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One Culture or Multiple Cultures? The Diversity of Roma People in PolandThere are no universal criteria which would be useful to describe the diversity of all of the Roma. Their presence in given country is linked to adaptive processes to majority societies. It is the majority that creates condition and space to which minorities need to adapt somehow. The results of the above-mentioned adaptive processes also vary and depend on an external context. The attitude of given populations towards minorities and the current political and economic situation of given country, where the Roma settled had and still has significant influence on mentioned processes. The way of life of different Romani groups has also a great importance, because sedentary way of life (typical for most European Roma) and external influences especially on culture and models of lifestyle also furthered the adaptive processes. The cultural diversity among the Roma is the case not only with the groups living in different countries. It needs to be emphasized that the Roma who have lived in one country for centuries are not a homogenous group in terms of their culture. Previous migration processes and sedentary or nomadic way of life had a great influence on this internal diversity. In Poland with four distinguished Romani groups such diversity occurs between Carpathian Roma (Bergitka Roma, Polish Highlander Roma) and traditionally nomadic groups: Polska Roma, Lovara, Kelderari. This article is mainly based on available sources and dissertations on the subject. However it refers to the field research regarding the use of European Union's funds for the Roma community in Poland, which was conducted by the author in 2010 and 2011. Kultura jedna czy wieloraka? Zróżnicowanie populacji romskiej w PolsceNie istnieją uniwersalne kryteria użyteczne w opisie zróżnicowania wszystkich Romów. Ich obecność w danym kraju wiąże się z procesami adaptowania się do społeczeństw większościowych. To większość tworzy warunki i przestrzeń, do których mniejszości muszą się jakoś przystosować. Skutki wspomnianych procesów adaptacyjnych także są różne i zależą od kontekstu zewnętrznego. W znacznym stopniu wpływa na to postawa danej populacji wobec mniejszości oraz aktualna sytuacja polityczno-ekonomiczna kraju, w którym osiedlają się Romowie. Sposób życia rożnych grup romskich także ma ogromne znaczenie, ponieważ osiadły tryb życia (typowy dla większości europejskich Romów) i wpływy zewnętrzne odzwierciedlające się w kulturze i stylach życia również kształtują owe procesy. Zróżnicowanie kulturowe Romów dotyczy nie tylko grup żyjących w różnych państwach. Trzeba podkreślić, iż Romowie od stuleci zamieszkujący dane państwo również nie stanowią jednorodnej grupy w kategoriach kultury własnej. Wcześniejsze procesy migracyjne oraz osiadłby bądź wędrowny tryb życia wywierały ogromny wpływ na owo zróżnicowanie. W Polsce, przy czterech różnych grupach romskich, taka różnorodność rodzi się między Romami karpackimi (Bergitka Roma, góralscy Romowie) a tradycyjnie wędrownymi grupami: Polska Roma, Lovara, Kelderari. Niniejszy artykuł opiera się na dostępnych źródłach i dotychczasowych opracowaniach tematu, odwołując się również do badania wykorzystywania funduszy unijnych przez społeczność romską w Polsce, przeprowadzonego przez autorkę w latach 2010-2011.

