the value and meaning of a truly apostolic in-sertion. To see if our insertion is apostolic, we will have to look for some of its characteristic features. First of all, it should be evangelical, i.e., inspired and guided by the Gospel, by the spirit of the Gospel, which we find in the Beatitudes, in the cross and the resurrection of Christ. On the contrary, an insertion inspired by radicalism or a revolutionary spirit, one seeking class struggle or vindica-tion, one that exalts itself, regarding itself as a model far better than any other, is not the insertion a religious should seek. In practice, we often lose sight of our evangelical spirit, even though we~protest that our aim is to "evangelize." Sec6nd, this insertion should be apostolic, i.e., inspired by an apostolic motivation and idealism, not by merely sociological or humanitarian con- ~iderations, which are a completely different thing. It has to be rooted in '-'(See J. ,Alfaro, "Ejercicios y Constituciones: Unidad Vital," in Mensajero, Bilbao, 1974, 195-199). 61~4 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 35, 1976/5 faith, built on prayer, purified of all,selfishness. Such an attitude cannot be had from natural forces alone, but comes only from the force of the Spirit. Third, the insertion of the religious has to be the expression of a mission, that is, something more than the fruit of one's own ideas or some project oil-one's own. It has to be the object of a mission that follows, under obedi-ence, God's will, rather than the whims of a self-appointed group thatmakes independent decisions, ignoring or opposing those of their superiors. It must be the result of mission precisely conferred or approved by Obedience. A true insertion requires a series of qualities in the individual or the community: ,. --First of all, it calls for humility and conversion, i.e.; the desire of leading a more evangelical life and the recognition of one's own limita-tions, without considering oneself superior to anyone--and especially without~judging anyone, even if exteriorly he may seem to be leading a less evangelical life. --Second,. such an insertion calls for a clear sense o] one's identity, inas, much as the harsh experiences that can come to those who live such an insertion, and the observance of others' sufferings and injustices can strike us in so forceful and passionate a way as to take away our re-ligious and evangelical sense and lead us to adopt' positions and atti-tudes foreign to the Institute to which we belong. --Third, to be truly and solidly inserted, we need a well'integrated personality, capable of resisting the "shock" caused by the effort of adapting to a very different set of surroundings. Not a few.religious~men and women, full of generosity but without a solidly integrated personal-ity, have lost their vocations because of this "shock," and h'ave then succumbed to irreparable crises. -~Fourth, we need a solid [ormation. Some'have to learn to experience this insertion in surroundings and situations that are not sufficiently formed for that level of hardship. A full insertion into new s.urroundings calls for a very'solid and balanced formation,'which'usually takes a long time and experience. Only a serious preparation can give su~cient maturity and ability to integrate all the elements of the apostolic pro-cess: experience-reflection-choice-action. With it, the insertion can be kept within proper limits and will allow the maximum .of productivity. --Fifth, it requires serious reflection. Experience alone is not enough; it has to be tested by reflection, without which we can never have opti-mum results and avoid the mistakes due to either excess°or deficiency. Reflection on the concrete experience will expand o~r understanding of the situation, and will suggest the proper options find the changes that must be made for a more. effective apostolate. That is, it will make our action not only tend in the right direction, but have some likelihood of continuing and succeeding; too. Some Practical Reflections on the General Congregation / 685 ¯ ---Sixth,~-we need~ close collaboration with others. A genuine insertion invites and produces such collaboration. It is a stimulus and an apt means for fitting into the overall pastoral plan and activities of other groups and sectors. -z-Seventh, we need pluralism. Insertion needs and introduces a broad pluralism in the sense that modes of service have to be different urider differing circumstances. Insertion is not limited to a particular social stratum, e.g., the poor, but takes in all worlds: intellectual, univei'sity, ~ ,.professional, cultural, infracultural, etc. ~ If all these conditions are verified, the insertion will be 'much more ef-fective, organic and "differentiated: W~ will avoidduplications--and 6mis-" sions--of projects and methods for ~vhich, others~ are better qualified; each one will ,produce to the maximiam, having found his plac.e in the overall pastoral' plan of the local and universal Church. This insertion can also resolve the tension betweenthose who learn and those who teach, because, as experience shows, p~articularly in times of rapid change, life and human contact, even with the less cultured and humbler," are a "marvelous school, in which we learn from others th~it very lofty science, the "science of man," which we can never acquire without this contact with reality and every-day life. Insertion will make us feel the need to be always in the posture of a disciple, which is indispensable .for the apostle working for contemporary man in the world of today. Eyaluation TO ~be able to make an objective and effective discernment, so we can give to our labors, 6ur projects and institutions a new orientation, we need not only conscientization iihd insertion, but an~evaluation of our activitie~ too. Decree 4 suggests this to us very clearly: "Where do'we live? Where do we work? How? With whom? What, in the final analysis, really is our in-volvement with, dependence on, or commitment tO ideologies, or to those who wield power? Is it only to the converted that we know how to preach ,Jesus, Christ? These are some Of the questions w~ should ask about ourselves individually, as well as about our commumtles and restitutions (4:74). It0is very important to evaluate~ our acti~'ities and our works. We are urged to make such an evaluation by Decrees 4, 6 and ]5: "Our Mission Today," "The Formation of Jesuits," and "Ceritral Government." Our evalu-ation would consist in analyzing the quantity and quality of the results we are obtaining, in relation to our.objectives, in, order to have some'idea of their effectiveness. Evaluation presupposes that we have'logically ~¢ell-defined goals, suffi-ciently recognized as such.- : o Unfortunately, the Society has not always stopped to evaluat~ its work, or at least it has not always done so with precision, scientifically. Usually, 6116 / Review ]or Religious, l/olume 35, 1976/5, it has.gone about this effort in an improVised and haphazard fashio.n, mak-ing obvious, superficial judgments that do not enable us to reach valid con-clusions. What is more, we seem to be afraid of such evaluations at least subconsciously, considering them a threat. When they are asked to rate their efforts, some feel threatened and called into question, as though such a re-quest implied a negative judgment or a challenge to the project in which they are engaged. But an evaluation is the indispensable means for being able to upgrade. our projects. If in certain cases it should turn.out that a certain project.ought to be revised or disappear completely because it no longer accomplishes its purpose,~ or because ~it blocks projects of ~greater importance, that is the moment for Ignatian indifference. Indeed, why should ~we keep a work going that once upon,a time was co~astructive, but now has become an ob-stacle? The sufferings we naturally feel when told to give up some work are not against indifference; they are an understandable human reaction, a normal manifestation of the love we feel for a project on which we' have ~pent.ourselves, perhaps for many years. But such an evaluation has to be made. The argument from authority comes into play here, since not only GC 32, but the Holy Father, too, wants such evaluations (Acta Romana XVI, 432). Moreover, experience a.nd the intrinsic value of making periodic evaluations also. urge us,to make them, if we want to be consistent with the Ignatian magis which bids us always to offer the greatest possible service of God. The 32nd General Congregation recommends, therefore, that "there should be a definite mechanism for the review of our ministries" (4:77). This mechanism is the indispensable condition,.for having an evaluation, and hence a rational "choice of ministries and sel~ting of priorities and pro-grams" (4:75). The congregation therefore added: "Now is a good time to examine critically how these arrangements are working and, if need be, to replace them by others that are more effective and allow for a wider participation in the process of communal discern, ment" (4:77). The data proyided by an evaluation of this sort will be most helpful and even essential for knowing thoroughly the works to be examined by an apostolic discernment, and they will enable u

[spa] En la presente investigación se analiza la posibilidad de incorporar el procedimiento de mediación como medio de gestión de los conflictos interpersonales que nacen de forma inherente a la condición humana y se producen de una forma inevitable entre el personal de una misma organización. A través de un análisis jurídico, legislativo y jurisprudencial desde la óptica del derecho del trabajo, por ser la principal disciplina jurídica que detenta la protección integral de todo tipo de personal, tanto en el ámbito laboral como en el ámbito público, y el estudio de todas aquellas disciplinas afines, se pretende establecer los principios, la metodología y la finalidad que debe regular este procedimiento. Para ello, se ha elegido como modelo de análisis el personal de la Universidad de Barcelona, organización que ya dispone de un Servicio de Mediación y cuyas intervenciones en los últimos siete años han sido dirigidas y realizadas por el mismo autor de esta obra. La universidad pública es un modelo ideal de organización compleja, debido a que incorpora una alta diversidad funcional y estructural mediante los órganos que la componen, así como una alta heterogeneidad de sus elementos humanos. El personal docente e investigador y el personal de administración y servicios trabajan y conviven con una misma finalidad, la de ofrecer un servicio de calidad en el marco de una educación superior, dirigida a formar a los futuros ciudadanos. Al mismo tiempo, el alumnado, como colectivo, también participa de esa convivencia, produciéndose una multiplicidad de interacciones humanas que se efectúan desde distintos grados de poder y bajo las que subyacen unas posiciones, unos intereses y unas necesidades diferentes que deben ser cubiertas. De entre las distintas escuelas o estilos de negociación, la transformativa se ha alzado como un método ideal que permite la gestión de aquellos conflictos que afectan a la convivencia, dado que prioriza la transformación de la relación entre los afectados y su relación posterior, a la obtención de acuerdos en el marco de un procedimiento de mediación. Esta gestión de la convivencia queda incluida dentro del poder de dirección del empresario, a quien, independientemente de su naturaleza pública o privada, se le pueden imputar responsabilidades por la omisión en su gestión. ; [cat] A la present investigació s'analitza la possibilitat d'incorporar el procediment de mediació com a mitjà de gestió dels conflictes interpersonals que neixen d'una manera inherent a la condició humana y es produeixen inevitablement entre el personal d'una mateixa organització. A través d'un anàlisis jurídic, legislatiu i jurisprudencial des de l'òptica del dret del treball, per ser la principal disciplina jurídica que ostenta la protecció integral de tot tipus de personal, tant en l'àmbit laboral com en l'àmbit públic, i el estudi de totes aquelles disciplines afins, es pretén establir els principis, la metodologia i la finalitat que ha de regular aquest procediment. Per aquesta raó, s'ha escollit com a model d'anàlisi el personal de la Universitat de Barcelona, organització que ja disposa d'un Servei de Mediació i les intervencions del qual han estat dirigides i realitzades en els últims set anys per el mateix autor d'aquesta obra. La universitat pública es un model ideal d'organització complexa, donat que incorpora una alta diversitat funcional i estructural a través dels òrgans que la componen, així com una alta heterogeneïtat dels seus elements humans. El personal docent i investigador i el personal d'administració i serveis treballen i conviuen amb una mateixa finalitat, la d'oferir un servei de qualitat en el marc d'una educació superior, dirigida a formar als futurs ciutadans. Al mateix temps, l'alumnat, com a col·lectiu, també participa d'aquesta convivència, produint-se una multiplicitat d'interaccions humanes que s'efectuen des de diferents graus de poder i sota la que subjauen unes posicions, uns interessos i unes necessitats diferents que han de ser cobertes. D'entre les distintes escoles o estils de negociació, la transformativa s'alça com un mètode ideal que permet la gestió d'aquells conflictes que afecten a la convivència, donat que prioritza la transformació de la relació entre els afectats i la seva relació posterior, a l'obtenció d'acords en el marc d'un procediment de mediació. Aquesta gestió de la convivència queda inclosa dintre del poder de direcció de l'empresari, a qui, independentment de la seva naturalesa pública o privada, se li poden imputar responsabilitats per l'omissió en la seva gestió. ; [eng] This research analyzes the possibility of incorporating the mediation procedure as a means of managing interpersonal conflicts that arises inherently to be the human condition and inevitably occurs among the personnel of the same organization. Through a legal, legislative and jurisprudential analysis form the labor law perspective, as it is the main legal discipline that provides comprehensive protection for all types of personnel, both in the workplace and in the public sphere, and the study of all those related disciplines, it is intended to establish the principles, the methodology and the purpose that this procedure should regulate. For this, the staff of the University of Barcelona has been chosen as the analysis model, an organization that already has a Mediation Service and whose interventions in the last seven years have been directed and carried out by the same author of this work. The public university is an ideal model of complex organization, because it incorporates a high functional and structural diversity through the organs that compose it, as well as a high heterogeneity of its human elements. The teaching and the research staff and the service administration staff works and coexist with the same purpose, that of offering a quality service within the framework of higher education, aimed at training future citizens. At the same time, the students, as a group, also participate in this coexistence, producing a multiplicity of human interactions that are carried out from different degrees of power and under which there are different positions, interests and needs that must be covered. Among the different schools or styles of negotiation, the transformative one as an ideal method that allows the management of those conflicts that affect coexistence, since it prioritizes the transformation of the relationship between those affected and their subsequent relationship, to the obtaining agreements in the framework of a mediation procedure. This management of coexistence is included within the managerial power of the employer, who, regardless of its public or private nature, can be held responsible for the omission in its management.

