Suchergebnisse

Bianca Maria Gerlich
It was the object of this article to discover possible historical traces of the basic structure of the novel-cycle Ciclo dei Pirati della Malesia by Emilio Salgari, in particular the historical existence of its chief protagonist Sandokan. Since historical facts corresponding to the setting of the cycle can in fact be found, it is clear that Salgari's novel should not be read as mere fictional literature but rather as literature with an historical background. Besides some rather general historical facts and circumstances, even some of the details turn out to be historical. The names of persons, places and constellations that were well-known in Europe such as "James Brooke", "Sarawak" and "Labuan" figure, but so do "Sandokan" and the "flag of the tiger" which were known at the time to a rather small group of people in Sabah. Salgari's dates are correct, too : Le Tigri di Mompracem starts at the end of 1849, and the original version La Tigre della Malesia in 1847 ; the battle of Malludu in fact took place in 1845. In the Yanez-passage we are informed that Sandokan was resident on the north coast of Borneo for a few years before he settled down in Mompracem.
Perhaps the fundamental messages of the cycle correspond more to historical reality than some reports by European contemporaries or historians do. The Sandokan' s fight for freedom against the European colonizers reflects historical reality. Salgari portrayed history from the perspective of the "losers" and not from that of the "winners", unlike what one finds in most European literature of the last century. His protagonist, who belongs to the weaker party, is positively valued, whereas in official British historiography Malludu is obviously viewed negatively.
However, it should be realized that only the basic structure of the novel coincides in part with historical events and persons, whereas vast parts - especially the immanent actions - belong to fiction. The cycle shows a form of virtual historical reality : Salgari worked his story out upon a historical frame, the polarity between "Sandokan" and "the British". The tension between this poles is essentially determined through the efforts of the colonizers. A detailed examination of historical analogies in the immanent parts of the cycle, or concerning Salgari's descriptions on Bornean customs, social relations and other aspects could bring forth further interesting results. The introductory question concerning the place of historicity in Salgari's Ciclo dei Pirati della Malesia can however be answered positively even on the basis of our preliminary examination. The three symbols "Mompracem", and the "flag of the tiger" and "Sandokan" did exist and were handed down orally and in writing. But more relevant perhaps is the connection between "Sandokan" and the "flag of the tiger" through Sandokan's native country Malludu. He lived there and was indeed very probably in a position of authority. The emblem of Malludu was the flag of the tiger. Malludu was mentioned by Salgari in what may be seen as a basically correct historical context. His fundamental historical message privileges the "Malay" and not the "European" side. Salgari's anti-colonial interpretation thus finds interesting echoes in the modern discussion of nineteenth-century colonial expansion in Southeast Asia.

Wayne A. Bougas
This article describes the development of Bantayan (Bantaeng), a pre-Islamic,
Makassarese kingdom, on the south coast of South Sulawesi. The Nagara-
Kertagama, a count poem written in Majapahit Java in 1365 A. D., indicates
that Bantayan was one of the three most important centers in South Sulawesi at
that time.
The author uses four sources to explain Bantaeng' s rise : (1) an archaeological
field survey of Bantaeng (2) accounts of grave robbers who looted Bantaeng' s
major sites (3) myths describing the development of kingship in Bantaeng and
(4) pre-Islamic, religious beliefs and rites.
The author concludes that one of Bantaeng' s oldest kingdoms emerged along
the Biangkeke River at Gantarang Keke in eastern Bantaeng. This kingdom
may have traded with Majapahit. The expansion of wet rice agriculture and
increased trade in the 14th and 15th centuries A. D. saw the rise of another
powerful kingdom at Bissampole/Lembang Cina along the Calendu River in
central Bantaeng. A third center rose at Kaili in west Bantaeng. Lembang Cina
in central Bantaeng grew so powerful that it ultimately dominated the two
other centers to the east and west.
The article also explains how tomanurung veneration provided the religious
and ideological basis for kingship in Bantaeng. Dynasties there and elsewhere
in South Sulawesi were thought to have been founded by heavenly descended
beings known as tomanurung.
Finally, the paper concludes by providing some suggestions for Bantaeng' s
subsequent decline in the 16th century.