Purpose. This paper aims to study the ontological status of a trickster character in "Panchatantra" and its receptions. Methodology. The author has used analytical methodology of C. Levi-Strauss, C. Jung's theory of archetypes, and hermeneutical methodology. Theoretical basis and results. Perception of the world in the form of a narrative is inherent in the very specifics of the human thinking. Among the most famous literary narratives that structured cultural experience of different nations are the framed story "Panchatantra" and its receptions "Kalilah and Dimnah" and "Stefanit and Ihnilat". The framework of the analyzed text is the story about two jackals Karataka and Damanaka, Lion, and Bull. "Panchatantra" is deeply rooted in the animal epos, which is based on the totemic myth. Myths were created by primitive thinking that sought to systematize the world, to give it order through binary oppositions. Their hard core is "Life – Death" opposition. A myth deals with oppositions and seeks to neutralize them. Thus, a myth serves as the logical tool to overcome the fundamental contradictions. This is carried out by introducing a mediator. Two poles, two extreme points are unambiguous; ambiguity "occurs" at an intermediate stage only. Shift from one point to another is impossible directly – for this we need a mediator. In the given narrative the binary opposition "Life – Death" is replaced by its metaphor – Bull and Lion, herbivore (metaphor for life) and carnivore (metaphor for death). These oppositions are mediated by Jackal (Karataka&Damanaka) that feeds on carrion and has a dual nature. A mediator, which overcomes or at least mitigates the binary opposition, is seen as a compromise between herbivores and carnivores that embody the antinomy of life and death. This mediator is a trickster – bipolar character (good and evil at the same time). A trickster freely acts in unordered world of Chaos without Life – Death limitations. Scientific novelty. The breaking of cyclical time of the myth and deploying it into linear time gave rise to characters-doubles: the only one mythological image disintegrated and turned into different actors. A phenomenon of events became the basis of narrative storytelling. "Panchatantra", "Kalilah and Dimnah", "Stefanit and Ihnilat" have a dialogical form, which can be seen as a dialogue within one personality, i.e. at a certain stage one single mediator is splitting, and we get two characters – Karataka and Damanaka, Kalilah and Dimnah, Stefanit and Ihnilat. They represent opposing views and wisely defend their positions. This dialogue-dispute has neither beginning nor end. Karataka and Damanaka are the bifurcation of one single synthetic character – the manifestation of bipolar worldview that combines the opposing principles of life. Conclusion. The true nature of a trickster opposes any restrictions: it is open to everything. A trickster is free to move from one pole to another, he constructs reality and plays with it metaphorically overcoming the antinomy of life and death.

Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to describe the research techniques used by the author in collecting, analysing and writing life histories of women in the war during Namibia's independence struggle. The interest in recording and writing about these women arose because writing about the independence struggle of Namibia is dominated by men and little has been written about women; the little that is written tends to portray women as victims rather than as independent actors conscious of their decisions and the consequences of such decisions. This history is in danger of being lost if not tapped while these women are still alive.


Design/methodology/approach
– A life history approach was followed to appraise the methods used to listening to the women narrating their life stories and to listen to their life stories narrated by those who knew them, worked with them, and shared a prison experience with them. These stories were collected through open interviews followed by more structured interviews with list of open-ended questions with each woman. Life history follows an induction approach, starting with the story and using the stories to create themes and a method or framework guiding the interview recordings, analysing, writing and presentation of the story.


Findings
– The stories of the five women led to the demystification of woman as mere victims of repressive regimes and military conflicts. In collecting oral history sources on a subject such as the liberation struggle in a society that was torn apart by a prolonged military conflict, apartheid and repression, a researcher must respect the stories as told, but an extensive verification of the credibility and reliability of the sources may be required. Authenticity is undermined by the fact that the current society glorifies the independence struggle, and everybody wants to be on the side of the winners, even those that fought against liberation have today become its evangelists.


Research limitations/implications
– The sources for the paper depend on what the women could still remember and there are no local institutions such as archives and or newspapers to document the events when they happened.


Practical implications
– This paper argues the case that publishing women's life stories promotes interests in local history and makes significant impact on the socioeconomic status of women. It further recommends methodological approaches in documenting local histories; dealing with authenticity and integrity in each story.


Social implications
– The paper shows that publishing the life stories of five village women in a book with the title Tears of Courage had positive impact on their individual lives; and that publishing such oral accounts is an excellent way to lift the contributions by women out of obscurity into the mainstream of Namibian history.


Originality/value
– It is an original paper written from practical research experiences of identifying sources, documenting, interviewing, analysing, writing and constantly cross referencing to verify authenticity and integrity of both written and oral sources.

Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to assess the contribution of "Matriarchy" to the entrepreneurship and family business literature. The literature on gendered aspects of entrepreneurship is expanding and maturing in its level of theoretical sophistication and subject coverage. At the same time, our nuanced understanding of how gender influences entrepreneurial action also expands, as does our appreciation of how men and women do entrepreneurship. It is widely acknowledged that although the theories of entrepreneurship and small business are cognate literature, entrepreneurship has primacy. The heroic male entrepreneur is the master narrative against which we measure other forms of entrepreneurship. The role played by wives, partners, family and employees is often left unstated. In our eternal quest to theorise and explain entrepreneurial action in its entirety, we seldom consider the explanatory power of the sociological theory of "Matriarchy". Consequentially, in this theoretical paper, we present and discuss several important aspects of the theory which are applicable to our understanding of the diverse nature of gendered enactment within entrepreneurship and small business in which entrepreneurship provides the action to be measured and small business, the setting in which it is encountered. The work primarily concentrates on the theoretical aspects of Matriarchy as well as building upon the extant literature of entrepreneurship, gender and small and family business.


Design/methodology/approach
– The literature on Matriarchy is presented and analysed in conjunction with appropriate texts from the above literature. The readings help construct a theoretical framework which is tested against narratives of Matriarchial figures encountered via research and written up using retrospective ethnography. This unusual qualitative methodology allows the author to test and develop the utility of the theoretical framework. The resultant narratives and vignettes are both illuminating and enlightening.


Findings
– The stories of the Matriarchs illustrate how gender differences impact upon entrepreneurial identities and the everyday practicalities of doing business. While the male head of the family may be the titular business owner, many privately defer to the Matriarchal voice which acts as a positive driving force in business, binding a family together.


Research limitations/implications
– The theory of Matriarchy offers another powerful explanatory variable in how gendered relationships influence entrepreneurial identities and in making the theory the focal point, we can avoid some of the common assumptions we make when we concentrate on entrepreneurship as the key variable. In perpetuating heroic entrepreneurial narrative as success stories, we as the ultimate consumers of such socially constructed fiction are also complicit. This article, therefore, has the potential to influence how we as authors of such narratives narrate stories of women in family business.


Originality/value
– The paper challenges the universality of traditional renditions of family businesses as entrepreneur stories. It re-examines and challenges accepted wisdom building up a discussion, which confronts accepted theories of entrepreneurship and family business.

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to attempt to theorise difference as encountered by a team of six diverse researchers interested in addressing cultural and religious diversity in sexuality education. Drawing Todd's (2003, 2011a, b) concepts of "the crossroads", "becoming present" and "relationality" in conversation with Barad's (2003, 2007, 2012) ideas around relationality and intra-activity, the paper explores how "difference" in team research might be re-conceptualised. The aim is to theorise difference, differently from Other methodological literature around collaborative research. Typically, this work highlights markers of difference based on researcher identity (such as gender and ethnicity) as the source of difference in research teams, and examines how these differences are worked through. The aim of this paper is not to resolve difference, but understand it as occurring in the relational process of researchers becoming present to each other. Difference that is not understood as the product of the individual (Barad, 2012), may engender an orientation to ethical relationality, whereby research teams might hold in tension a conversation between the individual and the collective.Design/methodology/approach– This paper is philosophical and methodological. It draws on conceptual understandings from feminist educational philosophy and new materialisms. Findings are based on empirical experiences of a team of researchers exploring cultural and religious difference in sexuality education. Its aim is to re-think the ontology of "difference" as conventionally understood in qualitative methodological literature around team research.Findings– The contribution to conceptualising difference in research teams is to apply Todd's (2011a) theoretical work around "becoming", "relationality" and the "crossroads" and further delineate it with Barad's (2012) concept of intra-activity. Combining these theorist's ideas the paper offers a conceptualisation of difference that is not the product of individual researcher identities that manifests at the point of collision with (an)other identity. Rather, difference becomes intra-actively in meeting at the crossroads where the "who" is formed. The author argues it is a configuration that cannot be known in advance, and that blurs individuals (and contingent identities) in its uniqueness.Practical implications– Although conceptual in nature, this paper can be seen as having implications for working with difference in research teams. Drawing on Todd (2003, 2011a) what becomes important in attending to difference in research teams is being openly receptive to the Other. For instance, that the differences of perspective in relation to a research project are not melted into consensus, but that the singularities are always held in relation to each-other.Originality/value– This paper takes new and emerging ideas in educational philosophy and new materialisms around relationality and applies them to a re-thinking of "difference" in qualitative methodological literature. The result is to offer a new ontology of "difference" as experienced by members of a qualitative research team. It also brings the work of Barad and Todd into conversation for the first time, in order to think ethically about how researchers might work with difference.