RésuméMeaning by its genealogy evolution, change or even growth, the expression development will know the popularization after the Second World War. The positioning struggle embodied by the speech of President Harry S. Truman, who wants to protect the so-called underdeveloped countries to which the transfer of funds, technique and technology is proposed to eradicate poverty in the territories concerned, will mark the long spirits. The appearance of words and expressions such as underdevelopment, zero growth, degrowth, ecodevelopment or even sustainable development aim to understand the complexity of the evolution of the world, from the expression development, which is built and deconstructed in function of paradigms. For Missè Missè, "the approaches used all tend to make development a simple synonym of expressions such as modernization, growth, progress, industrialization, terms which are otherwise never defined. For this author, the term development appears like a complex ideology. When, on the other hand, a definition of this word is claimed, experts, since Alfred Sauvy, remain very embarrassed and ambiguous. They then try to respond with formulas which some-times express what development is not like underdevelopment, sometimes a group of Third World countries, developing, little, less or not industrialized and more recently poor". Criticized or rejected, modernist ideology breathes new life into it when it calls upon communication as a powerful tool that can fill the gaps to which changes in vocabulary correspond. Since it is about harnessing communication to achieve development goals, the media are called upon to play a leading role. With this new burst of hope brought to the media in general and the radio in particular for social change, the promise of development for French-speaking African countries seems to be renewed in the speeches given in favor of the democratic opening of states. In Mali, the new promise for the emancipation of the peoples resulted in a democratic regime in 1992. This democratic openness has allowed the proliferation of radio stations. Today, the country has more than 300 radio stations broadcasting with the authorization of the High Authority for Communication (HAC), for some 20 million inhabitants. Favorably received by populations thirsty for a democratic promise, which would lead to the improvement of their living environment, this proliferation of the media quickly came up against the problem of the lack of preparation of the presenters and the questioning of the real will of the public authorities to grant the actors autonomy in the management of the sector through self-regulation. Following the many shortcomings observed in this field and after decades of operation and experimentation, it is time to question the role that radio stations could play, especially in rural areas, for a change that is beneficial to audiences in a landscape where the rules are poorly defined and their application seems to be gaining ground. However, research in information and communication sciences warns us against any technological determinism, which, in this case, would establish radio as a factor, in itself, of social change. In fact, the usefulness of communication techniques or devices depends on their appropriation by the communities that these devices are supposed to represent. Our quantitative field studies have enabled us to understand the question of the appropriation of radio broadcasts by rural communities. ; Signifiant de par sa généalogie l'évolution, le changement ou encore la croissance, l'expression développement connaîtra la popularisation après la deuxième guerre mondiale. La lutte de positionnement incarnée par le discours du président Harry S. Truman, qui se veut protecteur des pays dits sous-développés auxquels il est proposé le transfert de fonds, de technique et de technologie pour éradiquer la pauvreté dans les territoires concernées, marquera les esprits longtemps. L'apparition des mots et expressions tels que sous-développement, croissance zéro, décroissance, écodéveloppement ou encore développement durable visent à comprendre la complexité de l'évolution du monde, à partir de l'expression développement, qui se construit et se déconstruit en fonction des paradigmes. Pour Missè Missè, « les approches utilisées tendent, toutes, à faire du "développement" un simple synonyme d'expressions comme la "modernisation", la "croissance", le "progrès", "l'industrialisation", termes par ailleurs jamais définis. » Pour cet auteur, le terme développement apparaît telle une idéologie complexe. « Lorsque par contre l'on revendique une définition de ce mot, les experts, depuis Alfred Sauvy, restent très embarrassés et ambigus. Ils tentent alors de répondre par des formules qui expriment tantôt ce que le "développement" n'est pas comme le "sous-développement", tantôt un groupe de pays du "Tiers-monde ", "en voie de développement", peu, moins ou non industrialisés et depuis peu, "pauvres". » Critiquée ou rejetée, l'idéologie moderniste se donne un second souffle lorsqu'elle convoque la communication comme un outil puissant pouvant combler les manques auxquels correspondent les changements de vocabulaire. Puisqu'il s'agit de mettre la communication en contribution pour atteindre les objectifs du développement, les médias sont appelés à jouer un rôle prépondérant. Avec ce nouvel élan d'espoir porté sur les médias d'une manière générale et la radio en particulier pour le changement social, la promesse de développement pour les pays d'Afrique francophone semble être renouvelée dans les discours prononcés en faveur de l'ouverture démocratique des États. Au Mali, la nouvelle promesse pour l'émancipation des peuples abouti en 1992 à un régime démocratique. Cette ouverture démocratique a permis la prolifération des radios. Aujourd'hui, le pays compte plus de 300 radios émettant avec l'autorisation de la Haute autorité de la communication (HAC), pour une vingtaine de million d'habitants. Favorablement accueillie par les populations en soif de promesse démocratique, qui aboutirait à l'amélioration de leur cadre de vie, cette prolifération des médias s'est vite confrontée à la problématique de l'impréparation des animateurs et au questionnement de la volonté réelle des pouvoirs publics d'accorder aux acteurs une autonomie de gestion du secteur par l'autorégulation. Suite aux nombreux manquements constatés sur ce terrain et après des décennies de fonctionnement et d'expérimentations, l'heure est au questionnement du rôle que pourraient jouer les radios, surtout en milieu rural, pour un changement profitable aux populations dans un paysage où les règles sont mal définies et leur application semble prendre du plomb dans l'aile. Pour autant, la recherche en sciences de l'information et de la communication nous prévient contre tout déterminisme technologique, lequel, en l'occurrence, érigerait la radio comme facteur, en soi, du changement social. De fait, l'utilité des techniques ou dispositifs de communication dépend de leur appropriation par les communautés que ces dispositifs sont censés représentés. Nos études quantitatives de terrain nous ont permis de comprendre la question d'appropriation des émissions radiophoniques par les communautés rurales.

Key words: copyright, jewelry, bijouterie, unfair competition, trademark, litigation Fedorova N. Foreing and domestic experience in protecting intellectual property right to jewelry and jewelry. The article focuses on studying the issue of protecting the design of artistic jewelry and bijouterie. The concept of "functionality" for jewelry is analyzed, namely, it is determined that the «functionality» notion is the quality of servicing the useful purpose. For example, a chair manufacturer cannot claim the four legs of a chair as a copyright. These four legs are a useful and functional aspect of this chair. If a competitor also manufactures a chair with 4 legs, it does not infringe any manufacturer's right, since these legs are for functional purposes only. The concept of«functionality» in jewelry means that the last cannot be protected as a normal work, since it is purely utilitarian. For example, the hands or numbers on the dial of a watch are considered as functional because the exclusive use of these aspects seriously impedes healthy competition in the watch industry. On the other hand, unique jewelry design cannot be considered functional as it has the exclusive use of its particular elements' combination.The analysis of European legislation and US judicial practice is carried out. Under applicable US copyright law, jewelry is a subject to copyright. Under normal circumstances, the law does not require prior registration of jewelry copyright. However, in order to protect jewelry or bijouterie under the US Law on Copyright, it must meet certain conditions. The complaining party must provide evidence of illegal copying of the work and prove copyright infringement. In case of violation of copyright for jewelry, the author or the jewelry house must prove:•the originality of design;•the uniqueness in the elements combination in the process of jewelry design development.The object of an industrial design can be a shape, pattern, color, or their combination that determines the appearance of an industrial product. The main criterion for the industrial design patentability is its novelty. However, in practice, an examination for novelty when registering a designation as an industrial design, according to Alexandra Odinets, is not carried out, and the patent is issued «under the responsibility of the applicant».With regard to unfair competition in the jewelry market, according to the US jurisprudence, it is more often an offense in this context than a violation of trademark rights or copyright infringement. It is unfair competition that misleads a consumer. A competitor, by assigning a good name and an reputation established, is trying to get profit. The definition of unfair competition is carried out in a comprehensive manner, here the court will not focus on one feature of a piece of jewelry but would consider all its inherent features. In particular, it is a combination of unique elements that provide the originality of the product.The article provides recommendations for jewelry and bijouterie authors on copyright protection. 1. Pro avtorski i sumizhni prava : Zakon Ukrainy. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3792-12#Text. 2. Tomarov I. Fashion Law: kopiiuvaty ne mozhna zaboronyty! Yurydychna hazeta Online. 2017. № 25(575). URL:https://yur-gazeta.com/publications/practice/zahist-intelektualnoyi-vlasnosti-avtorske-pravo/fashion-law-kopiyuvati-ne-mozhna-zaboroniti.html. 3. Herbert Rosenthal Jewelry Corp. v. Kalpakian, 446 F.2d 738 (9th Cir. 1971). 4. Dyrektyva Yevropeiskoho Soiuzu № 98/71. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/994_a88#Text. 5. "Designer" Jewelry vs. "Inspired-by" Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations, 34. 6. Davis v. Gap, Inc. - 246 F.3d 152 (2d Cir. 2001). 7. Trifari, Krussman & Fishel, Inc. v Charel Co., 134 F Supp 551 (1955, DC NY). 8. Copyright Law of the United States §102, at 68 (2000). 9. Cprava Vacheron I Constantin-LeCoultreWatches, Inc. proty Benrus Watch Co., Inc. URL: http://saperlaw.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/cba-fashion-presentation-final.pdf (last visited April 19th, 2008). 10. Cosmetic Ideas, Inc. v. IAC/Interactivecorp, CV08-02074 R (C.D. California); Los Angeles Copyright Attorneys File Jewelry Copyright Infringement Lawsuit Over Copying Protected Jewelry Design, available at: http://www.iptrademarkattorney.com/2008/04/copyright-attorneys-jewelry-los-angeles-protected-jewelry-design-lawsuit-copying-copyrights-la.html (last visited April 19th, 2008). 11. Saper Law. "Designer" Jewelry vs. "Inspired-by" Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations. 2008. ; Ключові слова: авторське право, ювелірні вироби, біжутерія, недобросовісна конкуренція, торгова марка, судова практика Стаття присвячена дослідженню питань щодо охорони дизайну авторських ювелірних виробів та біжутерії. Проаналізовано поняття «Функціональності», щодо ювелірних виробів а саме, визначено, що ювелірні вироби не можуть охоронятися як звичайний твір, оскільки є винятково утилітарними. Наприклад, стрілки або цифри на циферблаті годинника вважаються функціональними, оскільки ексклюзивне використання цих аспектів серйозно перешкоджатиме здоровій конкуренції в годинниковій галузі. З іншого боку, унікальний дизайн ювелірних виробів не може вважатися функціональним, оскільки має ексклюзивне використання його особливої комбінації елементів. Здійснено аналіз Європейського законодавства та судової практики США. 1. Про авторські і суміжні права : Закон України. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3792-12#Text. 2. Томаров І. Fashion Law: копіювати не можна заборонити! Юридична газета Online. 2017. № 25(575). URL:https://yur-gazeta.com/publications/practice/zahist-intelektualnoyi-vlasnosti-avtorske-pravo/fashion-law-kopiyuvati-ne-mozhna-zaboroniti.html. 3. Herbert Rosenthal Jewelry Corp. v. Kalpakian, 446 F.2d 738 (9th Cir. 1971). 4. Директива Європейського Союзу № 98/71. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/994_a88#Text. 5. «Designer» Jewelry vs. «Inspired-by» Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations, 34. 6. Davis v. Gap, Inc. - 246 F.3d 152 (2d Cir. 2001). 7. Trifari, Krussman & Fishel, Inc. v Charel Co., 134 F Supp 551 (1955, DC NY). 8. Copyright Law of the United States §102, at 68 (2000). 9. Cправa Vacheron I Constantin-LeCoultreWatches, Inc. проти Benrus Watch Co., Inc. URL: http://saperlaw.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/cba-fashion-presentation-final.pdf (last visited April 19th, 2008). 10. Cosmetic Ideas, Inc. v. IAC/Interactivecorp, CV08-02074 R (C.D. California); Los Angeles Copyright Attorneys File Jewelry Copyright Infringement Lawsuit Over Copying Protected Jewelry Design, available at: http://www.iptrademarkattorney.com/2008/04/copyright-attorneys-jewelry-los-angeles-protected-jewelry-design-lawsuit-copying-copyrights-la.html (last visited April 19th, 2008). 11. Saper Law. "Designer" Jewelry vs. "Inspired-by" Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations. 2008.

