Novelist, playwright and short story writer Milan Kundera is one of the many Czech authors who, though they represent the best in their country's contemporary literature, cannot publish their work in Prague. Acclaimed in France, where in 1973 he won a major literary prize for his last but one novel, and published in English, German, Dutch, Swedish, Finnish, Hebrew, Japanese and many other languages, he remains one of the 400 or more writers who are 'on the index' in post-invasion, 'normalised' Czechoslovakia. Born in Brno forty-eight years ago, Kundera was until 1969 a professor at the Prague Film Faculty, his students including all the young film makers who were to bring fame to the Czechoslovak cinema in the sixties with such movies as The Firemen's Ball, A Blonde in Love and Closely Observed Trains. In 1960 he published a highly influential essay, 'The Art of the Novel'. Two years later the National Theatre put on his first play, The Owners of the Keys. Produced by Otomar Kreja, the play was an immediate success and was awarded the State Prize in 1963. His first novel, The Joke, came out in 1967, being reprinted twice in a matter of months and reaching a total of 116,000 copies. This book, whose appearance was delayed by a long, determined struggle with the censor, opened the way to publication abroad, where Aragon called it one of the greatest novels of the century. After the Soviet invasion Kundera was forced to leave the faculty, his work was no longer published in Czechoslovakia, all his books being removed from the public libraries. Since then, his works have only come out in translation. Life Is Elsewhere ( see Index 4/1974, pp.53–62) first appeared in Paris in 1973, where it won the Prix Medicis for the best foreign novel of the year. The French version of his latest novel, The Farewell Party, was published last year. In 1975 Kundera was offered a professorship by the University of Rennes and obtained permission from the Czechoslovak authorities to go to France, which is now his second home. All his prose works now exist in English translation. (For an appraisal of his work, see Robert C. Porter's article in Index 4/1975, pp.41–6). Unfortunately, The Joke - published by Macdonald in London and Coward McCann in New York in 1969 - was drastically cut without the author's consent, forcing Kundera to write an indignant letter to the Times Literary Supplement, disclaiming all responsibility - an interesting case of a non-political, commercial censorship. The irony of the situation was certainly not lost on the author, who is a master of the genre. His collection of short stories, Laughable Loves ( with a foreword by Philip Roth) and his other two novels have since been published by Knopf, and The Farewell Party has just been brought out by John Murray in London. This selection of Kundera's stimulating and often provocative views on such topics as the writer in exile, committed literature, the death of the novel, the nature of comedy, and so on, has been compiled by George Theiner.
SummaryInstitutional Changes in Rural LifeIn dealing with institutional problems, particularly when referring to rural development, the sociologist should not avoid value‐judgements. With increasing institutional specialization and growth, an increase occurs in individual and collective social action of an intentional character. This intentionality calls for an explicitation of the values underlying the action. Sociology today is unable to meet this problem because of its 'ethical agnostic' approach.In choosing an explicitly non‐ethical‐agnostic approach, the societal trend towards emancipation or freedom is elected as a guideline for sociological analysis. Freedom is provisionally defined as: opportunity or possibility to consciously exercise control on one's own future. With some examples it is shown that rural sociological research at present does not acquire meaningful information about the interplay between individual and institutional intentional action which brings about socio‐economic development.A continuum of rigidity for the overall societal institutional context, as being the specifically institutional counterpart of the traditional‐modern continuum, is hypothesized as a tentative framework for discussing institutional changes. In order to show the validity of the hypothesis, two polar cases for the degree of rigidity in the overall institutional context, present within the same large class of fairly developed societies, Sweden and Italy, are compared. The illustration is tentative, because the author has had to resort to non‐sociological documentation. The conclusion is that the major differences between the two institutional contexts will be functionally related mainly with the type of institutional education and with the degree of authoritarian and autocratic thinking in either case.Passing on to examine a few recent institutional developments, it is stated that their importance for the development of the countryside can only be evaluated if the possibilities for change in collateral institutional fields are also taken into consideration.In the countryside, a process of formalization of functions into new institutions is to be noticed, but the process is not likely to have an equal intensity all over Europe. The continuum of institutional rigidity can help to explain several apparent contradictions in this field which have not so far been cleared by sociological research.Similarly, although educational standards are rising in the countryside everywhere, this is no yardstick for measuring educational development: the place of the society on the continuum should be taken into account.Finally, some overall institutional trends in developed countries are reviewed: the increase in autonomous forces, a shift of political power from the local to national (or 'higher') levels; the increasing importance of economic profitability in institutional development; the trends towards the forming of 'two‐layer'‐societies; the forming of an image of society as a 'firm‐like' organization.All through the discussion of these various points comments are made on the shortcomings in sociological research.In the conclusion some major contradictions in the ideology of a value‐free exercise of sociological research are briefly analyzed. Instead of taking the position of an uninvolved technician or judge of other people's doings, the sociologist should work on the basis of a professional ethic, whereby major tasks would be found in the study and discovery of social phenomena in as far as these are disfunctional for social emancipation or freedom.
I. From Autocracy to Democracy: Political Institutions at the End of the Ch'ing Dynasty -- 1. Transformation from Absolute to Constitutional Monarchy -- 2. Causes of the Constitutional Movement -- 3. Preparation for Constitutionalism -- 4. The Principles of Constitution, September 22, 1908 -- 5. The National Legislative Council (Tse-cheng Yuan) -- 6. The Provincial Assembly (Tse-I Chu) -- 7. The Beginning of Local Self-Government -- 8. The Revolution and the Nineteen Articles of November 3, 1911 -- II. Democracy in Experiment: Political Institutions During the Early Republican Period -- 1. Preparations for a Provisional Government -- 2. Analysis of the Organic Law of the Provisional Government -- 3. Inauguration of the Provisional Government at Nanking -- 4. The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, March 11, 1912 -- 5. The Change of the Provisional Presidency and the Seat of Government -- 6. The Establishment of Parliament -- 7. The Drafting of the Constitution and the Election of President -- 8. The Judicial System of the New Republic -- 9. The Local Government System -- III. Monarchism vs. Republicanism: Political institutions Under the Dictatorship of Yüan Shih-K'ai -- 1. Yüan Shih-k'ai vs. Constitutional Democracy -- 2. Yüan Shih-k'ai and the Constitutional Compact of 1914 -- 3. The Reorganized National Government Under Yüan Shih-k'ai -- 4. The Local Government System Under Yüan Shih-k'ai -- 5. The Rise and Fall of Yüan's Monarchial Movement -- IV. Split Between the North and the South: Political Institutions During the Period of Internal Dissensions -- 1. Developments under the Regime in Peking -- 2. The New Parliament and the New Constitutional Draft -- 3. Parliament's Second Restoration and its Adoption of the 1923 Constitution -- 4. The Constitution-Protecting Government in the Southwest -- 5. The Peking Government Under Provisional Chief Executive Tuan -- 6. The Local Government System -- V. The Nationalist Party in Power: Unification of China Under Kuomintang Programs -- 1. The Reorganization of the Nationalist Party in 1924 -- 2. Basic Principles and Programs of the Nationalist Party -- 3. The Northern Expedition and the Unification of China -- 4. The Beginning of Political Tutelage -- VI. The Five-Power Constitution at Work: Political Institutions During the Period of Political Tutelage -- 1. The National Government Before 1928 -- 2. The National Government Since 1928 -- 3. The National People's Convention and the Promulgation of the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China for the Period of Political Tutelage -- 4. Nationalist Efforts to Carry out Party Principles and Programs -- 5. The Preparation for Constitutional Rule in China -- 6. The Local Government System During the Period of Political Tutelage -- VII. Communism Versus Nationalism: The Chinese Communist Party and Soviet Regimes (1921–1945) -- 1. The Formation of Communist Organizations in China -- 2. The First United Front of the Nationalists and Communists -- 3. Armed Uprisings and the Change of Leadership -- 4. The Establishment of Soviet Regimes in China -- 5. The Second United Front and Expansion of the Communist Regimes -- VIII. China at War: Political Institutions During the Period of the Sino-Japanese War -- 1. The Hostilities Between China and Japan -- 2. The Formal Establishment of Chiang Kai-shek's Leadership -- 3. Wartime Party Alignments -- 4. The Supreme National Defense Council — The Highest Organ of Wartime China -- 5. The Triple-linked Administrative System -- 6. The Wartime National Government -- 7. The People's Political Council -- 8. The Wartime Local Government -- 9. The Local Representative Bodies -- IX. From the Mainland to Taiwan (Formosa): Political Institutions during the Postwar Period -- 1. Peace Negotiations Through the Political Consultative Conference -- 2. The Convocation of the National Assembly and the Constitution of 1946 -- 3. The Central and Local Governments Under the Constitution of 1946 -- 4. The First Session of the First National Assembly -- 5. The Nationalist Debacle and Retreat to Taiwan -- 6. The National Government in Taiwan -- 7. The Local Government System in Taiwan -- 8. Taiwan Today -- X. The Communist Party in Power: Mao's Political Thought and the Party Organization -- 1. On the Road to Victory -- 2. The Political Thought and Strategy of Mao Tse-tung -- 3. The Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party and its Guiding Principles -- 4. The Organization and Functions of the Communist Party -- 5. The Communist Youth League -- 6. The Communist Relationship with Minor Political Parties and Mass Organizations -- XI. Fundamental Laws of the People's Republic: From the Common Program to the Constitution of 1954 -- 1. The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) -- 2. The Common Program of 1949 in the Nature of a Provisional Constitution -- 3. The Central Government System, 1949–1954 -- 4. The Local Government System, 1949–1954 -- 5. The Adoption of the Constitution by the National People's Congress -- 6. General Principles of the Constitution of 1954 -- XII. The Government of "Democratic Centralism": Political Institutions under the Constitution of 1954 -- 1. The Present System of Government -- 2. The National People's Congress -- 3. The Head of the State -- 4. The State Council -- 5. The People's Courts and Procuratorates -- 6. Local People's Congresses and Councils -- 7. Self-Government Organs of National Autonomous Areas -- 8. The Communist Government in Action -- Appendices.