PurposeWork integration social enterprises (WISEs) create jobs through business ventures that function as locations for training and employment of disadvantaged workers. A key challenge for US WISEs is that the businesses that are easiest to launch and best suited to absorb large numbers of unskilled workers may be located in the same low wage labor market sectors out of which these interventions are designed to catapult workers. This paper aims to present data on an understudied aspect of WISEs: the labor market niches where they are active, the occupations associated with these labor market positions, and the work conditions offered through their WISE businesses.Design/methodology/approachData presented in this paper are from a national WISE database developed by the author that includes 254 businesses associated with 123 WISEs, and a pilot study of 15 WISEs testing an instrument for use in a national survey of US WISEs. Each business associated with the WISEs in the national database was coded for industry, occupation and wage data using categories developed by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics. Each WISE business was further coded as preparing its workers for either low or middle skill jobs. These data were analyzed using frequency counts, chi square tests of association and a two‐step cluster analysis. To explore employment conditions inside WISE businesses, the pilot study data were analyzed using a multiple case study analysis approach. Through focused coding techniques, descriptions of the employment conditions associated with the WISE jobs are reviewed.FindingsAnalysis at the level of occupation category reveals that about 72 percent of the jobs that WISEs train clients to perform exist in low skill occupations. Chi‐square tests of association between NTEE code (a proxy for target population) and job skill level are not significant suggesting that low skill training is utilized by organizations serving clients facing a range of disadvantage. Cluster analyses indicate that for WISEs targeting disabled populations and for newer organizations targeting the general unemployed populations, low skill job training pervades but for education organization and for older employment organizations, middle skill job training is more prevalent. The pilot data analyses show that the WISEs offer minimum wage or higher wage positions but many without guaranteed hours or a clear pathway out of WISE employment.Practical implicationsThese data suggest WISEs in the USA have grown well beyond their earlier, narrower niche working with the disabled to employ a much broader portfolio of client populations, many higher functioning. However, the findings that many WISEs are positioned in the low skill labor market and on some dimensions can mirror the low skill labor market employment conditions suggest that additional aspects of WISE workforce development strategy should be taken into account.Originality/valueThe paper focuses on the labor market niches where WISEs are active, the occupations associated with these labor market positions, and the work conditions offered.