Retrospective and the modern financial support for domestic agricultural land resource sector are analyzed. It is noted that market economic principles radically changed the funding mechanism for landowners and land users. Participation of the state in the provision of financial processes, conservation, improvement and protection of farmland are analyzed. The removal of state and local governments to participate in the processes of land management AIC are critically evaluated. The new financial principles for land fund in the agricultural sector are suggested and the development of adequate national program of land management should precede them. We give a new direction for financial provision aimed at reproduction of land resources based on a performance to preserve and improve the environment, solving social problems, rural development criteria. Attention is drawn to the current asymmetry concerning the formation of agricultural crop and livestock sectors, violation of balance between them. It is stated that the agricultural sector, including the renewal of land resources, will be successful if the balance is achieved in the development of crop and livestock production in Ukraine. The need for intensification of rural development as the foundation, which will ensure solving demographic problems, is justified in the article. The existing principles of small private ownership are critically evaluated. It is stated that it led to problems related to the deterioration of soils, increasing contamination and pollution of land, the dominance of personal interests of owners and users of public land over social ones. The study says that the information on the quality of the land in Ukraine is still missing, and it makes it impossible to carry out works on their evaluation. It is proposed to organize the agricultural land fund in accordance with the requirements of modernity. This important role is assigned to the state, which guarantees the equal right of all citizens to use land resources. Official statistics firmly convince and point to shortcomings in their organization. We investigate the government support of farms based on outdated principles and directed to increase the production of agricultural products. The survey ends with conclusions and proposals where the author suggests to change the mechanism and criteria for public funding of land plots of agricultural enterprises and farms. It is proposed to introduce a paradigm financing approaches that have been used successfully in many EU countries. Carrying out activities of de-privatization and reprivatization of land which is in private property are among the main measures. ; Проанализирована ретроспектива и современное состояние финансового обеспечения земельных ресурсов отечественного аграрного сектора. Отмечено, что рыночные принципы хозяйствования радикально изменили механизм финансирования землевладельцев и землепользователей. Проанализированы участие государства в финансовом обеспечении процессов использования, хранения, улучшения и охраны сельскохозяйственных угодий. Критически оценено отстранения государства и местных органов самоуправления от участия в процессах управления земельными ресурсами АПК. Предложены новые принципы финансирования земельного фонда аграрного сектора, которым должны предшествовать разработка адекватной программы развития отечественного земельного хозяйства. Приведен качественно новый перечень направлений финансового обеспечения воспроизводства земельных ресурсов, в основу которых положены показатели сохранения и улучшения экологии, решение социальных задач, развитие сельских территорий. Обращено внимание на действующую асимметричность формирования в сельском хозяйстве растениеводческой и животноводческой сфер, нарушение между ними сбалансированности. Акцентировано внимание, что аграрная сфера, в частности воспроизводство земельных ресурсов, будет успешным тогда, когда в Украине будет достигнута сбалансированность в развитии растениеводства и животноводства. Обоснована необходимость интенсификации развития сельских территорий как фундамента, который будет обеспечивать решения демографических проблем. Критически оцениваются действующие основы мелкого частного землевладения, которое привело к неурядицам, связанным с ухудшением состава почв, роста загрязненности и засоренности земель, доминированию личных интересов владельцев и пользователей земельных участков над социальными. Отмечено, что в Украине по сей день отсутствует информация качественного состава земель, указанного на чрезмерное мелкоземелье, что делает невозможным проведение работ по их оценке. Предложено упорядочить аграрный земельный фонд в соответствии с требованиями современности. При этом важная роль отведена государству, которое гарантирует равное право всех граждан на пользование земельными ресурсами. Официальные статистические данные твердо убеждают и указывают на недостатки в их организации. Исследована государственная поддержка фермерских хозяйств, которая базируется на устаревших принципах и направляется на наращивание объемов производства сельхозпредприятий продукции. Завершается исследование итогами и предложениями, в которых предложено изменить механизм и критерии государственного финансирования земельных угодий сельскохозяйственных предприятий и земельных участков хозяйств населения. При этом предлагается ввести парадигмальные подходы финансирования, которые успешно используются во многих странах ЕС. В числе мер главное место отведено проведению мероприятий деприватизации и реприватизации земель, которые находятся в частной собственности граждан. ; Проаналізовано ретроспективу і сучасний стан фінансового забезпечення земельних ресурсів вітчизняного аграрного сектору. Зазначено, що ринкові засади господарювання радикально змінили механізм фінансування землевласників і землекористувачів. Проаналізовано участь держави у фінансовому забезпеченні процесів використання, збереження, покращення та охорони сільськогосподарських угідь. Критично оцінено відсторонення держави і місцевих органів самоврядування від участі у процесах управління земельними ресурсами АПК. Запропоновано нові засади фінансування земельного фонду аграрного сектору, яким має передувати розроблення адекватної програми розвитку вітчизняного земельного господарства. Наведено якісно новий перелік напрямків фінансового забезпечення відтворення земельних ресурсів, в основу яких покладено показники збереження та поліпшення екології, розв'язання соціальних завдань, розвиток сільських критерій. Звертається увага на чинну асиметричність, яка стосується формування в сільському господарстві рослинницької та тваринницької сфер, порушення між ними збалансованості. Акцентовано увагу, що аграрна сфера, зокрема відтворення земельних ресурсів, буде успішним тоді, коли в Україні буде досягнута збалансованість у розвитку рослинництва й тваринництва. Обґрунтовано потребу інтенсифікації розвитку сільських територій як фундаменту, що забезпечуватиме вирішення демографічних проблем. Критично оцінено чинні засади дрібного приватного землеволодіння, яке призвело до негараздів, пов'язаних із погіршенням складу ґрунтів, зростанням забрудненості й засміченості земель, домінування особистих інтересів власників і користувачів земельних ділянок над суспільним. Зазначено, що в Україні донині відсутньою залишається інформація щодо якісного складу земель, на надмірне дрібноземелля, що унеможливлює проведення робіт щодо їх оцінювання. Запропоновано впорядкувати аграрний земельний фонд відповідно до вимог сучасності. При цьому важлива роль відведена державі, яка гарантує рівне право всіх громадян на користування земельними ресурсами. Офіційні статистичні дані твердо переконують і вказують на недоліки в їх організації. Досліджено державну підтримку фермерських господарств, яка ґрунтується на застарілих засадах і спрямовується на нарощування обсягів виробництва сільськогосподарської продукції. Завершується дослідження висновками і пропозиціями, в яких запропоновано змінити механізм і критерії державного фінансування земельних угідь сільськогосподарських підприємств і ділянок господарств населення. При цьому пропонується запровадити парадигмальні підходи фінансування, що успішно використовуються у багатьох країнах ЄС. Серед заходів головне місце відведено проведенню заходів деприватизації й реприватизації земель, які знаходяться у приватній власності громадян.