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Inhaltsübersicht -- Erstes Buch. Grundlagen -- §1. Wesen des Völkerrechts -- I. Begriff des Völkerrechts -- II. Rechtsnatur des Völkerrechts -- III. Dispositives Recht -- IV. Allgemeines und partikuläres Völkerrecht -- V. Völkerrecht und Landesrecht -- §2. Quellen des Völkerrechts -- I. Rechtsübung und Rechtssatzung -- II. Kodifikation des Völkerrechts -- III. Vereinigungen für Vorarbeiten -- §3. Für die Geschichte des Völkerrechts bedeutsame Vorgänge (bis zum Weltkriege) -- I. Vor dem Westfälischen Frieden -- II. Vom Westfälischen Frieden bis zum Wiener Kongreß -- III. Wiener Kongreß — Krimkrieg -- IV. Vom Pariser Frieden (1856) bis zur Berliner Balkankonferenz (1878) -- V. Von der Balkankonferenz über die Haager Friedenskonferenzen (1899, 1907) an den Weltkrieg -- A. Der nahe Osten; Bündnisse; Kolonialfragen -- B. Die Haager Friedenskonferenzen -- C. Der ferne Osten; Marokko; Balkankriege (1900–1914) -- §4. Der Weltkrieg -- A. Ursachen (Schuldfrage) -- B. Anlaß und Verlauf -- C. Der Friedensvertrag von Versailles -- D. Die Friedensverträge mit den andern Mittelmächten -- E. Wandlung der Friedensverträge -- F. Wanken und Wiederaufbau des Völkerrechtes -- §5. Entwicklung einer Wissenschaft des Völkerrechts -- §6. Völkerrechtswissenschaft und -Literatur -- I. Das Völkerrecht innerhalb des Rechtssystems -- II. Systematik des Völkerrechts -- III. Einteilung des Lehrbuches -- IV. Neuere Literatur -- Zweites Buch. Die Rechtssubjekte des völkerrechtlichen Staatenverbandes I. Die Staaten -- §7. Die Staaten als Rechtssubjekte des Völkerrechts -- I. Staaten Subjekte des Völkerrechts -- II. Begriff des Staates -- III. Entstehung und Untergang des Staates -- IV. Völkerrechtliche Anerkennung -- V. Änderung der Regierungsform -- VI. Der Papst -- II. Die völkerrechtliche Handlungsfähigkeit -- §8. Allgemeines -- §9. Staatenverbindungen -- §10. Halbsouveränität und Protektorat -- I. Halbsouveränität -- II. Einzelne halbsouveräne Staaten -- III–V. Protektorat -- §11. Neutralisierte Staaten -- I. Wesen der Neutralisation -- II. Dauernd neutrahsierte Staaten -- III. Einseitige Neutralitätserklärungen -- §12. Anhang: Das "Mandat" des Völkerbundes -- III. Die Staatsgewalt -- §13. Äußere Unabhängigkeit (Grundrechte der Staaten) -- I. Die Grundrechte der Staaten -- II. Gleichberechtigung -- III. Selbständigkeit und Unabhängigkeit (Intervention) -- IV. Exterritorialität fremder Staaten -- V. Recht und Pflicht des Verkehrs -- §14. Innere Selbständigkeit -- I. Abgrenzung des Machtbereiches -- IL Autonomie der Staatsgewalt -- III. Gebietshoheit (Staatsservituten; Exterritoriahtät) -- IV. Personalhoheit -- IV. Das Staatsgebiet -- §15. Umfang des Staatsgebietes im allgemeinen -- I. Das Landgebiet -- II. Das Wassergebiet -- III. Luftraum u. a. -- §16. Einzelfragen (Küstengewässer u.a.) -- I. Küstengewässer -- II. Staats- und Handelsschiffe als "schwimmende Gebietsteile" -- III. Luftfahrzeuge -- §17. Erwerb und Verlust von Staatsgebiet (Allgemeines — Plebiszit, Option) -- I. Allgemeines -- II. Plebiszit und Option -- §18. Einzelne Erwerbsarten (Okkupation u.a.) -- I. Okkupation -- II. Übernahme "zur Besetzung und Verwaltung" -- III. Mandat? (vgl. §12) -- V. Das Staatsvolk -- §19. Das Staatsvolk -- I. Begriff und Umfang -- II. Staatsangehörigkeit (Erwerb und Verlust) -- III. Schutzgewalt des Staates -- IV. Völkerrechtliches Indigenat -- V. Juristische Personen -- VI. See- und Binnenschiffe -- Drittes Buch. Der völkerrechtliche Verkehr innerhalb des Staatenverbandes -- Vorbemerkung -- Erster Abschnitt -- §20. Der Grundsatz der Verkehrsfreiheit (Fremdenrecht) -- I. Erschließung des Landes -- II. Rechtsstellung der Staatsfremden -- III. Fremdenpolizei (Ausweisung) -- IV. Handelsschiffe -- V. Fremde Truppenkörper und Kriegsschiffe -- Zweiter Abschnitt. Die nationalen Organe des zwischenstaatlichen Verkehrs -- §21. Die völkerrechtliche Vertretungsbefugnis -- I. Staatsrechtliche Grundlage -- II. Die Organe für die Vertretung -- III. Anteil des Parlaments -- §22. Das Staatshaupt -- I. Allgemeine Rechtstellung -- II., III. Exterritorialität -- §23. Die Gesandten -- I. Geschichtliches -- II. Das Gesandtschaftsrecht -- III. Rangordnung der Gesandten -- IV. Der Gesandte als Staatsbeamter -- V. Begründung und Beendigung der völkerrechtlichen Stellung -- VI. Vertretungsmacht -- VII., VIII. Exterritorialität -- §24. Die Konsuln -- I. Geschichtliches — Begriff -- II. Arten der Konsuln -- III. Staatsrechtliche Stellung -- IV. Völkerrechtliche Stellung -- §25. Die Konsulargerichtsbarkeit -- I. Entwicklung und Rechtsgrundlage (gegenwärtige Ausdehnung) -- II.–IV. Rechte der Jurisdiktionskonsuln -- Dritter Abschnitt. Die Organisation der Verbandsstaaten -- §26. Die Organisation des allgemeinen Staatenverbandes -- I. Die genossenschaftliche Organisation der Gegenwart -- II. Internationale Gerichtshöfe -- III. Völkerbund (vgl. § 50) -- §27. Die Organisation der besonderen Zweckverbände -- I. Das Wesen der besonderen Zweckverbände -- II. Die internationalen Fluß- und Kanalkommissionen -- III. Internationale Luftfahrtkommission -- IV. Internationale Sanitätskommissionen -- V. Internationale Finanzkommissionen -- §28. Die Ämter der internationalen Verwaltungsgemeinschaften -- I. Allgemeines -- II. Die einzehien "Internationalen Ämter" der Gegenwart -- III. Das Internationale Arbeitsamt (vgl. § 48) -- §29. Die gemischten Gerichte -- I. Arten der "gemischten Gerichte" -- II. In der Türkei -- III. In Ägypten -- IV. Der besondere Gerichtshof der Algecirasakte -- V. Gemischte Schiedsgerichtshöfe des Versailler Vertrages -- Vierter Abschnitt. Die völkerrechtlichen Rechtsverhältnisse -- §30. Rechtsverhältnisse und rechtserhebliche Tatsachen -- I. Begriff des völkerrechtlichen Rechtsverhältnisses -- II. Einteilung der völkerrechtlichen Rechtsverhältnisse -- III. Völkerrechtlich erhebliche Tatsachen -- IV. Das völkerrechtliche Rechtsgeschäft -- §31. Die völkerrechtlichen Verträge 1. Begriff — Abschluß — Ratifikation -- I. Begriff der völkerrechtlichen Verträge -- II. Vertragsfähigkeit -- III. Abschluß -- IV. Ratifikation -- V. Mitwirkung der Volksvertretung -- VI. Veröffentlichung -- §32. Die völkerrechtlichen Verträge. 2. Wirkung — Auslegung — Aufhebung -- I. Die Wirkung der Staatsverträge (Meistbegünstigungsklausel) -- II. Auslegung -- III. Aufhebung -- §33. Die Sicherung völkerrechtlicher Rechtsverhältnisse -- I. Allgemeines -- II. Reale Sicherungen (Pfand, militärische Besetzung, Kontrollen) -- III. Garantievertrag -- §34. Rechtsnachfolge in völkerrechtliche Rechtsverhältnisse (sog. Staatensukzession) -- I. Höchstpersönliche Natur der Völkerrechtsverhältnisse -- II. Anlaß der Rechtsnachfolge -- III. Gebietsveränderungen -- IV. Örtlich gebundene Rechtsverhältnisse -- V. Rechtsverhältnisse vermögensrechtlichen Inhalts (Staatsschulden) -- §35. Das völkerrechtliche Delikt (Notwehr, Notstand) -- I. Begriff -- II. Der Staat als unmittelbares Deliktssubjekt -- III. Der Staat als mittelbares Dehktssubjekt -- IV. Ausschluß der Rechtswidrigkeit (insbes. Notwehr, Notstand) -- V. Rechtsfolgen -- VI. Zwangswirkungen -- Viertes Buch. Die Interessengemeinschaft des völkerrechtlichen Staatenverbandes -- Vorbemerkung -- Erster Abschnitt. Die Interessengemeinschaft der Staaten auf dem Gebiete des Verkehrs -- §36. Die Hochseeschiffahrt und die Freiheit des Meeres -- I. Grundsatz der Meeresfreiheit -- II. Durchführung -- III. Hoheitsrechte auf offener See -- IV. Seeraub -- V. Das internationale Seerecht (Seestraßenrecht) -- §37. Internationale Kanäle -- 1. Suezkanal -- 2. Panamakanal -- 3. Nordostseekanal -- §38. Die Binnenschiffahrt -- A. Die internationalen Ströme -- I. Im allgemeinen -- II. Rhein, Mosel, Elbe, Moldau, Oder, Memel -- III. Donau -- IV. Kongo, Niger -- B. Die nationalen Gewässer -- §39. Wirtschaft (Handel und Industrie) -- I., II. Autonome Handelspolitik. Handelsverträge -- III. Einfuhr, Durchfuhr, Ausfuhr -- IV. Schiedsgerichtsklausel -- V. Zollverbände -- VI. Veröffentlichung der Zolltarife -- VII. Verträge über Produktion (Brüsseler Zuckerkonvention) -- VIII. Internationale Handelsstatistik -- §40. Die Verkehrsanstalten -- A. Post, Telegraphie, Fernsprechwesen -- I. Postverkehr -- II. Telegraphenverkehr -- III. Fernsprechverkehr -- B. Eisenbahnverkehr -- C. Kraftwagenverkehr -- D. Luftfahrt -- §41. Münz-, Maß- und Gewichtswesen -- I. Münzwesen -- II. Internationale Meterkonvention -- Zweiter Abschnitt. Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege -- §42. Allgemeines -- I. Internationales Recht (internationales Privatrecht) -- II. Das internationale öffentliche Recht -- §43. Privatrecht und Zivilprozeß -- I. Einzelverträge -- II. Schutz des gewerblichen und des geistigen Eigentums -- III. Rechtshilfe im Zivilprozeß. Die Haager Abkommen über Privatrecht und Prozeß -- IV. Internationales Handelsrecht, Wechselrecht, Seeprivatrecht -- §44. Strafrecht und Auslieferung -- I. Internationales Strafrecht -- II. Die Auslieferung -- III. Weitere Rechtshilfe in Strafsachen -- IV., V. Auslieferung von Schiffsmannschaften und Wehrpflichtigen -- VI. Die Nacheile -- Dritter Abschnitt -- §45. Der Schutz von Leben und Gesundheit -- I. Einzelverträge -- II. Gruppenvertrage (Cholera, Pest, Gelbfieber) -- III. Bekämpfung des Mißbrauchs von Alkohol und Opium -- IV. Arbeiterschutz -- V. Schutz des Lebens auf offener See -- Vierter Abschnitt -- §46. Der Schutz von Tieren und Pflanzen -- A. Schutz von Tieren -- B. Schutz von Pflanzen -- C. Internationales Landwirtschaftliches Institut -- D. Internationaler Naturschutz -- Fünfter Abschnitt. Schutz ideeller Interessen -- §47. Im einzelnen -- I. Religiöse Interessen -- II. Sittliche und humanitäre Interessen (Mädchenhandel, Eingeborenenschutz) -- III. Kunst und Wissenschaft -- IV. Im Kriege -- §48. Arbeiterschutz -- I.