Karine Rance: The Emigration of French Nobles to Germany: "maintenance migration" (1789- 1815) Using a body of autobiographical ? sources has allowed the author to refine the model for migration analysis proposed by Paul- André Roséntal (Annales ESC 1990). According to these documents; the emigration of nobles to Germany. during the French- Revolution can be described as a "maintenance migration". In their eyes, France was the1 "invested area", the framework in which they wished to carry out * their projects, whereas Germany was only a "resource area", a place for temporary survival. .

This article presents some results from a PhD thesis on school normative regulation, looking at the ways in which norms are produced, negotiated and sanctioned in schools. The process is examined through the issue of school discipline, analysed using four dimensions: the way in which rules and control are produced; conflict resolution modes; the ways in which pupils relate to the norms; and their conception of justice in schools. The author suggests this mode of regulation is anti-formalist (questioning formal rules) and post-conventional (against the integrative functions of schools).

Traveller's notebooks

There are discoveries that are somewhat like leisurely trips, journeys that can hardly be described, brief crossings of yet unknown spaces.
In a traveller's notebook, the author uses an uncommon, uncertain style of writing, that of the wanderer who captures the look in someone's eyes, a rapid scene, the sound of some voices, a skyline in the distance.
Light traces appear, fleeting impres¬ sions, objects, the echo of one place or another... disconnected signals.
No myths, no emblems, just the atten¬ tive eye hovering between expectations, encounters, emotions, already becoming memories for future metaphors.

Objects of adolescence -
After having distinguished three psychic functions of objects (reality objects, psychic objects and me objects) the author sets out to demonstrate the importance for the subject in question, i. e the adolescent, of real objects. Using examples (the fate of objects of delinquency, the importance of objects which make up the •look", the pathos or success of objects created by the adolescent) he stresses the need to pay attention to the relation of the adolescent towards these various objects, for at a time when words become acts, it is through the use of such objects that the adolescent clearly expresses his innermost subjective position.

The Pragmatic Program in Sociology Facing the Challenge of Risks Analysis. Reflections on the Nuclear File.
Francis Chateauraynaud [76-108].
Through a sample of radioactivity alerts, drawn from a study on transformations of nuclear problems in France, this article analyzes pragmatical and configurational aspects of public validity of warning signs. The described processes make visible the methods used by actors, far away from institutional positions, in order to give holds over dangerous activities whose effects are not only insensible but also bound to very long temporality. Showing how people connect in series past oustanding events and future potentialities, the author proposes to reorientate the «pragmatic» program in sociology. In fact, the project to describe very complex cases supposes to leave the comfortable paradigm based on «interaction».

Aspects of the Definition of the Political Sociology of Law.
In 1995, a Centre de sociologie politique du droit was set up at the Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis in Brussels. No attempt has yet been made to define the discipline, however. The author attempts to identify aspects of a definition that would make it possible to assert the autonomy of this discipline. The political sociology of law differs from other branches of legal studies in its original combination of criteria of validity external to the legal System, on the one hand, and an explanatory - as opposed to normative - approach, on the other hand. As a specialised field of sociology of law, it focuses mainly on the study of power relations in the creation and implementation of law, and involves taking stands on the epistemological as well as on the ideological level.

Gennadij A. Bordjugov, The policy and ideology behind emergency measures between the Stalinist revolution from the top and the Great Terror, 1930-1936. This article emphasizes the "crucial points" of the policy and ideology behind the emergency measures applied as a special means of administering the country. On the basis of "special files" of the minutes of the Politbiuro, it studies the limits and the causes of the transformation of the emergency measures into "chrezvychaishchina." This change in the measures applied weakened the social bases of Stalin's regime and undermined the foundations of the productive forces of the country. The author shows how the policy of taking drastic action, which was first applied to production (grain supply, etc.), was progressively extended to the problems of security and political control, and how those in power tried to find ways of preventing a shift towards "chrezvychaishchina."