The article provides a theoretical and methodological generalization and proposes a new solution to the current scientific problem, which is to substantiate practical recommendations for the formation and development of the scientific direction of the cluster economy and expand the use of modern environmental management. A number of literary sources and characteristics of the process of development of scientific thought on the formation of a modern system of knowledge of cluster economics and cluster policy, environmental management and circular economy are presented and systematized. The cluster economy, its theoretical and methodological content as system knowledge and reflection in the newest generalized provisions - social and ecological management are substantiated. The theoretical and genetic development of integration processes in modern regional management is determined taking into account the vectors of social progress, combination of knowledge of economics, innovation, sociology, market theory and entrepreneurship. It is emphasized that integration processes always have general or local action impact on the phenomena and processes of human activity, provide positive or negative dynamics of individual socio-economic phenomena and processes. It is integration as a driving force that shapes the potential of society and the economy of the state and its territories. The key factors of social progress that led to the study of the process of integration in the economy and management are identified: the accelerated formation of the world market and its impact on national economies, changing the borders of regions; consolidation, centralization and diversification of capital, accelerated diversification of production and services; mass production and its dependence on scientific and technological progress, environmental and social standards; territorial redistribution of the world, zones of economic influence and the latest formats of regionalization. The focus is on the fact that the cluster, as a manifestation of economic integration in modern activities, sectoral and regional authorities, is the primary tool for stimulating markets, business, qualitative and quantitative improvement of the business environment, attracting investment, a tool for balancing government and business. It is noted that clusters become the center of industrial policy, balance regional interest groups, stimulate and adjust regional development, accelerate the commercialization of national scientific heritage. Such components of the potential of cluster formation of regions as: science and education are determined; resource base; savings of enterprises and the population; small and medium business and infrastructure to support small and medium business. The realization of the potential of clustering should be based on a system of security against existing risks, the construction of which can quickly form a platform for mutual action, collective decision-making, organizational and control measures. The managerial vision of formation of the strategic purpose of cluster formation taking into account the principles of consolidation and harmonization of key interests is substantiated. The author 's vision of modern tendencies of economic progress, which form the latest vision of economic, ecological, social interests as an integrated manifestation, combination of social, economic and cultural spheres of mankind, is substantiated. The thesis of need and relevance by involving transdisciplinary knowledge and methods of regulating the processes of regional reproduction is presented and substantiated; integration and differentiation of management knowledge; anthropogenic security of human development; systemic socialization on the platform of cluster and circular economies. It is proved that integration as a tool for combining the system of modern knowledge of management and economics forms the potential of society and directs the vectors of economic activity to the standards of trust and socialization. The knowledge of management in the formation of cluster economy of Ukraine on the basis of system integration and balance of national interests is considered and systematically analyzed with recommendations for further study of the existing specifics of social progress, knowledge management and practice of improving the effectiveness of government and business. The author's vision of classification of interests in stimulating cluster formation of enterprises and measures of regional cluster policy on the platforms of action of principles - trust, knowledge-intensive measures, targeted information support, compliance with European integration values is substantiated and given. The obtained conclusions and recommendations on regional cluster policy confirm the prospects of the movement of the regions of Ukraine to the most progressive forms of environmental management with the involvement of regional, sectoral cluster projects and EU programs. The effectiveness and fundamental vectors of the EU regional policy, aimed at building a new model of cluster economy on the basis of trust and balance of interests of business entities, government and the population, are specified. ; У статті здійснено теоретико-методичне узагальнення та запропоновано нове розв'язання актуальної наукової проблеми, що полягає в обґрунтуванні практичних рекомендацій щодо формування тарозвитку наукового напряму кластерної економіки та розширення використання сучасних положень екологічного менеджменту. Наведено та систематизовано низку літературних джерел та характеристик процесу розвитку наукової думки щодо формування сучасної системи знань кластерної економіки та кластерної політики, екологічного менеджменту та циркулярної економіки. Обґрунтовано кластерну економіку, її теоретичне та методологічне наповнення як системного знання та відображення в новітніх узагальнених положеннях – соціального та екологічного менеджменту. Обґрунтовано авторське бачення сучасних тенденції економічного прогресу, що формують новітнє бачення економічних, екологічних, соціальних інтересів як інтегрованого прояву, поєднання соціальної, економічної та культурної сфер людства. Наведено та обґрунтовано тезу потреби та актуальності залученням трансдисциплінарних знань і методів регулювання процесів регіонального відтворення; інтеграція та диференціація знань менеджменту; антропогенного безпекового розвитку людини; системної соціалізація на платформі кластерної та циркулярної економік. Доведено, що інтеграція як інструмент поєднання системи сучасних знань менеджменту та економіки формує потенціал суспільства й спрямовує вектори руху господарської діяльності до стандартів довіри та соціалізації. Розглянуто та системно проаналізовано знання менеджменту в питаннях формування кластерної економіки України на основі системної інтеграції та балансу національних інтересів з рекомендаціями щодо подальшого дослідження існуючої специфіки суспільного прогресу, управління знаннями та практики удосконалення дієвості заходів влади та бізнесу. Обґрунтовано та наведено авторське бачення класифікація інтересів у стимулюванні кластероутворення підприємств та заходах регіональної кластерної політики на платформах дії принципів – довіри, наукоємності заходів, цільового інформаційного забезпечення, відповідності євроінтеграційним цінностям. Отримані висновки та рекомендації щодо регіональної кластерної політики підтверджують перспективність руху регіонів України до найпрогресивніших форм екологічного менеджменту із залученням регіональних, галузевих кластерних проєктів і програм ЄС. Конкретизовано дієвість і фундаментальні вектори регіональної політики ЄС, спрямовані на побудову нової моделі кластерної економіки на засадах довіри та балансу інтересів суб'єктів господарювання, влади і населення.

The article offers a historiographical consideration of the description of the Khotyn battle 1621with an emphasis on the historical value of M. Kostin's "Chronicle of the Land of Moldova" in the coverage of theevent. The relevance of the study is dictated by the 400th anniversary of the battle. The purpose of the study is to clarify the historical significance of thechronicle in revealing the theme of the Battle of Khotyn in 1621. Methodology describes the work of M. Kostin, its source base, comparison with other historical sources, review of its use. Conclusions. "Chronicle of the Land of Moldova" by Myron Kostin, being the only source for studying the history of Moldova in the early and mid seventeenth century. at the same time it is a true description of the events of the Khotyn War (1620–1621). Although the chronicler is not a contemporary of the events, his account of the Battle of Khotyn is based on serious Polish sources of the relevant era, oral information from contemporaries of the fighting, the traditions of the princely family of Movileshty, and so on. The work is positively characterized by a deep and detailed description of events, impartiality, clear analysis of military operations of a participant in many battles, education of the author and his broad outlook, which allowed him to understand the causal links of actions, actions of the parties, unconditional literary talent M. Kostin. His disregard for the events of the Khotyn War of 1621 by a number of Ukrainian historians shows a reluctance to consider the event comprehensively, using all sources. Moreover, we see a focus on showing only one fragment of this historical event, the participation of the Ukrainian side in it. The language barrier to the use of the Chronicle is no more a problem than a political motive. ; L'article propose une revue historiographique de la description de la guerre de Khotyn de 1621 en mettant l'accent surla valeur historique de la «Chronique de la terre moldave» de M. Kostin à la lumière des événements. Pertinencenla recherche est dictée par le 400e anniversaire de la bataille. Le but de l'étude est de déterminer le poids historique de la chronique pour la divulgation de la bataille de Khotyn de 1621 par ceux-ci.Méthodologie : analyse de l'œuvre de M. Kostin, ses sources, comparaison avec d'autres sources historiques, un aperçu de son utilisation. Conclusion. «Chronique de la terre moldave» de Miron Kostin, étant la seule source pour étudier l'histoire de la Moldavie au début et au milieu du XVIIe siècle. est en même temps une description fiable des événements de la guerre de Khotyn (1620-1621). Bien que le chroniqueur ne soit pas un contemporain des événements, sonl'histoire de la bataille de Khotyn est basée sur des sources polonaises sérieuses de l'époque correspondante, des informations orales de participants à la guerre, les traditions de la famille princière Movila, etc. Caractérise positivement le travail de profondeur et de détail description des événements, objectivité, une analyse claire des opérations militaires d'un participant à de nombreuses batailles, l'éducation de l'auteur et de son large perspective, qui lui permet de comprendre la relation causale des actions des parties, une inconditionnelle littéraire Le talent de M. Kostin. Son ignorance dans la divulgation du thème de la guerre de Khotyn de 1621 par un certain nombre d'historiens ukrainiens montre une réticence à considérer l'événement de manière exhaustive en utilisant toutes les sources. Il y a de fortes chances que nous voyions concentration à ne montrer qu'un fragment de cet événement historique, la participation de la partie ukrainienne à celui-ci. La barrière de la langue à l'utilisation de la Chronique n'est pas un problème plus important que le motif politique. ; В статье предлагается историографический обзор описания Хотинской войны 1621 г. с акцентом на исторической ценности "Летописи Земли Молдовской" М. Костина в ракурсе освещении событий. Актуальность исследования диктуется 400-летним юбилеем битвы. Целью исследования является определение исторического веса летописи для раскрытия теми Хотинской битвы 1621 г. Методология: анализ произведения М. Костина, его источников, сравнение с другими историческими источниками, обзор его использования. Выводы. "Летопись Земли Молдовской" Мирона Костина, будучи единственным источником для изучения истории Молдовы начала и середины ХVII в. одновременно является достоверным описанием событий Хотинской войны (1620–1621 гг.). Хотя летописец не современник событий, однако его рассказ о Хотинской битве основывается на серьезных польских источниках соответствующей эпохи, устной информации от участников войны, традициях княжеской семьи Мовилэ и др. Позитивно характеризует произведение глубокое и детальное описание событий, объективность, четкий анализ военных операций участника многих битв, образованность автора и его широкий кругозор, что позволяет ему понимать причинно-следственную связь поступков сторон, безусловный литературный талант М. Костина. Ее игнорирование в раскрытие темы Хотинской войны 1621 г. целым рядом украинских историков показывает нежелание рассмотреть событие комплексно с использованием всех источников. Скорее всего, мы видим концентрацию на показе только одного фрагмента этого исторического события, участия в нем украинской стороны. Языковый барьер для использования "Летописи" не является большей проблемой, чем политический мотив. ; У статті пропонується історіографічний огляд опису Хотинської війни 1621 року з акцентом на історичні цінності "Літопису Землі Молдовської" М. Костіна в ракурсі висвітленні подій. Актуальність дослідження диктується 400-річним ювілеєм битви. Метою дослідження є визначення історичної ваги літопису для розкриття теми Хотинської битви 1621 р. Методологія: аналіз твору М. Костіна, його джерел, порівняння з іншими історичними джерелами, огляд його використання. Висновки. "Літопис Землі Молдовської" Мирона Костіна, будучи єдиним джерелом для вивчення історії Молдови початку і середини ХVII ст. одночасно є достовірним описом подій Хотинської війни (1620-1621 рр.). Хоча літописець сучасник подій, проте його розповідь про Хотинську битву грунтується на серйозних польських джерелах відповідної епохи, усної інформації від учасників війни, традиціях княжої сім'ї Мовіле і ін. Позитивно характеризує твір глибокий і детальний опис подій, об'єктивність, чіткий аналіз військових операцій учасника багатьох битв, освіченість автора і йогоширокий світогляд, що дозволяє йому розуміти причинно-наслідковий зв'язок вчинків сторін, безумовний літературний талант М. Костіна. Її ігнорування в розкритті теми Хотинської війни 1621 р. цілою низкою українських істориківпоказує небажання розглянути подію комплексно з використанням усіх джерел. Швидше за все, ми бачимо концентрацію на показі тільки одного фрагмента цієї історичної події, участі в ньому української сторони. Мовний бар'єр для використання "Літопису" не є більшою проблемою, ніж політичний мотив.