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Inhaltsangabe:Zusammenfassung: In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird Politisches Marketing (PM) als strategisch orientierter Ansatz, der die theoretische Basis für erfolgreiche Politikvermittlung bietet, vorgestellt. In diesen konzeptionellen Rahmen sind Teile der traditionellen Kampagnenliteratur ebenso wie praktische Methoden des kommerziellen (Konsumgüter-) Marketings eingebettet. Kurzum soll mit dem präsentierten Konzept so etwas wie die "Theory of everything" auf dem Gebiet der politischen Überzeugungsarbeit geboten werden. Um die Vorteile dieses PM-Ansatzes und die Eigenarten des PMs besser zu verstehen, wird in den zwei Kapiteln des Teiles I der vorliegenden Arbeit die historische Entwicklung des PMs und die Einordnung des PMs in verschiedene Bereiche der Marketinglehre skizziert. Der zweite Teil widmet sich der Entwicklung und Erläuterung eines Modells des PMs, das die Vorteile eines strategisch orientierten PM-Ansatzes realisiert. Dieser zweite Teil ist entsprechend den Modellkomponenten in vier Sub-Teile mit jeweils mehreren Handlungsfeldern gegliedert: Determinanten des PMs (Sub-Teil II.1), der PM-Prozeß (Sub-Teil II.2), die Instrumente des PMs (Sub-Teil II.3) und Politische Marktforschung als Handlungsgrundlage des PMs (Sub-Teil II.4). Einzelne Kapitel widmen sich im zweiten Teil jeweils einem konkreten Feld des Modells, um so die Modellstruktur klar wiederzugeben. Das entwickelte Modell strukturiert nicht nur die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit präsentierte PM-Theorie. Darüber hinaus dient es als konzeptionelle Grundlage für eine Studie, die den Ist-Zustand der PM-Praxis in Österreich und Deutschland umfassend (52 Bundes- und Landesparteien retournierten den Fragebogen) erhebt. Dadurch gewinnt der PM-Praktiker wertvolle Vergleichswerte, die es ihm erlauben, seine PM-Aktivitäten mit denen anderer Parteien zu vergleichen. Die im Rahmen dieser Studie entwickelten Analysewerkzeuge erlauben es dem PM-Akteur nicht nur, die Stärken und Schwächen seiner Organisation zu identifizieren; darüber hinaus stehen sie PM-Akteuren als Leitfaden für umfassendes, strategisches PM zur Verfügung. Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: STRUKTURÜBERSICHTI INHALTSVERZEICHNISII ABBILDUNGSVERZEICHNISXIII TABELLENVERZEICHNISXV ABKÜRZUNGSVERZEICHNISXVIII VORWORTXIX EINLEITUNGXXII NOTWENDIGKEIT DES PMSXXII PROBLEMSTELLUNGXXIV ZIELSETZUNG UND GLIEDERUNG DER ARBEITXXVII TEIL IGESCHICHTE, DEFINITION UND EINORDNUNG DES PMS1 1.HISTORISCHE ENTWICKLUNG DES PMS2 1.1PM ALS INSTRUMENT DES MACHTERHALTS IN NICHT-DEMOKRATISCHEN STAATSFORMEN2 1.2PM IM DEMOKRATISCHEN UMFELD4 1.2.1DIE ANFANGSJAHRE: DER PERSÖNLICHE KONTAKT ENTSCHEIDET4 1.2.2ERSTE VERSUCHE MIT ELEKTRONISCHEN MEDIEN5 1.2.3PM ENTDECKT KOMMERZIELLE MARKETINGMETHODEN UND WIRD PROFESSIONELLER6 1.2.4DIE KANDIDATEN RÜCKEN IN DEN MITTELPUNKT DES PMS7 1.2.5PM BESINNT SICH AUF DEN WÄHLER9 2.DER PM-BEGRIFF13 2.1DEFINITIONEN DES PMS13 2.2CHARAKTERISTIKA DES PMS15 2.2.1DIE ALLGEMEINE MARKETING-THEORIE ALS PM-GRUNDLAGE16 2.2.2DIENSTLEISTUNGSMARKETING ALS PM-VERWANDTER MARKETINGBEREICH21 2.2.3NONPROFIT MARKETING ALS PM-VERWANDTER MARKETINGBEREICH24 2.2.4SOCIAL MARKETING ALS PM-VERWANDTER MARKETINGBEREICH27 2.2.5ORIGINÄRE BESONDERHEITEN DES PMS30 TEIL IIDAS 3D-POLIT-MODELL33 3.MOTIVATION UND ENTWICKLUNG DES 3D-POLIT-MODELLS34 4.DER MODELLAUFBAU35 4.1DIE PM-RINGE: ZIELGRUPPEN, INSTRUMENTE, PROZESSE, AKTEURE UND DETERMINANTEN DES PMS35 4.2DIE PM-EBENEN: STRATEGISCHE, TAKTISCHE UND OPERATIVE ASPEKTE38 4.3DAS PM-FUNDAMENT: POLITISCHE MARKTFORSCHUNG ALS INFORMATORISCHE BASIS40 SUB-TEIL II.1DETERMINANTEN UND AKTEURE DES PMS42 5.DIE MAKROUMWELT44 5.1WIRTSCHAFT45 5.2RECHTLICHER RAHMEN46 5.3TECHNOLOGIE47 5.3.1EINFLUß AUF PM-TECHNIKEN48 5.3.2EINFLUß AUF DIE (POTENTIELLEN) WÄHLER48 5.4ÖKOLOGIE49 5.5SOZIOKULTURELLE ENTWICKLUNGEN50 6.MIKROUMWELT52 6.1ANDERE POLITISCHE AKTEURE52 6.2INTERESSENSGRUPPEN53 6.3MEDIEN53 6.3.1FUNKTION UND BEDEUTUNG DER MEDIEN54 6.3.2WIRKUNG DER MEDIEN55 6.3.3PARAMETER DER MEDIENLANDSCHAFT57 6.3.4WIRKUNG DES PMS AUF DIE MEDIEN58 6.3.5KRITIK DER MEDIEN58 6.4PARTNERUNTERNEHMEN60 6.5GELDGEBER61 7.DIE PM-AKTEURE63 7.1PARTEI63 7.2KANDIDAT(EN)65 7.2.1ANFORDERUNGEN65 7.2.2QUEREINSTEIGER VS. ETABLIERTE KANDIDATEN67 7.2.3AUTHENTIZITÄT69 7.3POLITISCHE BERATER71 7.3.1NOTWENDIGKEIT UND ENTWICKLUNG71 7.3.2BEDEUTUNG UND NUTZEN72 7.3.3AUSBILDUNG73 7.3.4ANFORDERUNGSKRITERIEN74 SUB-TEIL II.2DER PM-PROZEß76 8.DAS PARTEIPROGRAMM ALS AUSGANGSPUNKT DES PM-PROZESSES78 9.ANALYSE80 9.1ALLGEMEINES80 9.2SWOT-ANALYSE80 10.ZIELFORMULIERUNG82 10.1DIE ZIELPYRAMIDE82 10.2ZIELE DER STRATEGISCHEN PM-EBENE83 10.3ZIELE DER TAKTISCHEN PM-EBENE84 10.4ZIELE DER OPERATIVEN PM-EBENE85 11.STRATEGIEFORMULIERUNG87 11.1DIE ENTDECKUNG DES STRATEGISCHEN IM STRATEGISCHEN PM87 11.2DIE BAUSTEINE EINER STRATEGIE88 11.3MARKTSEGMENTIERUNG89 11.3.1DIE AUSGANGSBEVÖLKERUNG90 11.3.2ANFORDERUNGEN AN SEGMENTIERUNGSKRITERIEN90 11.3.3DIREKT BEOBACHTBARE SEGMENTIERUNGSKRITERIEN94 11.3.4NICHT DIREKT BEOBACHTBARE SEGMENTIERUNGSKRITERIEN96 11.4SEGMENTAUSWAHL (TARGETING)106 11.4.1UNDIFFERENZIERTES MARKETING108 11.4.2KONZENTRIERTES MARKETING109 11.4.3DIFFERENZIERTES MARKETING109 11.4.4EXKURS: TARGETING BOX110 11.5DISAGGREGATION UND DATABASE-MARKETING113 11.6POSITIONIERUNG117 11.6.1GRUNDLAGEN DER POSITIONIERUNG117 11.6.2UNIQUE VS. MULTIPLE VOTING PROPOSITIONS124 12.IMPLEMENTIERUNG VON PM-MAßNAHMEN128 13.KONTROLLE DER PM-AKTIVITÄTEN131 SUB-TEIL II.3DAS POLIT-INSTRUMENTARIUM133 14.POLITIK-MANAGEMENT134 14.1BEDEUTUNG DES POLITIK-MANAGEMENTS135 14.2DAS THEMEN-PORTEFEUILLE136 14.2.1QUELLEN POLITISCHER THEMEN139 14.2.2ZEITLICHE UND INHALTLICHE KOORDINATION VON THEMEN140 14.3ZUSATZNUTZEN DER POLITIK141 15.OBJEKT-MANAGEMENT142 16.LOKALISIERUNGS-MANAGEMENT145 17.INFO- KOMMUNIKATIONS-MANAGEMENT147 17.1THEORIE DER "LIMITED EFFECTS" DER MASSENMEDIEN148 17.2THEORIE DER "POWERFUL EFFECTS" DER MASSENMEDIEN149 17.3DER "AGENDA SETTING" ANSATZ149 17.4"AGENDA BUILDING" DURCH SCHAFFUNG VON "NEWS-VALUE" MIT HILFE DER IMPACTS-FAKTOREN151 17.4.1IMPACTS-FAKTOR IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT152 17.4.2IMPACTS-FAKTOR MEDIALE ÜBERRASCHUNG156 17.4.3IMPACTS-FAKTOR PERSONALISIERUNG157 17.4.4IMPACTS-FAKTOR AKTUALITÄT158 17.4.5IMPACTS-FAKTOR CONFLICT160 17.4.6IMPACTS-FAKTOR THEMENSTRUKTUR164 17.4.7IMPACTS-FAKTOR STATUS164 17.4.8WIRKUNG DER IMPACTS-FAKTOREN165 17.5ANSÄTZE ZUR INHALTLICHEN GESTALTUNG DER MEDIENBERICHTERSTATTUNG166 17.5.1DER PRIMING-ANSATZ166 17.5.2DER FRAMING-ANSATZ167 17.6PFLEGE DER JOURNALISTENBEZIEHUNGEN171 17.7MARKENGESTALTUNG173 17.7.1DER SLOGAN173 17.7.2DAS LOGO177 17.7.3PARTY IDENTITY178 17.8KOMMUNIKATIONSKANÄLE UND -MITTEL178 17.8.1FERNSEHEN179 17.8.2RUNDFUNK187 17.8.3PRINT-MEDIEN189 17.8.4AUßENWERBEMITTEL191 17.8.5GIVE AWAYS194 17.8.6WERBESCHRIFTEN197 17.8.7KINOWERBUNG199 17.8.8NEUE MEDIEN199 17.8.9EVENTS202 17.8.10PROJEKTE204 17.8.11PERSÖNLICHER KONTAKT205 17.8.12TELEMARKETING206 17.9INTEGRIERTER KOMMUNIKATIONSPLAN208 17.9.1KRITERIEN ZUR AUSWAHL DER KOMMUNIKATIONSKANÄLE209 17.9.2AUSWAHL SPEZIFISCHER MEDIENVEHIKEL210 17.9.3ZEITLICHE PLANUNG211 18.TEAM-MANAGEMENT213 18.1MÖGLICHE ORGANISATIONSSTRUKTUREN213 18.2AUFGABEN DES INTERNEN PMS215 18.2.1INFORMATION DES PM-TEAMS216 18.2.2TRAINING DES PM-TEAMS217 18.2.3MOTIVATION DES PM-TEAMS217 18.2.4REKRUTIERUNG DES PM-TEAMS220 18.3EXKURS: DIE BEDEUTUNG FREIWILLIGER IM PM-TEAM220 18.4EXKURS: INTERNES MARKETING UND NEUE MEDIEN221 SUB-TEIL II.4POLITISCHE MARKTFORSCHUNG ALS HANDLUNGSGRUNDLAGE DES PMS223 19.DAS MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM224 20.GRUNDLEGENDE METHODEN DER MARKTFORSCHUNG226 20.1KLASSIFIZIERUNG VON MARKTFORSCHUNGSMETHODEN226 21.EXPLORATIVE FORSCHUNG227 21.1QUELLEN EXPLORATIVER DATEN227 21.2TECHNIKEN DER EXPLORATIVEN FORSCHUNG229 