Prosecutorial Independence and the Democratic Requirement of Accountability in Italy : Analysis of a Deviant Case in a Comparative Perspective.
This article deals with the role of public prosecution and the necessity of combining at the operational level two functional needs that are difficult to balance : a) to insure prosecutorial independence ; b) to insure that prosecutorial discretion be subject to the democratic principle of accountability. While a trend to redress the balance in favor of prosecutorial independence seems to gain momentum in several countries, the author uses the Italian case to suggest that the need for prosecutorial accountability be anyway protected. In particular he shows that Italy by totally ignoring the need to render prosecutorial discretion accountable has de facto delegated to a totally independent prosecutor the definition of a good part of its criminal policies. The manifold dysfunctional consequences for the efficient repression of criminal phenomena and for the effective and equal protection of civil rights are outlined.

Savitri Scherer
This is a review of Pramoedya A. Toer's Arus Balik. In 751 pages the novel traces the period between the declining years of the Hindu-Buddhist kingdom Majapahit, represented here by the coastal kingdom of Tuban (whose king Wilatikta had only recently been converted to Islam), and the rise in importance of the Muslim maritime coastal kingdoms represented by Demak, and Japara. The novel opens with an unannounced attack by Demak on Japara which was originally a dependancy of Tuban. Soon after that, the ruler of Japara, Adipati Unus, sends a military campaign against Portuguese Malacca, which fails. Unus himself is killed. The novel ends after the king of Demak, Trenggana, a brother of Unus, dies during his campaign to subjugate another non-Islamic kingdom Panarukan. The novel elaborates on the divisive and destructive condition of these weakened Javanese coastal kingdoms. In real historical time, Tuban was an important and prosperous independent port kingdom until it was finally defeated by Mataram in 1619. In the novel Tuban is already depicted as being in its downward cycle, one century before the real historical attack from Mataram, the strong agricultural based Javanese kingdom against which the Dutch traders had to fight before they established their colonial administration on the island.
In writing this historical novel, its author (Pramoedya) takes a view as to who was to blame for the bad situation in the weakened coastal kingdoms, as depicted in the work, a situation which contributed to the increasing penetration of foreign traders in the archipelago, (and eventually to the Dutch colonisation of the area).
The review analyses the novel by comparing its internal logic with the historical reality of 16th century Java. It also remarks on the timing of publication, which coincided with the 50th anniversary of the independence of Indonesia from the Dutch.
In that context, the review argues that the author glamorises the grandeur of Majapahit and disapproves of the trading activities conducted by the Muslim coastal kingdoms, because they contributed to the increasing foreign penetration of Java and its fatal destructive impact. One of the foci of the novel is the king Wilatikta of Tuban. This king is depicted as trade-crazy and wishy-washy, and is argued in the novel as a contributor to the destruction of his own kingdom.
Pramoedya's literary choices as depicted in Arus Balik may explain why even 50 years after Indonesia's independence, aggressive, authoritarian and warring historical rulers like Pati Unus, continue to be tolerable, while a liberal figure like king Wilatikta has difficulties increasing his popular rating even amongst the Indonesian intelligentsia.

The social uses of reading.
Far from revealing a gamut of reading practices that could be ranked with respect to the ideal reading performed by an accomplished reader, the study shows a series of practices that can be broken down into three categories : pleasure reading (« reading for the sake of escape »), didactic reading (« reading for the sake of learning ») and salutary reading (« reading for the sake of self-perfection »), none of which is the same as esthetic reading (« reading for the sake of reading »). By looking at the informants' intentions, motives, stated reasons, but also at their actual practices, the author attempts to bring out the interests which, apart from esthetic pleasure, incite all readers who - in the absence of the requisite conditions - remain inaccessible to «pure pleasure », the uses to which they put their readings, the effects they hope for. These « interests in reading » stem from the informants' background and their position in the social space, from their cultural and educational resources, from their professional occupation, from their socially constituted sexual identity. The uncovering of the social uses of reading and their underlying interests contributes to a fuller explanation of the social distribution of reading practices.