Key words: copyright, jewelry, bijouterie, unfair competition, trademark, litigation Fedorova N. Foreing and domestic experience in protecting intellectual property right to jewelry and jewelry. The article focuses on studying the issue of protecting the design of artistic jewelry and bijouterie. The concept of "functionality" for jewelry is analyzed, namely, it is determined that the «functionality» notion is the quality of servicing the useful purpose. For example, a chair manufacturer cannot claim the four legs of a chair as a copyright. These four legs are a useful and functional aspect of this chair. If a competitor also manufactures a chair with 4 legs, it does not infringe any manufacturer's right, since these legs are for functional purposes only. The concept of«functionality» in jewelry means that the last cannot be protected as a normal work, since it is purely utilitarian. For example, the hands or numbers on the dial of a watch are considered as functional because the exclusive use of these aspects seriously impedes healthy competition in the watch industry. On the other hand, unique jewelry design cannot be considered functional as it has the exclusive use of its particular elements' combination.The analysis of European legislation and US judicial practice is carried out. Under applicable US copyright law, jewelry is a subject to copyright. Under normal circumstances, the law does not require prior registration of jewelry copyright. However, in order to protect jewelry or bijouterie under the US Law on Copyright, it must meet certain conditions. The complaining party must provide evidence of illegal copying of the work and prove copyright infringement. In case of violation of copyright for jewelry, the author or the jewelry house must prove:•the originality of design;•the uniqueness in the elements combination in the process of jewelry design development.The object of an industrial design can be a shape, pattern, color, or their combination that determines the appearance of an industrial product. The main criterion for the industrial design patentability is its novelty. However, in practice, an examination for novelty when registering a designation as an industrial design, according to Alexandra Odinets, is not carried out, and the patent is issued «under the responsibility of the applicant».With regard to unfair competition in the jewelry market, according to the US jurisprudence, it is more often an offense in this context than a violation of trademark rights or copyright infringement. It is unfair competition that misleads a consumer. A competitor, by assigning a good name and an reputation established, is trying to get profit. The definition of unfair competition is carried out in a comprehensive manner, here the court will not focus on one feature of a piece of jewelry but would consider all its inherent features. In particular, it is a combination of unique elements that provide the originality of the product.The article provides recommendations for jewelry and bijouterie authors on copyright protection. 1. Pro avtorski i sumizhni prava : Zakon Ukrainy. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3792-12#Text. 2. Tomarov I. Fashion Law: kopiiuvaty ne mozhna zaboronyty! Yurydychna hazeta Online. 2017. № 25(575). URL:https://yur-gazeta.com/publications/practice/zahist-intelektualnoyi-vlasnosti-avtorske-pravo/fashion-law-kopiyuvati-ne-mozhna-zaboroniti.html. 3. Herbert Rosenthal Jewelry Corp. v. Kalpakian, 446 F.2d 738 (9th Cir. 1971). 4. Dyrektyva Yevropeiskoho Soiuzu № 98/71. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/994_a88#Text. 5. "Designer" Jewelry vs. "Inspired-by" Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations, 34. 6. Davis v. Gap, Inc. - 246 F.3d 152 (2d Cir. 2001). 7. Trifari, Krussman & Fishel, Inc. v Charel Co., 134 F Supp 551 (1955, DC NY). 8. Copyright Law of the United States §102, at 68 (2000). 9. Cprava Vacheron I Constantin-LeCoultreWatches, Inc. proty Benrus Watch Co., Inc. URL: http://saperlaw.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/cba-fashion-presentation-final.pdf (last visited April 19th, 2008). 10. Cosmetic Ideas, Inc. v. IAC/Interactivecorp, CV08-02074 R (C.D. California); Los Angeles Copyright Attorneys File Jewelry Copyright Infringement Lawsuit Over Copying Protected Jewelry Design, available at: http://www.iptrademarkattorney.com/2008/04/copyright-attorneys-jewelry-los-angeles-protected-jewelry-design-lawsuit-copying-copyrights-la.html (last visited April 19th, 2008). 11. Saper Law. "Designer" Jewelry vs. "Inspired-by" Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations. 2008. ; Ключові слова: авторське право, ювелірні вироби, біжутерія, недобросовісна конкуренція, торгова марка, судова практика Стаття присвячена дослідженню питань щодо охорони дизайну авторських ювелірних виробів та біжутерії. Проаналізовано поняття «Функціональності», щодо ювелірних виробів а саме, визначено, що ювелірні вироби не можуть охоронятися як звичайний твір, оскільки є винятково утилітарними. Наприклад, стрілки або цифри на циферблаті годинника вважаються функціональними, оскільки ексклюзивне використання цих аспектів серйозно перешкоджатиме здоровій конкуренції в годинниковій галузі. З іншого боку, унікальний дизайн ювелірних виробів не може вважатися функціональним, оскільки має ексклюзивне використання його особливої комбінації елементів. Здійснено аналіз Європейського законодавства та судової практики США. 1. Про авторські і суміжні права : Закон України. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/3792-12#Text. 2. Томаров І. Fashion Law: копіювати не можна заборонити! Юридична газета Online. 2017. № 25(575). URL:https://yur-gazeta.com/publications/practice/zahist-intelektualnoyi-vlasnosti-avtorske-pravo/fashion-law-kopiyuvati-ne-mozhna-zaboroniti.html. 3. Herbert Rosenthal Jewelry Corp. v. Kalpakian, 446 F.2d 738 (9th Cir. 1971). 4. Директива Європейського Союзу № 98/71. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/994_a88#Text. 5. «Designer» Jewelry vs. «Inspired-by» Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations, 34. 6. Davis v. Gap, Inc. - 246 F.3d 152 (2d Cir. 2001). 7. Trifari, Krussman & Fishel, Inc. v Charel Co., 134 F Supp 551 (1955, DC NY). 8. Copyright Law of the United States §102, at 68 (2000). 9. Cправa Vacheron I Constantin-LeCoultreWatches, Inc. проти Benrus Watch Co., Inc. URL: http://saperlaw.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2007/09/cba-fashion-presentation-final.pdf (last visited April 19th, 2008). 10. Cosmetic Ideas, Inc. v. IAC/Interactivecorp, CV08-02074 R (C.D. California); Los Angeles Copyright Attorneys File Jewelry Copyright Infringement Lawsuit Over Copying Protected Jewelry Design, available at: http://www.iptrademarkattorney.com/2008/04/copyright-attorneys-jewelry-los-angeles-protected-jewelry-design-lawsuit-copying-copyrights-la.html (last visited April 19th, 2008). 11. Saper Law. "Designer" Jewelry vs. "Inspired-by" Jewelry: Intellectual Property Infringement and Unfair Competition Considerations. 2008.

The article examines the state of the Ukrainian language through the prism of the formation and development of the «Russian world» of the times of the Russian Empire. The content of the Russian geopolitical concept – the ideology of the «Russian world», which is based on Russian language and Russian culture – has been revealed. It is emphasized that the Moscow language and the corresponding culture were absent on Ukrainian territory during the Lithuanian-Russian statehood and the times of the Commonwealth. The article notes that the most significant basis for the spread of the Ukrainian language is the state form of society organization. National and cultural rise in Ukraine provided an opportunity to embark on the path of creation and development of national statehood, which opened up new possibilities for the development of Ukrainian culture and language. The development of the Ukrainian language in the political, educational and religious spheres is examined. Significant achievements of Ukrainians in preserving Rus-Ukrainian culture in the struggle against the «Latin world» due to the creation of a national network of public educational institutions have been revealed; the following institutions were created: fraternal and Cossack (Sich), as well as monastic and church-parish schools, in which the Ukrainian language played an important role. The author emphasizes the prominent place of the folk speech within the confessional practice, translation of religious texts and Ukrainian-language sermons, because it significantly raised the prestige of the folk speech in society and the Orthodox world. It is shown that the formation of Moscow-Russian statehood is directly related to the formation of the world space of the «Russian world» – the expansionist policy of «gathering Russian lands», naming Moscow tsars as «sovereigns of all Russia», implementing the idea of «Moscow as the Third Rome», etc. An analysis of the influence of the unification policy of the Russian Empire in the political, religious and educational spheres of public life, under which the Ukrainian language was completely pushed out of administrative and political use due to the liquidation of the Cossack autonomy (Hetmanate), of the church sphere as a result of the displacement of the folk speech from liturgical practice, of the educational sphere through the creation and formation of the imperial educational system, which led to an extremely low level of education among Ukrainians is proposed. It is emphasized that the formation of the world space of the «Russian world» made it impossible for the peoples of the Russian Empire, especially Ukrainians and Belarusians who were the closely related linguistically and culturally, to develop freely. ; В статті розглядається стан української мови крізь призму становлення та розвитку «Русского мира» часів Російської імперії. Розкривається зміст російського геополітичного концепту – ідеології «Русского мира», що своїм культурним підґрунтям має російську мову та російську культуру. Підкреслюється, що московська мова та відповідна культура були відсутні на українських теренах за часів Литовсько-Руської державності та в Речі Посполитій. В статті зазначається, що найзначнішим підґрунтям поширення української мови є державна форма організації суспільства. Національно-культурне піднесення в Україні дало можливість стати на шлях створення та розвитку національної державності, що відкривало нові можливості для розвитку української культури та мови. Здійснено огляд розвитку української мови в політичній, освітній та релігійній царинах. Розкрито значні здобутки українства на шляху збереження русько-української культури в боротьбі з «латинським світом» внаслідок створення національної мережі народних освітніх закладів: братських та козацьких (січових), а також монастирських та церковно-парафіяльних шкіл, в яких вагоме місце відводилось українській мові. Автор відзначає чільне місце народної мови в межах конфесійної практики, перекладу релігійних текстів та україномовної проповіді, адже це значно піднімало престиж народної мови в суспільстві та православному світі. Показано, що становлення московсько-російської державності безпосередньо пов'язане з формуванням світопростору «Русского мира» – експансіоністська політика «збирання руських земель», іменування московських царів себе як «государів всєя Русі», впровадження в життя ідеї «Москви як Третього Риму» тощо. Пропонується аналіз впливу уніфікаційної політики Російської імперії в політичній, релігійній та освітній сферах суспільного життя, за якої було повністю витіснено українську мову з адміністративно-політичного вжитку внаслідок ліквідації козацької автономії (Гетьманщини); з церковної сфери внаслідок витіснення народної мови з богослужбової практики; з освітньої сфери через створення та формування імперської освітньої системи, що призвело до вкрай низького рівня освіти серед українців. Підкреслюється, що формування світопростіру «Русского мира» унеможливлювало вільний розвиток народів Російської імперії, особливо близькоспоріднених мовно й культурно українців та білорусів. ; В статті розглядається стан української мови крізь призму становлення та розвитку «Русского мира» часів Російської імперії. Розкривається зміст російського геополітичного концепту – ідеології «Русского мира», що своїм культурним підґрунтям має російську мову та російську культуру. Підкреслюється, що московська мова та відповідна культура були відсутні на українських теренах за часів Литовсько-Руської державності та в Речі Посполитій. В статті зазначається, що найзначнішим підґрунтям поширення української мови є державна форма організації суспільства. Національно-культурне піднесення в Україні дало можливість стати на шлях створення та розвитку національної державності, що відкривало нові можливості для розвитку української культури та мови. Здійснено огляд розвитку української мови в політичній, освітній та релігійній царинах. Розкрито значні здобутки українства на шляху збереження русько-української культури в боротьбі з «латинським світом» внаслідок створення національної мережі народних освітніх закладів: братських та козацьких (січових), а також монастирських та церковно-парафіяльних шкіл, в яких вагоме місце відводилось українській мові. Автор відзначає чільне місце народної мови в межах конфесійної практики, перекладу релігійних текстів та україномовної проповіді, адже це значно піднімало престиж народної мови в суспільстві та православному світі. Показано, що становлення московсько-російської державності безпосередньо пов'язане з формуванням світопростору «Русского мира» – експансіоністська політика «збирання руських земель», іменування московських царів себе як «государів всєя Русі», впровадження в життя ідеї «Москви як Третього Риму» тощо. Пропонується аналіз впливу уніфікаційної політики Російської імперії в політичній, релігійній та освітній сферах суспільного життя, за якої було повністю витіснено українську мову з адміністративно-політичного вжитку внаслідок ліквідації козацької автономії (Гетьманщини); з церковної сфери внаслідок витіснення народної мови з богослужбової практики; з освітньої сфери через створення та формування імперської освітньої системи, що призвело до вкрай низького рівня освіти серед українців. Підкреслюється, що формування світопростіру «Русского мира» унеможливлювало вільний розвиток народів Російської імперії, особливо близькоспоріднених мовно й культурно українців та білорусів.