21.2.1DAS TIEFENINTERVIEW230 21.2.2EXPERTENBEFRAGUNGEN230 21.2.3FOKUS GRUPPEN231 21.2.4FALLSTUDIEN232 21.2.5BEOBACHTUNG232 21.3ANWENDUNGEN EXPLORATIVER FORSCHUNG: ISSUE- UND OPPOSITION RESEARCH232 21.3.1ISSUE RESEARCH233 21.3.2OPPOSITION RESEARCH233 22.DESKRIPTIVE FORSCHUNG235 22.1QUERSCHNITTS- VS. ZEITREIHENERHEBUNG236 22.2"NEBENWIRKUNGEN" VON UMFRAGEN238 23.KAUSALE FORSCHUNG240 24.DEMOSKOPIE STATT IDEOLOGIE?243 TEIL IIIDAS 3D-POLIT-MODELL IN DER PM-PRAXIS244 25.FORSCHUNGSBEDARF245 26.WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZIELE DER STUDIE246 26.1DER STATUS QUO IM ÖSTERREICHISCHEN UND DEUTSCHEN PM246 26.2DETERMINANTEN DER VERWENDUNG VON KOMPONENTEN DES 3D-POLIT-MODELLS247 26.2.1MÖGLICHE WIRKUNG DER ABSOLUTEN PARTEIGRÖßE248 26.2.2MÖGLICHE WIRKUNG DER RELATIVEN PARTEIGRÖßE249 26.2.3MÖGLICHE WIRKUNG DER WETTBEWERBSINTENSITÄT249 27.FORSCHUNGSDESIGN251 27.1ART DER DATENERHEBUNG252 27.2DER FRAGEBOGEN252 27.2.1DIE VORSTUDIE - PRETEST UND ERGÄNZUNG252 27.2.2AUFBAU DES FRAGEBOGENS253 27.3AUSWAHL DER PROBANDEN260 27.4VORGANGSWEISE BEI DER DATENERHEBUNG261 27.5CHARAKTERISIERUNG DER RESPONDENTEN263 27.6VORGANGSWEISE BEI DER DATENANALYSE265 27.6.1PHASE 1: DESKRIPTIVE ANALYSE ZUR BESTIMMUNG DER PM-PRAXIS265 27.6.2PHASE 2: ÜBERPRÜFUNG DES EINFLUSSES DER PARTEIGRÖßE UND WETTBEWERBSINTENSITÄT AUF DIE PM-ANWENDUNG266 28.ERGEBNISSE267 28.1AUSWERTUNG ZUM FORSCHUNGSZIEL (1)267 28.1.1BEDEUTUNGSUMFANG DES PMS267 28.1.2EXTERNE UND INTERNE EINFLUßFAKTOREN AUF DAS PM (MIKRO- UND MAKRO-UMWELT, PM-AKTEURE)274 28.1.3DER PM-PROZEß UND DIE POLITISCHE MARKTFORSCHUNG276 28.1.4DIE POLIT-INSTRUMENTE292 28.1.5KOORDINATION DER AKTIVITÄTEN AUF DEN PM-EBENEN304 28.2AUSWERTUNG ZUM FORSCHUNGSZIEL (2)306 28.2.1EXTERNE UND INTERNE EINFLUßFAKTOREN AUF DAS PM (MIKRO- UND MAKRO-UMWELT, PM-AKTEURE)306 28.2.2DER PM-PROZEß UND DIE POLITISCHE MARKTFORSCHUNG309 28.2.3DIE POLIT-INSTRUMENTE315 28.2.4KOORDINATION DER AKTIVITÄTEN AUF DEN PM-EBENEN319 28.3PRAXISRELEVANTE ERGEBNISSE319 28.3.1GENERIERUNG VON VERGLEICHSWERTEN320 28.3.2ENTWICKLUNG EINES MEßINSTRUMENTS FÜR PM-ORGANISATIONEN (3D-POLIT-AUDIT)320 28.3.3ENTWICKLUNG EINES LEITFADENS FÜR UMFASSENDES PM IM SINNE DES 3D-POLIT-MODELLS320 29.ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DER ERGEBNISSE UND IMPLIKATIONEN321 29.1ERGEBNISSE ZUM FORSCHUNGSZIEL (1)321 29.1.1BEDEUTUNGSUMFANG DES PMS321 29.1.2DIE PM-DETERMINANTEN322 29.1.3DER PM-PROZEß UND DIE POLITISCHE MARKTFORSCHUNG322 29.1.4DIE POLIT-INSTRUMENTE325 29.1.5KOORDINATION DER AKTIVITÄTEN AUF DEN PM-EBENEN328 29.2ERGEBNISSE ZUM FORSCHUNGSZIEL (2)328 29.3PRAXISNAHE ERGEBNISSE330 30.LIMITATIONEN UND AUSBLICK331 ANHANG335 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS396 INTERNET QUELLEN420
(S 7.4.1954) Guess what! Well, you'll never guess, will you?, so I'll have to say it instead: "WE'VE GOT A RADIO!" Isn't it ghastly! We've had it since Saturday. It's wonderful and you can hear terribly well. It's a portable radio, a Fazer. On Saturday evening I was here on my own and I listened to "Saturday Sauna" on the radio and I had a lovely evening all alone. (S 10.2.1955) Desirée's been made into a film! Or at least it was filmed a short while ago. It'll be on in America and every other country of course before it comes to Finland, for ages I expect. Just have to be patient. There's Jean Simmons as Desirée and Stewart Granger as Jean Baptiste! Wonderful! (K 22.5.1956) The journey (school outing to Turku) took three hours and we sang and ate and watched the scenery. The train went through Porkkala,1 and you can now ride through without pulling the blinds down. The area looked grim. There were bright blue and green hovels sticking up all untended in the middle of the fields, the trees had been chopped off three metres above the ground, and wherever you looked you saw the charred ruins of burnt-out houses. The houses looked so awful we were horrified. The only living thing we saw was a solitary hen. The Russkis certainly got an earful on this trip! 1 The area leased to the Soviet Union for a period of 50 years under the interim peace treaty signed in 1944. It was returned to Finland in already 1956. 2 EPILOGUE: A STORY OF THE TWO DIARIES 1951-1960 Once upon a time there were two young Finnish girls, Satu Koskimies (S) and Katarina Haavio (K) (the latter of whom is also the writer of this article, Katarina Eskola). And it so happened that these girls applied to and were accepted in the well-known secondary school for girls called the Girls' Normal Lyceum in Helsinki, and entered the same class in spring 1951. Although they did not at first sit side by side, they became - after bitter struggles of jealousy and friendship - the best of friends. For S, who was the only child of her parents, both musicians, this friendship meant entrance to a larger family. K was the second youngest child in an academic family of five children. The head of the family was the father; the mother had died in January 1951. The two girls loved to write. Apart from their diaries, they wrote poems and stories as well. Their dreams about their future professions were connected with writing. (And these dreams also came true: S became a poet and an editor, K a journalist and later a university scholar and teacher.) S and K kept diaries during the whole time they attended secondary school. K had started her diary just a few weeks before her mother died, in January 1951. S, in turn, wrote her first diary entries in February 1953. In 1951-1960 they filled the pages of as many as 22 diaries, which they have carefully preserved. Together, the diaries amount to 3100 pages. The friendship between S and K has continued up to this day. Today we live about one hundred metres apart in Käpylä, Helsinki, ring each other up every day, and meet as often as possible. When we turned 50 some years ago, we started, for some reason, to read our early diaries. This glimpse into our bygone selves and bygone worlds launched a longer process that we could not imagine at the time. It ended up in two thick tomes, 50-luvun tytöt (Girls of the fifties), which was published in 1992, and 50-luvun teinit (Teenagers of the fifties), which came out in 1994. The books consist of our authentic diaries from the years 1951-1960; and in addition, the latter volume contains the letters we sent to each other. Since our original diaries had over 3100 pages, we knew we would have to reduce the number of the entries. However, it was far from easy to decide what to drop. Everything felt important. When selecting the entries to be published in our joint volume, we therefore tried, first and foremost, to retain the everyday life in all its aspects, as recorded in the diaries, in the book as well. This made it necessary for us e.g. to accept some repetition. When abridging a manuscript, one also has the chance to censor the text. We decided to drop some epithets and sequences that we thought would be extremely delicate or insulting to the persons involved. Our choices were naturally very subjective; if someone else had abridged the manuscript, the result might have been different. However, even the reader of our book form diaries can, to some extent at least, see where the text has been cut, since the deleted parts of text have been marked with an extra space between lines. As a result, 50-luvun tytöt(Girls of the fifties) contains about 60 per cent of the text of our original diaries. In the volume 50-luvun teinit (Teenagers of the fifties), we included 80-90 per cent of the original material. We made no changes to the structure, language, spelling, or punctuation of the texts. Apart from the abridgements, the diaries were published as such, with all their clumsiness and errors.
In: The Australian journal of politics and history: AJPH, Band 23, Heft 2, S. 284-314
ISSN: 1467-8497