ABSTRACT / INTRODUCTION Data management and curation in research sites has become increasingly more complex in the last decade. A large portion of this complexity is caused by the ever-increasing number of instruments and sensors producing huge amounts of data. At the same time, researchers and data curators have joined to enforce FAIR (Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reuse) Principles of data products. This is a worldwide initiative which will increase the potential of collaboration through data sharing across diverse sites. Managing large amounts of data requires rules-based automation to ensure that site policies are respected, and, at the same time, workflows must be enabled from data ingestion through the distribution of data products. The evolution of iRODS technology Initially, the basis for iRODS (The Integrated Rule-Oriented Data System) was a university project funded by a government agency. The concept was to build a searchable data base with entries that were linked to specific data represented in a plurality of POSIX compliant file systems. These file systems would appear as a single namespace so that a user did not have to be concerned with data locality but rather, just the descriptive metadata which was provided by a researcher when the file was generated. This original implementation of open source cataloging was successful to the extent that it became the basis of a commercial product that was sold to various government organizations. The evolution of iRODS as it exists today began with the founding of the iRODS Consortium about 7 years ago. Today iRODS can be described both as a technology platform and, through the consortium, a vibrant and diverse community with many mutual goals. Currently, iRODS is built to support 8 essential capabilities. These include automated data ingestion, data integrity checking, storage tiering, and auditing enabling indexing, provenance tracking, and compliance checking. Finally, an interface to publication completes the feature set. Use cases requiring policy enforcement were described at the most recent iRODS Consortium User Group Meeting [1]. First, let's look at the Victoria Department of Agriculture in Australia. Their overall goal is nothing less than increasing farm efficiency in the entire state. Their policies include automated data gathering and migration to a processing site so that data products can be analyzed. The goal will be to federate iRODS locations located on individual farms. Sensor data will be automatically ingested on the farm then the aggregate data will be ingested to a central site also utilizing iRODS rules to enforce the collection policy [2]. This managed use of eResearch and iRODS will directly affect the GDP of the state. CyVerse, based in Tucson is a perfect example of a multi-national application of iRODS. The site hosts a diverse range of research data starting several years ago with plant genomics [3]. The data is mirrored to an iRODS based site at TACC (Texas Advanced Computing Center) in Austin [4]. Data is ingested from partner sites worldwide including Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, Canberra, Adelaide, Perth, and Hobart in Australia [5]. CyVerse also offers compute services using the "data to compute" model. The KTH Royal Institute of Technology is utilizing iRODS to transition data between GPFS file systems allowing file system upgrades while maintaining availability [6]. The iRODS based checksumming was employed to assure that data integrity was maintained through the entire process. Storage at KTH is utilized to host data from the entire country of Sweden. At Utrecht University data site policies stress data discovery to enable research. To that end, a custom interface called Yoda was written based upon iRODS. "Yoda deploys iRODS as its core component, customized with more than 10,000 lines of iRODS rules". This site is successfully hosting a very large research data archive [7]. At KU Leuven iRODS is being utilized to allow researchers to have active data utilization enabling project work before publication. FAIR principles are stressed in their data policies with iRODS tools for compliance [8]. At Bristol Myers Squibb, iRODS is being utilize to manage AWS cloud-based data sets to enable worldwide project progress. The iRODS technology is used to manage data flows and to maintain a catalog of the available data in real time interfacing with AWS Lambda functions [9]. At the NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences) discoverability of diverse data sets with auditable data governance is stressed. Metadata templates have been written to guarantee standardization in the description of the hosted data [10]. There are many research sites both academic and commercial that use iRODS to enforce policies. It's important to note, however, that a site policy does not have to fully evolve immediately. The iRODS open source technology with its plug-in framework allows policies to grow and evolve over time and effectively "future-proof" eResearch archives worldwide. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dave Fellinger is a Data Management Technologist and Storage Scientist with the iRODS Consortium. He has over three decades of engineering experience including film systems, video processing devices, ASIC design and development, GaAs semiconductor manufacture, RAID and storage systems, and file systems. He attended Carnegie-Mellon University and holds patents in diverse areas of technology. REFERENCES 1. The agenda for the iRODS User Group Meeting 2020 is available from; https://irods.org/images/irods_ugm2020_agenda.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 2. A presentation from the Victoria Department of Agriculture is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/Murphy-AgVicSmartFarm_Data_Managementslides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 3. A presentation from CyVerse is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/Roberts-CyVerse-Discovery_Environment-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 4. A presentation from TACC is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/Jordan-TACCThe_Past_Present_and_Future_of_iRODS_at_TACC-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 5. A description of EMBL in Australia is available from; https://www.emblabr.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/EMBL-nodes-hubs-flyeronline-final.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 6. A presentation from KTH is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/KorhonenKTHMigration_Between_GPFS_Filesystems-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 7. A presentation from Utrecht University is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/Westerhof-SmeeleUtrechtUniYoda_and_iRODS_Python_rule_engine_plugin-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 8. A presentation from KU Leuven is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/Barcena-KULeuvenVSCiRODS_Data_Management_Platform-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 9. A presentation from Bristol Myers Squibb is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/ShaikhBMSiRODS_for_scientific_applications_in_AWS_Cloud-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020 10. A presentation from NIEHS is available from; https://irods.org/uploads/2020/Conway-NIEHSApplications_of_iRODS-slides.pdf, accessed 11 November 2020

BACKGROUND: Childhood maltreatment is associated with poor mental and physical health. However, the mechanisms of gene-environment correlations and the potential causal effects of childhood maltreatment on health are unknown. Using genetics, we aimed to delineate the sources of gene-environment correlation for childhood maltreatment and the causal relationship between childhood maltreatment and health. METHODS: We did a genome-wide association study meta-analysis of childhood maltreatment using data from the UK Biobank (n=143 473), Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (n=26 290), Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (n=8346), Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study (n=5400), and Generation R (n=1905). We included individuals who had phenotypic and genetic data available. We investigated single nucleotide polymorphism heritability and genetic correlations among different subtypes, operationalisations, and reports of childhood maltreatment. Family-based and population-based polygenic score analyses were done to elucidate gene-environment correlation mechanisms. We used genetic correlation and Mendelian randomisation analyses to identify shared genetics and test causal relationships between childhood maltreatment and mental and physical health conditions. FINDINGS: Our meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies (N=185 414) identified 14 independent loci associated with childhood maltreatment (13 novel). We identified high genetic overlap (genetic correlations 0·24-1·00) among different maltreatment operationalisations, subtypes, and reporting methods. Within-family analyses provided some support for active and reactive gene-environment correlation but did not show the absence of passive gene-environment correlation. Robust Mendelian randomisation suggested a potential causal role of childhood maltreatment in depression (unidirectional), as well as both schizophrenia and ADHD (bidirectional), but not in physical health conditions (coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes) or inflammation (C-reactive protein concentration). INTERPRETATION: Childhood maltreatment has a heritable component, with substantial genetic correlations among different operationalisations, subtypes, and retrospective and prospective reports of childhood maltreatment. Family-based analyses point to a role of active and reactive gene-environment correlation, with equivocal support for passive correlation. Mendelian randomisation supports a (primarily bidirectional) causal role of childhood maltreatment on mental health, but not on physical health conditions. Our study identifies research avenues to inform the prevention of childhood maltreatment and its long-term effects. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust, UK Medical Research Council, Horizon 2020, National Institute of Mental Health, and National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre. ; This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust (Grant refs: 214322/Z/18/Z, 104036/Z/14/Z, 204623/Z/16/Z, and 217065/Z/19/Z). VW was funded by the Bowring Research Fellowship from St. Catharine's College, Cambridge and Wellcome Trust Collaborative Award (Grant Ref: 214322/Z/18/Z). ASFK and AM are supported by Wellcome Trust Grant 104036/Z/14/Z. ASFK is also supported by an ESRC Postdoctoral Fellowship (Grant ref: ES/V011650/1). ML is supported by the scholarship from the China Scholarship Council (No. 201706990036). The work of CC has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 707404 and grant agreement No 848158 (EarlyCause Project). MHvIJ is supported by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant No. 024.001.003, Consortium on Individual Development) and by a Spinoza Prize of the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. HMS and MRM are supported by the Medical Research Council and the University of Bristol (MC_UU_00011/7) and by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at the University Hospitals Bristol National Health Service Foundation Trust and the University of Bristol. HMS is also supported by the European Research Council (Grant ref: 758813 MHINT). CMN is supported by the National Institute for Mental Health NIMH R01MH106595 and the Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health (CESAMH), Veterans Affairs San Diego. AJG and SB are supported by a Sir Henry Dale Fellowship jointly funded by the Wellcome Trust and the Royal Society (grant number 204623/Z/16/Z). TMM and RB are supported by the NIMH (R01MH117014, TMM; K23MH120437, RB).The research was conducted in association with the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, and the NIHR Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care East of England at Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the National Health Service, the NIHR, or the Department of Health and Social Care. This research was possible due to two applications to the UK Biobank: Projects 20904 and 23787. This research was co-funded by the NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre and a Marmaduke Sheild grant. The UK Medical Research Council and Wellcome (Grant Ref: 217065/Z/19/Z) and the University of Bristol provide core support for ALSPAC. A comprehensive list of grants funding is available on the ALSPAC website (http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/external/documents/grant-acknowledgements.pdf). We are extremely grateful to all the families who took part in this study, the midwives for their help in recruiting them, and the whole ALSPAC team, which includes interviewers, computer and laboratory technicians, clerical workers, research scientists, volunteers, managers, receptionists and nurses. The study website contains details of all data available through a fully searchable data dictionary (http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/researchers/our-data/). Part of this data was collected using REDCap, see the REDCap website for details https://projectredcap.org/resources/citations/). The first phase of the Generation R Study is made possible by financial support from the Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam; the Erasmus University Rotterdam; ZonMw; the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO); and the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of all children and parents, general practitioners, hospitals, midwives and pharmacies involved in the Generation R Study. The Generation R Study is conducted by the Erasmus Medical Center in close collaboration with the School of Law and Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences at Erasmus University Rotterdam; the Municipal Health Service Rotterdam area, Rotterdam; the Rotterdam Homecare Foundation, Rotterdam; and the Stichting Trombosedienst & Artsenlaboratorium Rijnmond (STAR-MDC), Rotterdam.