Book reviewed in this article:THE HOVERING GIANT: U.S. Responses to Revolutionary Change in Latin America. By Cole BlasierRATIONALITY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Contributions to the Philosophy and Methodology of the Social Sciences. Edited by S.I. Benn and G.W. MortimorePOLITICAL OBLIGATION. By Richard E. FlathmanELECTORAL BEHAVIOR A Comparative Handbook. Edited by Richard RoseABORIGINES IN COLONIAL SOCIETY, 1788–1850: From 'Noble Savage' to 'Rural Pest'. Edited by Jean WoolmingtonBLACK VIEWPOINTS: The Aboriginal Experience. Edited by Colin Tatz assisted by Keith McConnochieKANT AND THE PROBLEM OF HISTORY. By William A. GalstonTHE MAKING OF INDIAN POLICY 1853–1865 Relations of the Court af Directors, the India Board, the India Office and the Government of India. By Prashanto K. ChatterjiTOLERATION. By Preston KingTHE GERMAN PUBLIC MIND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: A Social History of German Political Sentiments, Aspirations and Ideas. By Frederick HertzINSIDE THE MONSTER: Writings on the United States and American Imperialism. By José Martí. Edited and with an introduction and notes by Philip S. FonerPUBLIC POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION IN AUSTRALIA A Reader. Edited by R.N. Spann and G.R. CurnowPROBLEMS IN AUSTRALIAN HISTORY Religion in Early Australia: The Problem of Church and State. Edited with an introduction by Jean WoolmingtonW. DILTHEY: SELECTED WRITINGS. Edited, translated and introduced by H.P. RickmanTHE LAW IN CRISIS Bridges of Understanding. By C.G. WeeramantryBROADCASTING IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA. By Ian K. MackayNEW DIMENSIONS OF WORLD POLITICS. Edited by Geoffrey L. Goodwin and Andrew LinklaterTHE CABINET OFFICE TO 1945. By S.S. WilsonFREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE A Study of the Political Ideas of Hegel's Phenomenology of Mind. By Judith N. ShklarTHE SOCIAL PROBLEM IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF ROUSSEAU. By John CharvetJEAN BODlN AND THE RISE OF ABSOLUTIST THEORY. By Julian H. FranklinBLACK ARMADA. By Rupert LockwoodSIR MATTHEW NATHAN British Colonial Governor and Civil Servant. By Anthony P. HaydonTHE ART OF ANTICIPATION: Values and Methods in Forecasting. Edited by Solomon Encel, Pauline K. Marstrand and William PagePROGRESS AND PROBLEMS IN SOCIAL FORECASTING. Edited by Christopher Freeman, Marie Jahoda and Ian MilesTHE TRANSFER OF POWER, 1942–7, vol. VI, THE POST‐WAR PHASE New Moves by the Labour Government, 1 August 1945–22 March 1946. Edited by Nicholas Mansergh and Penderel MoonU.S. POLICY AND STRATEGIC INTERESTS IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC. By Yuan‐Li WuFOIJNDATIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. By Peter B. HarrisINTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE. Third edition. By Carlton Clymer Rodee, Totton James Anderson, Carl Quimby Christol and Thomas H. GreeneTHE STRANGE NEUTRALITY, SOVIET‐JAPANESE RELATIONS DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR, 1941–1945. By G.A. LensenLAND TENURE IN PRE‐REVOLUTIONARY CHINA Kiangsu Province in the 1920s and 1930s. By Robert AshA CRITICAL GUIDE TO THE KWANGTUNG PROVINCIAL ARCHIVES DEPOSITED AT THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE OF LONDON. By David PongSOCIETY AND POLITICS IN GERMANY 1500–1750. By G BeneckeIN THE ANGLO‐ARAB LABYRINTH: The McMahon‐Husayn Correspondence and its Interpretations 1914–1939. By Elie KedourieTHE ARABS IN ISRAEL. By Sabri JiryisTHE COMMUNIST MOVEMENT, FROM COMINTERN TO COMINFORM. By F. ClaudinWOMEN AS CITIZENS A Comparative Review. By Josephine F. MilburnWHITE ON THE MEDIA. By Brian WhiteMATHEMATICAL APPROACHES TO POLITICS. Edited by H.R. Alker, Jr., K.W. Deutsch and A.H. StoetzelSOCIALIST OWNERSHIP AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS. By Wlodzimierz Brus, translated by R.A. ClarkePUBLIC, TRADE UNION AND COOPERATIVE ENTERPRISE IN GERMANY: The Commonweal Idea. By Walter Hesselbach, translated from the German by Karl KuhneSOVIET FOREIGN POLICY, 1962–1973 The Paradox of Super Power. By Robin EdmondsA HANDBOOK TO ELECTIONS IN UTTAR PRADESH 1920–1951. By P.D. Reeves, B.D. Graham and J.M. GoodmanUNTO GOD AND CAESAR Religious issues in the Emerging Commonwealth 1891–1906. By Richard ElyLEADERSHIP IN FIJI. By Rusiate NayacakalouLOCAL POLITICS AND THE RISE OF PARTY: The London Municipal Society and the Conservative Intervention in Local Elections 1894–1963. By Ken YoungSOLDIERS AND POLITICS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: Civil‐Military Relations in Comparative Perspective. By J. Stephen HoadleyA BLANKET A YEAR. Bv Leonard Broom and F. Lancaster JonesABORKINAL HEALTH. By Peter M. MoodieKASHMIR IN TRANSITION 1885–1893. By Dilip Kumar GhoseA RESEARCH GUIDE TO AUSTRALIAN POLITICS AND COGNATE SUBJECTS (ARGAP). By Henry Mayer with Margaret Bettison and Judy KeeneMINDFUL MILITANTS The Amalgamated Engineering Union in Australia, 1920–1972. By T. SheridanTHE FUTURE OF AUSTRALIAN FEDERALISM. By Gordon Greenwood. Second editionMELBOURNE STUDIES IN EDUCATION 1976. Edited by Stephen Murray‐SmithROYAL COMMISSIONS AND DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEES IN BRITAIN A Case‐study in Institutional Adaptiveness and Public Participation in Government. By T.J. CartwrightLEGISLATIVE STAFFING: A Comparative Perspective. Edited by James J. Heaphey and Alan P. BalutisTHE SILENT DICTATORSHIP The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918. By Martin KitchenTRIAL OF FAITH Religion and Politics in Tocqueville's Thought. By Doris S. GoldsteinVOTING FOR THE QUEENSLAND LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 1890–1964. By Colin A. Hughes and B.D. GrahamVOTING FOR THE VICTORIAN LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 1890–1964 (1975).VOTING FOR THE NEW SOUTH WALES LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 1890–1964 (1975).VOTING FOR THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN, WESTERN AUSTRALIAN AND TASMANIAN LOWER HOUSES 1890–1964 (1976).OUR PARTNERSHIP. By Beatrice Webb. Edited by Barbara Drake and Margaret I. Cole with an introduction by George FeaverA CONSTITUTION FOR THE SOCIALIST COMMONWEALTH OF GREAT BRITAIN. By Sidney and Beatrice Webb. With an introduction by Samuel H. BeerMETHODS OF SOCIAL STUDY. By Sidney and Beatrice Webb. With an introduction by T.H. MarshallTHE CORRESPONDENCE OF G.E. MORRISON, vol. I, 1895–1912. Edited by Lo Hui‐min
In: The economic history review, Band 30, Heft 3, S. 513-553
ISSN: 1468-0289
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The Industrial Archaeology of the Stationary Steam Engine. (London: Allen Lane. 1976. PpRichard J. Colyer. The Welsh Cattle Drovers: Agriculture and the Welsh Cattle Trade before and during the Nineteenth Century. (Cardiff: University of Wales Press. 1976. PpDerek Fraser. Urban Politics in Victorian England: The Structure of Politics in Victorian Cities. (Leicester: The University Press. 1976. PpJ. Benson and R. G. Neville (Eds.). Studies in the Yorkshire Coal Industry. (Manchester: The University Press. 1976. PpDavid Kynaston. King Labour: The British Working Class, 1850‐1914. (London: George Allen and Unwin. 1976. PpRoderick Floud. The British Machine‐Tool Industry, 1850‐1914. (London: Cambridge University Press. 1976. PpH. E. Meller. Leisure and the Changing City, 1870‐1914. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1976. PpJoyce M. Bellamy and John Saville (Eds.). Dictionary of Labour Biography, Volume 3. (London: Macmillan. 1976. PpLeslie Hannah (Ed.). Management Strategy and Business Development: An Historical and Comparative Study. (London: Macmillan. 1976. PpGENERALJack Goody, Joan Thirsk, and E. P. Thompson (Eds.). Family and Inheritance: Rural Society in Western Europe, 1200‐1800. (London: Cambridge University Press. 1976. PpJan de Vries. The Economy of Europe in an Age of Crisis, 1600‐1750. (London: Cambridge University Press. 1976. PpSusil Chaudhuri. Trade and Commercial Organization in Bengal, 1650‐1720—With Special Reference to the English East India Company. (Calcutta: Mukhopadhyay. 1975. PpSurrendra Gopal. Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy. (New Delhi: People's Publishing House. 1975. PpJan Breman. Patronage and Exploitation: Changing Agrarian Relations in South Gujarat, India. (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. 1974. PpOlga Crisp. Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914. (London: Macmillan. 1976. PpF. B. Tipton, Jr. Regional Variations in the Economic Development of Germany during the 19th Century. (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press. 1976. PpPaul Bairoch. Commerce Extérieur et Développement Economique de l'Europe au XIXe siècle. (Paris: Mouton. PpJames M. Laux. In First Gear: The French Automobile Industry to 1914 (Liverpool: The University Press. 1976. PpJohn P. McKay. Tramsways and Trolleys: The Rise of Urban Mass Transport in Europe. (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1976. PpGeorge S. Bain and Farouk Elsheikh. Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 1976. PpWerner Sombart. Why is there no Socialism in the United States? English translation by Patricia M. Hocking and C. T. Husbands. Edited and annotated by C. T. Husbands. (London: Macmillan. 1976. PpGERMANYArno Herzig. Judentum und Emanzipation in Westfalen. Veröffentlichungen des Provinzialinstituts für Westfälische Landes‐ und Volkskunde. Reihe 1. Heft 17. (Münister: Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1973. PpHedwig Behrens. Mechanikus Franz Dinnendahl, 1775‐1826: Erbauer der ersten Dampfmaschinen an der Ruhr. Leben und Wirken aus zeitgenössischen Quellen. Schriften zur Rheinisch‐Westfälischen Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Vol. 22, Ed. Rheinisch‐West‐falisches Wirtschaftsarchiv. (Köln: Selbstverlag Rheinisch‐Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv. 1970. PpMonika Richarz (Ed.). Jüdisches Leben in Deutschland: Selbstzeugnisse zur Sozialgeschichte, 1780‐1871. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt. 1976. Pp Dokumentation zur Geschichte der jüdischen Bevölkerung in Rheinland‐Pfalz und im Saarland von 1800‐1945. Bd. 3: Die Juden in ihrem gemeindlichen und öffentlichen Leben. Bd. 4: Aufklärung, Gleichstellung, Reform und Selbstbesinnung: das Verhältnis der Juden zu den christlichen Religionsgemeinschaften. Bd. 6: Die nationalsozialistische Judenverfolgung in Rheinland‐Pfalz, 193345. Bd. 7: Dokumente des Gedenkens. Hrsg. von der Landes‐archivverwaltung Rheinland‐Pfalz in Verbindung mit dem Landesarchiv Saarbrucken. (Koblenz: Selbstverlag der Landesarchivverwaltung Rheinland‐Pfalz. 1972‐4. PpHans Seeling. Die Eisenhütten in Heerdt und Mülheim am Rhein. Schriften zur Rheinisch‐Westfälischen Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Vol. 24. Ed. Rheinisch‐Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv. (Köln: Selbstverlag Rheinisch‐Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv. 1972. PpJuurgenKocka. Unternehmer in der Deutschen Industrialisierung. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. 1975. PpWilhelm Wortmann. Eisenbahnbauarbeiter im Vormärz: Sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung der Bauarbeiter der Köln‐Mindener Eisenbahn in Minden‐Ravensberg, 1844‐7. Neue Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Vol. 6. Ed. Ingomar Bog. (Köln Wien: Böhlau. 1972. PpHans Friedrich Gisevius. Zur Vorgeschichte des Preuβisch‐Sächsischen Eisenbahnkrieges: Verkehrspolitische Differenzen zwischen Preuβen und Sachsen im Deutschen Bund. Verkehrswissenschaftliche Forschungen. Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Industrie‐ und Verkehrspolitik der Universität Bonn, Vol. 24. Ed. Fritz Voigt. (Berlin: Duncker u. Humblot. 1971. PpHermann Kellenbenz and Juurgen H. Schawacht. Schicksal eines Eisenlandes. (Siegen: Industrie‐ und Handelskammer Siegen. 1974. PpHarald Winkel (Ed.). Finanz‐ und wirtschaftspolitische Fragen der Zwischenkriegszeit. Schriften des Vereins für Socialpolitik. Gesellschaft für Wirtschafts‐ und Sozialwissenschaften. Neue Folge, Band 73. (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot. 1973. PpEckard Wandel. Die Bedeutung der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika für das deutsche Reparationsproblem, 1924‐9. Tübinger Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, Vol. 6. (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). 1971. PpMichael Schneider: Das Arbeitsbeschaffungsprogramm des ADGB: Zur gewerkschaftlichen Politik in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik. Schriftenreihe des Forschungsinstituts der Friedrich‐Ebert‐Stiftung. Vol. 120. (Bonn‐Bad Godesberg: Verlag Neue Gesellschaft GmbH. 1975. PpLotte Zumpe (Ed.). Wirtschaft und Staat im Imperialismus: Beiträge zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des staatsmonopolistischen Kapitalismus in Deutschland. (Berlin. 1976. Pp
The crisis of authority in the U.S.S.R. (1988 - July 1991). After a preliminary reference to the ideological options open to Mikhail Gorbachev, initiator of the break-up of Stalinism, and the mistrust which be inspires, both among some of his opponents as well as among right-wing conservatives, the author considers the recent evolution of the Soviet Union, from the monopoly of Party rule to the difficult birth of a pluralistic regime. He first raises the question of the Party's attitude to perestroika. Article 6 of the Constitution of 1977, which aknowledges the leading role of the Party, was reluctantly annulled by Gorbachev, but annuled it was, thus leaving the way open for pluralism. Condemnation of factionalism within the body of the Party has not prevented the emergence of various "tendencies" (particularly the democratic Platform and the marxist Platform) which find official expression. Similarly, political and social groupings, independent of authority, began to proliferate : from groupings moved by a common principle, for example tne Safeguarding of the national heritage, or the defense of the environment, they rapidly became popular fronts, lending the system a de facto pluralism which would only later enjoy a de jure existence. This spontaneous development took shape first of all in the Baltic countries, and then with increasing momentum spread to all the republics. In parallel with this, the communist Party leadership initiated a reform of the political system, which found expression in the semi-free elections of March 1989, marked by the defeat of various party and State notables. This was the beginning of a multi-party system, there having been two major opposing tendencies during the campaign for the regional elections in the spring of 1990 : the democratic Russia bloc (liberal) and the patriotic Russian bloc (conservative), surrounded by a multiplicity of organizations of the most diverse and constantly evolving tendencies. The charge levelled against them is that they have no autonomous ideas or initiative, and have only one single programme : mass rejection of the Party apparatus. Some observers are of the opinion that a deep schism will develop within the CPSU, and that this will give rise to a real multi-party system. The first stage of this development has just begun, with the movement for democratic reforms, which was launched in July 1991 by frontline reformers. The other major problem which arises is that of the preservation or the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The authority of the Center is in question, and already six republics have decided to leave the union, proclaiming their sovereignty loud and long (the three Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia and Moldavia). But although the right of scission is officially acknowledged, its implementation is a vast battleground (see the law of 3rd April 1990). The upsurge of centrifugal forces has led the republics, one after the other, to proclame their sovereignty (primacy of republican laws over federal laws, economic autonomy, ownership of the soil and mineral deposits, etc.) or their outright indépendance. Autonomous Republics and territories followed suit, opposing the authorities of the republics to which they belonged. Inter-ethnic conflict broke out all over. The dispute over federal authority led to a "way over laws", setting the Centre at odd with republics resolved to insist on recognition of their rights (ownership of all the ressources found on their territory, freedom to exploit these resources, etc.). In this context, the question of finance and the budget had pride of place, together with that of material and technological supplies. The entire supply system was disorganized, with the republics refusing to carry out the orders of the State, or to deliver consumers' goods outside of their frontiers, in order to avoid a worsening of their own shortages. The Soviet government tried to combat the supply problems, at least in part, by setting up commodity markets. A series of economic programms was worked out, including V. Pavlov's anti-crisis plan (April 1991) which was adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, but it is not entirely clear how the economic responsabilities will be apportioned among the Central authorities, the republics and the lower-rank administrative bodies, and what will be the share of the state and private sectors. Also, it is not known how he proposes to overcome the present crisis, and how long this will take. Another major source of discord is the army and the police. The republics demand the right to raise armed forces, and to assume the responsability for maintaning order within their territory. Certain of them, who have been the victims of attacks by the special forces of the Ministry of Interior, the OMON, have organized militias and defense groups, wich are virtually republican armies in embryo. In the end, there was an overriding necessity for redefining the Union, and the first version of the new Union Treaty was adopted by referendum on the 17th March 1991. A slightly modified version of it was published on the 19th June, but neither the one nor the other gives a very clear idea of the respective areas of competence and the common areas of competence of the Centre and the constituent republics of the Union (and still less of the fate in store for secessionist republics). On the other hand, one can be sure that the Treaty will be the source of innumerable controversies and disputes, especially on the particularly explosive issue of the budget, taxation and the distribution of ressources. In the final part, the author ventures some thoughts on the future. He sets perestroika in the continuing context of the history of the Russian empire, recalling that the demands made (individual freedoms and democracy, self-determination and decolonization) were already those of the protagonists of the Russian democratic revolution of February-March 1917, which was "taken over" by the Bolshevik coup d'Etat. Now that the empire has fallen victim to its contradictions and weaknesses, and finally disintegrated, what will take its place ? The cure prescribed by the Union Treaty seems ill-adapted to the task, and several outcomes are possible : a resolute commitment to the way of democracy and decolonization, a return to an authoritarian régime but one establishing a market economy, the option of passivity while waiting for a solution "which will come of itself, or a return to thorough-going, tough dictatorship accompanied by a blood bath. If Gorbachev does not once more take his courage in both hands, and proceeds to decolonize the empire, however slow and piecemeal the process, others will do it for him. And in that case, we may fear the worst.