With Nigerian novelist Amos Tutuola as primary subject, this paper at[1]tempts to understand the construction of sociocultural identities in Nigeria in the wake of independence. Despite the international success of his literary publications, Tutuola was denied access to the most intimate discourses on the development of African literature by his Nigerian elite contemporaries, who emerged from University College, Ibadan, in the 1950s and early 1960s. Having completed only a few years of colonial schooling, Tutuola was differentiated from his elite literary contemporaries in terms of education. Yet if education represented a rather concrete, institutionalized divide between the elite and the everyday Nigerian, this paper will suggest that the resulting epistemological difference served as a more fluid, ideological divide. Both Western epistemology, rooted in Western academic spaces, and African epistemology, preserved from African traditions like proverbs and storytelling, informed the elite and Tutuola's worldviews. The varying degrees to which one epistemology was privileged over the other reinforced the boundary between Tutuola and the elite. Furthermore, educational experiences and sociocultural identities informed the ways in which independent Nigeria was envisioned by both Tutuola and the elite writers. While the elites' discourse on independence reflected their proximity to Nigeria's political elite, Tutuola positioned himself as a distinctly Yoruba writer in the new Nigeria. He envisioned a state in which traditional knowledge remained central to the African identity. Ultimately, his life and work attest to the endurance of indigenous epistemology through years of European colonialism and into independence. 148 Mackenzie Finley During a lecture series at the University of Palermo, Italy, Nigerian novelist Amos Tutuola presented himself, his work, and his Yoruba heritage to an audience of Italian students and professors of English and Anglophone literatures. During his first lecture, the Yoruba elder asked his audience, "Why are we people afraid to go to the burial ground at night?" An audience member ventured a guess: "Perhaps we are afraid to know what we cannot know." Tutuola replied, "But, you remember, we Africans believe that death is not the end of life. We know that when one dies, that is not the end of his life [. . .] So why are all people afraid to go to the burial ground at night? They're afraid to meet the ghosts from the dead" (emphasis in original).1 Amos Tutuola (1920–1997) was recognized globally for his perpetuation of Yoruba folklore tradition via novels and short stories written in unconventional English. His works, especially The Palm-Wine Drinkard (1952) and My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (1954), were translated into numerous European languages, including Italian. Given the chance to speak directly with an Italian audience at Palermo, Tutuola elaborated on the elements of Yoruba culture that saturated his fiction. His lectures reflected the same sense of purpose that drove his writing. Tutuola explained, "As much as I could [in my novels], I tried my best to bring out for the people to see the secrets of my tribe—I mean, the Yoruba people—and of Nigerian people, and African people as a whole. I'm trying my best to bring out our traditional things for the people to know a little about us, about our beliefs, our character, and so on."2 Tutuola's didactics during the lecture at Palermo reflect his distinct intellectual and cultural commitment to a Yoruba cosmology, one that was not so much learned in his short years of schooling in the colonial education system as it was absorbed from his life of engagement with Yoruba oral tradition. With Tutuola as primary subject, this paper attempts to understand the construction of sociocultural identities in Nigeria in the wake of independence. The educated elite writers, such as Wole Soyinka and Chinua Achebe, who emerged from University College, Ibadan, during the same time period, will serve as a point of comparison. On October 1, 1960, when Nigeria gained independence from Britain, Tutuola occupied an unusual place relative to the university-educated elite, the semi-literate "average man," the international 1 Alassandra di Maio, Tutuola at the University: The Italian Voice of a Yoruba Ancestor, with an Interview with the Author and an Afterword by Claudio Gorlier (Rome: Bulzoni, 2000), 38. The lecture's transcriber utilized graphic devices (italicized and bolded words, brackets denoting pauses and movements) to preserve the dynamic oral experience of the lecture. However, so that the dialogue reads more easily in the context of this paper, I have removed the graphic devices but maintained what the transcriber presented as Tutuola's emphasized words, simply italicizing what was originally in bold. 2 Di Maio, Tutuola at the University, 148. Constructing Identities 149 stage of literary criticism, and the emerging field of African literature. This position helped shape his sense of identity. Despite the success of his literary publications, Tutuola was not allowed to participate in the most intimate dis[1]courses on the development of African literature by his elite contemporaries. In addition to his lack of access to higher education, Tutuola was differentiated from his elite literary contemporaries on epistemological grounds. If education represented a rather concrete, institutionalized divide between the elite and the everyday Nigerian, an epistemological difference served as a more fluid, ideological divide. Both Western epistemology, rooted in Western academic spaces, and African epistemology, preserved from African traditions like proverbs and storytelling, informed the elite and Tutuola's worldviews. The varying degrees to which one epistemology was privileged over the other reinforced the boundary between the elite and Tutuola. This paper draws largely on correspondence, conference reports, and the personal papers of Tutuola and his elite contemporaries housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, as well as on interviews transcribed by the Transcription Centre in London, the periodical Africa Report (1960–1970), and Robert M. Wren and Claudio Gorlier, concentrating on primary sources produced during the years immediately prior to and shortly after Nigerian independence in 1960. Tutuola's ideas generally did not fit into the sociocultural objectives of his elite counterparts. Though they would come in contact with one another via the world of English-language literature, Tutuola usually remained absent from or relegated to the margins of elite discussions on African creative writing. Accordingly, the historical record has less to say about his intellectual ruminations than about those of his elite contemporaries. Nonetheless, his hand-written drafts, interviews, and correspondences with European agents offer a glimpse at the epistemology and sense of identity of an "average" Nigerian in the aftermath of colonialism and independence.

L'elaborato Il Totalitarismo negli scritti di intellettuali fascisti e di oppositori italiani tratta del concetto di totalitarismo, di come nasce e di come viene percepito dagli attori politici del tempo. A differenza di quel che si pensa il termine totalitarismo non ha radici molto lontane, infatti, viene coniato agli inizi del secolo scorso dagli intellettuali italiani per indicare il Fascismo. Il primo capitolo tratta delle prime apparizioni di questo nuovo termine, infatti, lo ritroviamo negli scritti di Amendola, Sturzo e Gramsci e molti altri intellettuali, che usano la parola totalitario per sottolineare la novità di ciò che accade in Italia, proprio a mostrare la differenza che c'è tra le dittature passate e il nuovo tipo di politica fascista. Il capitolo due viene suddiviso in tre parti: Antonio Gramsci, Luigi Sturzo e il Partito Nazionale Fascista. Questi tre attori fanno parte di schieramenti del tutto diversi, infatti, Gramsci è uno dei massimi pensatori italiani del comunismo, mentre Sturzo è il padre del Partito popolare italiano. Nonostante le divergenze di pensiero tutti e tre utilizzano il termine totalitario. Gramsci ha intuito già prima del suo arresto, la presa di potere forte che il Mussolini ha imposto alla Camera dei deputati. Gramsci è consapevole che il tempo per i comunisti italiani non è ancora maturo ma combatte strenuamente contro i fascisti che si stanno accaparrando tutto il potere in maniera autoritaria. Anche dopo essere stato arrestato e costretto alla carcerazione con una condanna di 20 anni, Gramsci continua il suo lavoro. La produzione del carcere sarà raccolta in seguito nei Quaderni del carcere, l'opera più conosciuta dell'autore. Anche se questo saggio vede la luce dopo la morte del suo autore, i compagni del partito non abbandonano la lotta che Gramsci aveva a cuore. Don Luigi Sturzo è uno dei primi intellettuali a chiamare lo Stato fascista totalitario, la sua lotta per il popolo, con la creazione di casse rurali e di mutuo soccorso per i più deboli fece acquistare molta popolarità al partito popolare, ma Sturzo come Gramsci e tutti gli altri esponenti politici combattono le loro battaglie legalmente, mentre il fascismo è un'organizzazione che basa il suo potere sulla violenza e l'illegalità. Le denunce del prete contro Mussolini non sono servite a molto ma gli sono valse l'allontanamento dalla carica di capo del partito e poi di ministro all'interno della Camera, su volere del Vaticano, che ha già appoggiato il fascismo. Dal suo esilio Sturzo scrive Italia e Fascismo, l'opera conosce un grande successo a livello europeo e viene tradotta in più lingue. Il saggio di Sturzo è una denuncia a ciò che è accaduto in Italia, l'analisi di come il fascismo abbia assunto tanto potere, diventando il primo prototipo di stato totalitario e la somiglianza che questo regime ha con l'Urss. Dal canto suo il Partito Nazionale Fascista una volta imposto il potere ed eliminate le opposizioni, si allontana dal termine totalitario. All'inizio del suo percorso politico Mussolini aveva assunto con grande orgoglio il termine totalitario per descriversi, ma negli anni '40 del 900 prende le distanze da questa etichetta, ridimensionandola. La storia e le azioni fasciste si possono leggere nel Dizionario di politica redatto dal partito e voluto da Mussolini in persona. The paper Il Totalitarism in the writings of fascist intellectuals and Italian opponents deals with the concept of totalitarianism, how it was born and how it is perceived by the political actors of the time. Unlike what is thought, the term totalitarianism does not have very distant roots, in fact, it was coined at the beginning of the last century by Italian intellectuals to indicate Fascism.The first chapter deals with the first appearances of this new term, in fact, we find it in the writings of Amendola, Sturzo and Gramsci and many other intellectuals, who use the word totalitarian to emphasize the novelty of what happens in Italy, just to show the difference. which exists between past dictatorships and the new type of fascist politics. Chapter two is divided into three parts: Antonio Gramsci, Luigi Sturzo and the National Fascist Party. These three actors are part of completely different camps, in fact, Gramsci is one of the greatest Italian thinkers of communism, while Sturzo is the father of the Italian People's Party. Despite the differences of thought, all three use the term totalitarian. Gramsci had already guessed before his arrest, the strong takeover that Mussolini imposed on the Chamber of Deputies. Gramsci is aware that the time for the Italian Communists is not yet ripe but he fights strenuously against the fascists who are grabbing all power in an authoritarian way. Even after being arrested and forced into jail with a 20-year sentence, Gramsci continues his work. The prison production will later be collected in the Prison Notebooks, the author's best known work. Even if this essay sees the light after the death of its author, the comrades of the party do not abandon the struggle that Gramsci had at heart. Don Luigi Sturzo is one of the first intellectuals to call the fascist state totalitarian, his struggle for the people, with the creation of rural funds and mutual aid for the weakest, made the popular party gain a lot of popularity, but Sturzo like Gramsci and all other politicians fight their battles legally, while fascism is an organization that bases its power on violence and illegality. The priest's complaints against Mussolini did not help much but earned him the expulsion from the office of party head and then minister in the Chamber, at the behest of the Vatican, which has already supported fascism. From his exile Sturzo wrote Italy and Fascism, the work enjoyed great success at European level and was translated into several languages. Sturzo's essay is a denunciation of what happened in Italy, the analysis of how fascism took on so much power, becoming the first prototype of a totalitarian state and the similarity that this regime has with the URSS. For its part, the National Fascist Party, once it has imposed power and eliminated the opposition, moves away from the term totalitarian. At the beginning of his political career Mussolini had taken on the term totalitarian with great pride to describe himself, but in the 1940s he distanced himself from this label, resizing it. The history and fascist actions can be read in the Political Dictionary drawn up by the party and wanted by Mussolini himself. .

This article explores the Scottish character of Groundskeeper Willie in the American animated sitcom The Simpsons with a pragmatic and social-psychological approach. It firstly introduces Willie's linguistic and visual features, the sample of three episodes the analysis is based on, Scottish stereotypes in Lindsay's (1997) sociological research, and Searle's (1976) taxonomy of illocutionary acts (representatives or assertives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations). Secondly, the turns uttered by the groundskeeper in the sample are classified by applying Searle's taxonomy, and his illocutionary acts are examined in their contexts and compared with the list of national-ethnic Scottish stereotypes compiled by Lindsay. This study demonstrates that Willie's illocutionary acts and the stereotypes they convey depict him as a figure characterised by positive traits; nevertheless, the responses his illocutionary acts are met with not only counter his pleasant aspects, but also ultimately represent the Scottish groundskeeper as a ludicrous victim of his American fellow townspeople. ; University of Cagliari, Italy ; Daniela Francesca Virdis is an Associate Professor of English Language and Translation at the University of Cagliari. She is a steering group member of the International Ecolinguistics Association. She is the author of Serialised Gender: A Linguistic Analysis of Femininities in Contemporary TV Series and Media (2012), which was awarded the Italian Association of English Studies Book Prize 2013. Her current research interests include ecostylistics and metaphor theory. ; dfvirdis@unica.it ; 16 ; 32 (1/2021) ; 35 ; Aitken, A. J. & McArthur, T. (eds.). 1979. Languages of Scotland. 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The Simpsons: Atomistic politics and the nuclear family. Political Theory 27.6: 734-749. ; Cohen, E. A. 1998. Homer Simpson: Classic clown. The Simpsons Archive, available at http://www.simpsonsarchive.com/other/papers/eac.paper.html, last accessed December 2020. ; Dossena, M. 2005. Scotticisms in Grammar and Vocabulary: Like Runes upon a Standin' Stane?. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers. ; Ferrari, C. 2009. Dubbing The Simpsons: Or how Groundskeeper Willie lost his kilt in Sardinia. Journal of Film and Video 61.2: 19-37. ; Fusari, S. 2007. Idioletti e dialetti nel doppiaggio italiano de I Simpson. Quaderni del CeSLiC: Occasional Papers, Centro di Studi Linguistico-Culturali (CeSLiC), Bologna, available at http://amsacta.cib.unibo.it/archive/00002182/01/Fusari_OP_COMPLETO.pdf, last accessed December 2020. ; Gray, J. 2006. Watching with The Simpsons: Television, Parody, and Intertextuality. London/ New York: Routledge. ; Groening, M. 2001-2010. The Simpsons. Seasons 1-20 (home video releases). Fox Broadcasting Company ; Grundy, P. 2008. Doing Pragmatics, 3rd edition. London: Arnold. ; Hopkins, N. & Reicher, S. 1997. Constructing the nation and collective mobilization: A case study of politicians' arguments about the meaning of Scottishness. In: C.C. Barfoot (ed.), Beyond Pug's Tour: National and Ethnic Stereotyping in Theory and Literary Practice, 313-338. Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi. ; Horowitz, J. 1999. Mmm . television: A study of the audience of The Simpsons. The Simpsons Archive, available at http://www.simpsonsarchive.com/other/papers/jh.paper.html, last accessed December 2020. ; Hughes, A., Trudgill, P. & Watt, D. (eds). 2005. English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of English in the British Isles. London: Arnold. ; Lamont, C. 1997. The stereotype Scot and the idea of Britain. In: C. C. Barfoot (ed.), Beyond Pug's Tour: National and Ethnic Stereotyping in Theory and Literary Practice, 339-350. Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi. ; Levinson, S. C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ; Lindsay, I. 1997. The uses and abuses of national stereotypes. Scottish Affairs 20: 133-148. ; Mazzon, G. 1994. Le lingue inglesi: Aspetti storici e geografici. Rome: La Nuova Italia Scientifica. ; McCrum, R. et al. 1987. The Story of English. London: Faber and Faber/BBC Books. ; Mullin, B. 1999. The Simpsons, American satire. The Simpsons Archive, available at http://www.simpsonsarchive.com/other/papers/bm.paper.html, last accessed December 2020. ; Puddu, N. & Virdis, D. F. 2014. Dalla Scozia alla Sardegna: Stereotipi e tratti bandiera di Groundskeeper Willie/Willie il Giardiniere dei Simpson. In: A. Dettori (ed.), Dalla Sardegna all'Europa: Lingue e letterature regionali, 338-354. Milan: Franco Angeli. ; Rodaway, P. 2003. Space, character and critique: South Asian identity in The Simpsons. In: T. Shakur and K. D'Souza (eds.), Picturing South Asian Culture in English: Textual and Visual Representations, 162-175. Liverpool: Open House Press. ; Sbisà, M. 2009. Speech act theory. In: J. Verschueren & J.-O. Östman (eds.), Key Notions for Pragmatics, 229-244. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ; Searle, J. R. 1976. A classification of illocutionary acts. Language in Society 5.1: 1-23. ; Stangor, C. (ed.). 2000. Stereotypes and Prejudice: Essential Readings. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. ; Tomaiuolo, S. 2007. Translating "America's most nuclear family" into Italian: Dubbing and cultural adaptation in The Simpsons. Translation and Interpreting Studies 2.2: 43-73. ; Turner, C. 2005. Planet Simpson: How a Cartoon Masterpiece Documented an Era and Defined a Generation. Cambridge (MA): Da Capo Press. ; Turpin, A. 2005. The strange world of oor grown-up Wullie. The Sunday Times 23rd October. ; Verschueren, J. & Östman, J.-O. (eds.). 2009. Key Notions for Pragmatics. 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Introduction. The didactic principle of education-in-studies is one of the most important instruments of quality education at all levels. Compliance with this principle enhances the results of methodological means educators choose. A positive example is considered a widely recognised and effective method of education and upbringing. As such examples, in education it is recommended to use personal and scientific biographies of scholars whose names became a part of scientific eponyms – terms meaning phenomena, laws, theories, inventions, etc. derived from the names of their originators. Eponyms are researched from the prospective of many sciences, including pedagogy. According to the principles of humanisation and historicism declared in governmental documents on education, eponyms can be utilised as means of upbringing while studying natural and other disciplines. However, the research data about this role of eponyms are scarce. In particular, it is unknown how students perceive this component of language and if there is a difference in perception between school and university students. This gap in methodology and teaching technique applies to a number of disciplines including chemistry.The aims of this research publication were to study attitudes of university students in two countries – Belarus and the USA – to chemical eponyms, and to identify correlations between their reflective cognition and solid knowledge of the future professionals.Methodology and research methods. A 27-item questionnaire with different types of answers was developed by the author of the present research. The questionnaire was administered via the Internet for the survey of students at University of Oregon and Belarusian State University. Analysis of the data collected was done in IBM® SPSS® package using descriptive (mean, standard deviation, variance) and inferential (Mann–Whitney and Pearson tests) statistics.Results and scientific novelty. The survey showed that students in both countries recognise chemical eponyms by association better than by their content. Belarusian respondents exhibited a bit higher level of eponym knowledge than American respondents, which is explained by populations (the former one had more chemistry majors), timing and duration of chemistry courses. Recognition of chemical eponyms differs; it is promoted by their repeatability, uniqueness, and phoneticity. The majority of students in both countries perceive eponyms non-reflexively, and the students' attitude towards eponyms is mostly uncertain. It was found that the determinant factor for good knowledge and reflective positive attitude towards eponyms is the student's motivation for learning. This motivation, in turn, is determined by the chosen major. Naturally, the profile majors "Chemistry" and "Chemistry Teaching" motivate students the most. It has been concluded that on the one hand, for implementation of the humanisation and historicism principles, one should not rely exclusively on eponyms. To avoid mistakes, one should keep a systemic approach that implies a set of pedagogical means and methods. On the other hand, systematic, regular work with chemical eponyms helps to get an in-depth understanding of chemical phenomena and to get the chemical theory-and-practice synthesis quick and balanced. Unfortunately, less and less attention is paid in educational literature to both eponyms and scholar personalities as their sources, and that is fundamentally wrong.Practical significance. The research materials and the results obtained in this research will be useful for teachers and instructors of chemistry in the development of lessons, lectures, seminars and laboratory classes as well as in writing tutorials and textbooks. ; Введение. К важнейшим инструментам качественного образования любого уровня относится дидактический принцип воспитывающего обучения, соблюдение которого усиливает результативность выбираемых педагогами методических средств. Общепризнанным эффективным методом обучения и воспитания считается положительный пример. В качестве такового в образовательной сфере рекомендуется использовать биографии и описания деятельности ученых-первооткрывателей, многие фамилии которых стали нарицательными или вошли в состав научных эпонимов (производных от имен собственных терминов и понятий, обозначающих явление, закон, теорию, изобретение и др.). Эпонимы изучаются с позиций многих наук, в том числе педагогики, а согласно декларируемым в национальных документах об образовании принципам гуманизации и историзма они могут применяться как средство воспитания при освоении естественных и других дисциплин. Однако данные об исследованиях подобной роли эпонимов отсутствуют. Неизвестно, в частности, как соответствующий пласт учебной лексики воспринимается учащимися и изменяется ли ее восприятие у студентов университета по сравнению со школьниками. Этот пробел в методологии и методике преподавания в полной мере относится и к такому предмету, как «Химия». Цели представленной в публикации работы состояли в выяснении отношения студентов университетов разных стран – Беларуси и США – к химическим эпонимам и выявлении связей между рефлексивным их осмыслением и прочными знаниями будущих специалистов. Методология и методика. Для опроса обучающихся в Орегонском и Белорусском государственном университетах, проводившегося посредством интернет-ресурсов, была разработана авторская анкета, состоящая из 27 вопросов с разными типами ответов. Анализ собранной информации производился с помощью пакета IBM® SPSS®, методами описательной (вычисление среднего и стандартного отклонений, дисперсии) и выводной (использование тестов Манна – Уитни и Пирсона) статистики. Результаты и научная новизна. По итогам опроса установлено, что студенты обеих стран определяют химические эпонимы по ассоциативному ряду лучше, чем по их содержанию (сущности). У белорусских респондентов показатели знания эпонимов оказались несколько выше, чем у американских испытуемых, что объясняется спецификой выборок (в первой доля студентов химиков была более представительной), графика и продолжительности химических курсов. Узнаваемости химических эпонимов, степень которой различна, способствуют их повторяемость, уникальность и фонетичность. У большинства всей совокупности участников анкетирования зафиксированы нерефлексивное восприятие эпонимов и неопределенное отношение к ним. Главным фактором хорошего знания, рефлексивного положительного отношения к эпонимам является высокая мотивация к их усвоению, которая обусловлена избранной специальностью, – разумеется, наиболее мотивированы в этом плане студенты профильных специальностей «Химия» и «Преподавание химии». Сделан вывод о том, что, с одной стороны, в реализации принципов гуманизации и историзма нельзя делать ставку исключительно на эпонимы: чтобы избежать просчетов, следует придерживаться системного подхода, подразумевающего комплекс средств и методов. С другой стороны, планомерная, регулярная работа с химическими эпонимами помогает глубже проникнуть в суть изучаемых явлений и позволяет ускорить и гармонизировать процесс претворения химической теории в практику. К сожалению, эпонимам, как и их источникам – персоналиям ученых, – в учебной литературе уделяется все меньше внимания, что в корне неправильно. Практическая значимость. Материалы предпринятого автором исследования и полученные результаты будут полезны учителям и преподавателям химии при разработке уроков, лекционных курсов, цикла семинарских и лабораторных занятий, а также при составлении учебных пособий и написании учебников.