1: Measurement -- Integrated fermentor sampling and analysis -- Measurement of biological reaction rates using advanced pH control systems -- Morphological measurements on filamentous microorganisms by image analysis -- Reconciliation of measurement data in fermentation using on-line expert system -- Glucose biosensors for the study and control of bakers compressed yeast production -- Computer controlled system for on-line monitoring of a fermentation process -- 2: Modelling I -- Structured modelling of bioreactor systems -- Mathematical simulation of anaerobic stratified biofilm processes -- A new approach for development of structured growth models -- Modelling secondary metabolite production — case pleuromulin -- Modelling of kinetics, mass transfer and mixing phenomena in 45, 450 and 4500 L tank fermenters -- A software tool for fermentation modelling -- Hydrodynamic and kinetic modelling of a flocculating bioreactor with cell recycle -- Modelling and simulation of naphthalene to salicylic acid fermentation process -- 3: Modelling II — System Identification, Parmeter and State Estimation -- An introduction to system identification, parameter and state estimation -- Expert system approach to recognize the state of fermentation and to diagnose faults in bioreactors -- Toward a systematic method for the generalization of fermentation data -- Adaptive inferential estimation and its application to biomass control -- Experimental validation of a methodology for on-line state estimation in bioreactors -- Optimal feeding strategy for identification of Monod-type models by fed-batch experiments -- Identification of a simulated continuous yeast fermentation -- Structured modelling and parameter identification of budding yeast populations -- Parameter estimation of kinetics and modelling in methanogenic fermentation of Methanosarcina barkeri -- On-line estimation of cell mass using an extended Kalman filter -- Observability by pH in bioprocesses -- 4: Control I -- Process controlled temperature induction during batch fermentations for recombinant DNA products -- Application of an expert system to the operation and control of industrial antibiotic fermentation process -- IBE fermentation control -- Improvement of the penicillin production in bench-scale reactors by on-line measurement, data evaluation and parameter-adaptive control -- On-line parameter identification and computer control of an anaerobic waste water treatment process -- On experiences with expert systems in the control of bioreactors -- Intelligent purification of monoclonal antibodies -- 5: Control II -- A fed-batch process for pullulanase production -- A new approach for the control of baker's yeast fed-batch fermentation -- Lyapunov design of convergent adaptive controllers for a class of multilinear systems arising from biotechnological applications -- A new nonlinear adaptive approach to automatic control of bioprocesses -- Adaptive algorithm for estimation and control of fed-batch bioprocesses -- Modelling and control of polygalacturonase production from Kluyveromyces marxianus -- Nonlinear estimation and adaptive control of a fed-batch fermentor -- Sensitivity analysis in static optimization of fermentation plants -- Maximum production of glutathione in fed-batch culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae -- 6: Data Management -- Management of process control data for bio-process analysis -- Data handling for fermentation development — an industrial approach -- On-line monitoring of the response of a fermentation process to nutrient additions -- A modelling approach to trouble diagnosis by multilevel fuzzy functions and its application -- Model based optimization of a SCP fermentation process -- Adaptive monitoring of bioreactor contamination -- PC-based on-line estimation of derived variables -- The use of carbon dioxide evolution rate in consistency checking other fermenter sensor outputs -- Using the downhill Simplex method to fit complex rate equations to data -- Fermentation fault diagnosis using analytical redundancy -- Author Index.
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History, however, is not Phillips's strong suit. Moreover, his peculiar take on the country's cyclical experience with wealth and democracy is a telling commentary on his own oddly inflected populism. His is the populism of the 'silent majority,' which first made his reputation back in the days of Richard Nixon's 'southern strategy.' Phillips's lingering Republican past leads him to fantasize about some underground tradition of progressive middle-class Republicanism, which in Phillips's quirky narrative confection embraces the governments of William McKinley, Richard Nixon, and Abraham Lincoln. Phillips imagines these regimes as all suspicious of unsupervised wealth and mildly friendly to labor, while nonetheless operating under the dominating influence of the economic elites of their day. The characterization might loosely apply to Lincoln's new party, although the great merchant bankers of the antebellum North were the Great Emancipator's loyal opposition, not his natural constituency. When applied to McKinley and Nixon the notion verges on the preposterous--industrial workers in 1896 were terrorized into voting for the Ohio governor or staying away from the polls, while the whole tenor of the Republican campaign and the McKinley presidency that followed entailed an explicit repudiation of any suggestion of wealth redistribution or government regulation of big business. The evidence for Nixon's labor sympathies seems to consist of presidential invitations extended to the ossified leadership of the AFL-CIO to visit the White House. Phillips himself acknowledges that in every case--even in the one that most robustly supports his argument, namely Teddy Roosevelt's reign--the Republicans soon gave themselves over to the most self-interested, money-mad, socially irresponsible fat cats who always peopled the party's inner sanctums. As the author demonstrates, only during the Progressive Era, which was half Democratic, and during the New Deal order did the apportionment of national income and wealth swing the other way and were the commanding institutions of the private sector subject to some serious public surveillance and discipline. The Clinton interregnum, conversely, was the outcome of what Phillips calls the first white-collar recession of the early nineties-itself a fitting epitaph to the extreme 'financialization' of the Gordon Gekko years--conjoined to the rapidly inflating Internet bubble. The atmosphere of sixties' cultural liberation that hovered over the Clinton administration had more to do with the borrowed anti-hierarchical argot and upscale designer egalitarianism of the new dot-com billionaires than it did with any sixties-era political engagement with the lower orders. While the New Deal welfare state was wrapping up its affairs, the new information-age elites were busy putting in place a global corporate welfare system of 'financial mercantilism.' Wall Street quickly acclimated itself to the new environment. It became heavily invested not only financially and not only because the microprocessor transformed the way it conducted its own high-velocity speculations. Psychologically and culturally as well, the Street became vested in new-era hype. Phillips talks about 'grinds and globalists' supplanting the old skull-and-bones elites, committed to a relentless, de-regulated 'securitization' of the universe, transforming customary signs of distress into market-cheering acts of 'downsizing,' deepening the chasm between the haves and the have-nots at home and abroad.
This article attempts to deal with various forms of poverty. What do the long‐term unemployed, young people looking for work and on training schemes, single adults eligible for the RMI (guaranteed minimum income benefit), lone mothers, young couples crippled by the impossibility of paying bills and rent, all have in common? The author puts forward the hypothesis that they express a particular mode of dissociation from the social bond: disaffiliation. This is a different condition of misery from that of poverty in the strict sense. The latter can perhaps be read as a state, whose forms can be listed in terms of lack (lack of earnings, of housing, of medical care, of education, lack of power or of respect). By contrast, situations of destitution constitute an effect at the place where two vectors meet: one, the axis of integration/non‐integration through work; the other, an axis of integration/non‐integration into a social and family network. A model of four 'zones' of social life – integration, vulnerability, assistance and disaffiliation – constructed from pre‐industrial societies, may serve as a reference grid against which we can interpret contemporary social circumstances and the rise of social vulnerability. Present‐day insecurity largely results from the growing fragility of protective regulations which were implemented from the nineteenth century onwards in order to create a stable situation for workers: the right to work, extended social protection, coverage of social risks set up by the welfare state. We can describe the specific nature of present‐day insecurity as relating to the structure of wage society, its crisis or its disintegration since the mid‐1970s.Cet article vise à traiter des formes différentes de la pauvreté. Qu'ont en commun le chômeur de longue durée, le jeune en quête d'emploi et consommateur de stages, l'adulte isolé qui s'inscrit au RMI, la mère de famille 'monoparentale', le jeune couple étranglé par l'impossibilité de payer traites et loyers? L'auteur fait l'hypothèse qu'ils expriment un mode particulier de dissociation du lien social, la désaffiliation. Il est un autre pathétique que celui de la pauvreté stricto sensu. Si celle‐ci peut Ãtre lue comme un état dont on inventorie les formes en terme de manque (manque à gagner, à se loger, à se soigner, à s'instruire, manque de pouvoir ou de considération), l'auteur voudrait pour sa part envisager les situations de dénuement comme un effet, à la conjonction de deux vecteurs: un axe d'intégration‐non‐intégration par le travail, un axe d'insertion‐non‐insertion dans une sociabilité socio‐familiale. Un modèle des quatre 'zones' de la vie sociale – d'intégration, de vulnérabilité, d'assistance et de désaffiliation – construit à partir des sociétés pré‐industrielles peut servir de grille de lecture pour interpréter la conjoncture sociale contemporaine et la remontée de la vulnérabilité sociale. S'agissant de la précarité d'aujourd'hui, elle relève dans une large mesure de la fragilisation de régulations protectrices qui se sont mises en place à partir du XIXe siècle pour stabiliser les situations de travail: droit du travail, protection sociale étendue, couverture des risques sociaux mise en place par l'Etat Providence. C'est par rapport à la structure de la société salariale, de sa crise ou de son effritement à partir du milieu des années soixante‐dix, que l'on peut qualifier la spécificité de la précarité d'aujourd'hui.
Since the classic work of Castells (1972), the 'urban question' has been a focal point for debate among critical urban researchers. Against the background of contemporary debates on globalization and urban restructuring, this article argues that the urban question is currently being redefined as a scale question. The first part of the essay reconstructs the diverse scalar assumptions that were implicit within earlier rounds ofdebate on the urban question and argues that, since the early 1990s, urban researchers have confronted questions of scale with an unprecedented methodological self‐reflexivity. Under contemporary conditions of 'glocalization' scholars are systematically rethinking the relations between urban spaces and supraurban processes of capital accumulation, political regulation and social struggle. The second part of the article explores the urban question as a scale question through the lens of Henri Lefebvre's writings on space, scale and state power. The author argues that three aspectsof Lefebvre's work are particularly relevant to the task of reconceptualizing the urban question as a scale question in the current period: (1) his notion of an 'implosion‐explosion' of urbanization; (2) his theorization of state spatiality; and (3) his analysis of the politics of scale. The urban remains a fundamental arena of capitalist spatiality, but its social, political and economic dynamics hinge increasingly upon its relations to a wide range of supraurban geographical scales. Lefebvre's approach to sociospatialtheory provides a particularly useful source of methodological insights for decoding the scalar dimensions of the urban question in the current era of global, national and local restructuring.Depuis le travail classique de Castells (1972) 'la question urbaine' a été un point central de débat pour la recherche urbain critique. Dans le contexte des débats contemporains sur la globalisation et la restructuration urbaine, cet article soutient quela question urbaine est actuellement redéfinie comme une question dééchelle. La premiére partie de l'essai reconstruit les différents postulats concernant les échelles quiétaient implicites dans les générations précédentes des débats sur la question urbaine. Depuis le début des anne??es quatre‐vingt‐dix les chercheurs urbains ont fait face aux questions d'eéchelle avec un méthodologie réflexive sans précédent. Dans les conditionscontemporaines de 'glocalisation', la recherche urbaine repense systématiquement les relations entre les espaces urbains et les processus supra‐urbains d'accumulation du capital, de réglementation politique et de luttes sociales. La seconde partie de l'article explore la question urbaine comme une question d'échelle á travers les écrits d'Henri Lefebvre sur l'espace, l'échelle et le pouvoir de l'état. L'auteur maintient que trois aspects du travail de Lefebvre sont particuliérement pertinents á la reconceptualisation de la question urbaine comme une question d'échelle dans la période actuelle: (1) sa notion 'd'implosion‐explosion' de l'urbanisation; (2) sa théorie de l'espace étatique; et (3) son analyse des politiques d'échelle. L'urbanisme reste un champ fondamental á l'espace capitaliste mais sa dynamique sociale, politique et économique repose de plus en plus sur ses relations avec un grand nombre d'échelles géographiques supra‐urbaines.L'approche de Lefebvre sur la théorie socio‐spatiale offre une source particuliérement utile d'aperçus méthodologiques pour déchiffrer les dimensions de l'échelle de la question urbaine dans l'ére actuelle de restructuration globale, nationale et locale.
The Sirinic district is located in one of the four mountain valleys (Sirinic, Sredska, Opolje and Gora) in the Sara mountain region. Its geographic boundaries almost match the administrative borders of the commune of Strpce. It is first mentioned in Serb manuscripts of the first half of the XIV century. The census taken in 1455 by the Turks shows a relatively high density of Serb population. The Albanians immigrated to the Sirinic district from northern Albania after the second mass migration of Serb population in 1737. They came from north and east, from southern parts of Kosovo, Kacanicka gorge and the Valley of Skoplje. A larger-scale settlement of Albanians into the Sara mountain region was prevented by massive Islamization of native Serb population in the districts of Gora, Opolje and Sredska. Thus, a multi-ethnic buffer zone was formed during Turkish reign which has been basically preserved until today. For this particular reason the region has attracted interest of many domestic and foreign researchers ever since early XIX century. Elaboration of two multi-disciplinary scientific research projects by the Institute of Geography "Jovan Cvijic" of the Serb Academy of Science and Arts in the period from 1989 to 1994 was based on the same considerations. One of the projects is fully concerned with the Sirinic district and the author of this paper was asked to study migrations and the origins of Albanian population as well as to organize and conduct a population census in the commune of Strpce. Immigration of Albanians to the Sirinic district took place in several phases which ultimately led to the formation of five mixed Serb-Albanian settlements located between a group of four homogenous Albanian and seven such Serb settlements. Thus, a relatively stable ethnic and geographic structure was formed as early as in the XIX century. Its territorial and demographic proportions did not substantially change regardless of all tumultuous historical and political events that had since taken place. A more detailed analysis shows that the share of Albanians in total population of the district rose from about 29% in 1931 to only 33% in 1989 in spite of the natural increase in population in excess of 30 per thousand ever since the early 1980s. However, demographic growth of Albanian population remained much below the level of the biological reproduction rate due to intensive emigration i.e., a negative migratory balance ranging from 21.8 per thousand in 1961 to 26.5 per thousand in 1989. The causes for emigration were economic and, for decades, bound toward Kosovo, Western Macedonia and the Valley of Skoplje. Emigration to Turkey began in late XIX century, resumed during the Balkan Wars and was recorded again in the early 1980s (encouraged by the Balkan Treaty signed by the FPRY, Greece and Turkey) but did not much affect total demographic movement of Albanians in the Sirinic district. Economic emigration of population to Switzerland and Germany has been growing from the 1960s onward. This paper also reviews parallel existence and functioning of two crucially different homeostatic demographic systems - the Albanian and the Serb - in the same compact geographic environment. The paper also points to the preserved awareness of a fixed (tribal) affiliation and finally displays a detailed review of migratory dynamics and origins of Albanian population, number of houses (families) and the number of members of each clan in 1989.