Este artigo parte de uma distinção entre políticas de segurança humana e políticas de segurança cidadã, no contexto de reestruturação e crise capitalista global, discutindo, especificamente, situações referentes ao Brasil e à cidade de Salvador, Bahia. Com base numa perspectiva antropológica sobre as dimensões do trabalho e renda, a reprodução social e as desigualdades sociais e as relações de poder, que condicionam os processos contemporâneos de desenvolvimento urbano, o autor, refletindo criticamente sobre as consequências da securitização dos problemas sociais, sustenta a necessidade de articularem-se políticas econômicas a políticas de segurança de forma a serem compensadas as tendências negativas do capitalismo contemporâneo, priorizando a segurança humana de todos, em lugar de uma segurança cidadã restrita a interesses ou preconceitos de parte da sociedade. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Securitização. Segurança humana. Desenvolvimento capitalista. Trabalho digno. Desigualdades sociais. Periferia urbana. HUMAN SECURITY: a feasible goal? John Gledhill This article begins with a distinction between human security policies and citizen security policies within the context of restructuring and the global capitalist crisis, discussing specifically situations Brazil and in the city of Salvador, Bahia. Based on an anthropological perspective on the dimensions of labor and income, social reproduction and social inequalities and the relationships of power which condition the contemporary processes of urban development, the author, making a critical reflection about the consequences of the securitization of social problems, supports the need for the articulation of economic and security policies in order to compensate the negative trends of capitalism today, giving priority to human safety for everyone, instead of a citizen safety restricted to the interest or prejudices of society. KEY WORDS: Securitization. Human security. Capitalist development. Decent work. Social inequalities. Urban periphery. LA SÉCURITÉ HUMAINE: un objectif viable? John Gledhill Le point de départ de cet article est de faire la différence entre politiques de sécurité humaine et politiques de sécurité du citoyen, dans le cadre de la restructuration et de la crise capitaliste mondiale. On y analyse plus spécifiquement les situations concernant le Brésil et la ville de Salvador-Bahia. C'est dans une perspective anthropologique concernant les dimensions du travail et des revenus, la reproduction sociale, les inégalités sociales et les relations de pouvoir, facteurs qui conditionnent le processus contemporain de développement urbain, que l'auteur fait une analyse critique des conséquences de sécuritisation des problèmes sociaux. Il affirme qu'il est absolument nécessaire de faire le lien entre les politiques économiques et les politiques de sécurité afin de pouvoir contrebalancer les tendances négatives du capitalisme contemporain, privilégiant la sécurité humaine pour tous au lieu d'une sécurité du citoyen limitée à des intérêts ou à des préjugés de la société. MOTS-CLÉS: Sécuritisation. Sécurité humaine. Développement capitaliste. Travail digne. Inégalités sociales. Périphérie urbaine. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH no Scielo: http://www.scielo.br/ccrh Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br

In his article, Mark Lipovetsky proposes a critical approach to the scientific intelligentsia of the 1960s, which, according to common opinion, constituted the leading group in the liberal movement of the late Soviet period. The article, however, focuses not on the political but the cultural ideology of this group, which the author defines as the ITR-discourse (ITR - the Soviet-period acronym for scientific/technological specialists). In the author's opinion, this ideology has outlived the Soviet period, shaping the mainstream of post-Soviet liberalism as well. In discussing this cultural ideology (poetics of the discourse), Lipovetsky isolates its characteristics, such as essentialism, resistance to complexity, double confrontation of the authorities and the "masses," and the subsequent exceptionalist position of the intelligentsia. The Strugatsky brothers have effectively summarized this complex of features in the perennial figure of their science-fiction prose (extremely popular among the scientific intelligentsia), the progressor, a representative of the advanced (i.e., communist in the specific ITR interpretation) civilization situated in a backward, medieval/fascist society. This character feels alienated from society and tries to help those in need but well realizes the danger of a large-scale revolutionary invasion. Lipovetsky's article traces the evolution of this character in the Strugatskys' prose. In the author's opinion, Viktor Pelevin's cynical spin doctors emerge as the direct heirs to "progressors," which reflects transformations of the idealistic cultural ideology of the sixties in the post-Soviet period. The article concludes with the proposition that the further effectiveness of the protest movement that started in 2011-2012 will depend on the liberal intelligentsia's ability to overcome the cultural ideology that they inherited from the scientific intel­ligentsia of the Thaw period. В своей статье Марк Липовецкий предлагает критический взгляд на научно-техническую интеллигенцию 1960-х, по общему мнению, ставшую лидером либерального движения позднесоветского периода. Основное внимание уделяется культурной (а не политической) идеоло­гии этого социального слоя. По мнению автора, именно эта культурная идеология − или дискурс ИТР − пережила советский период, оставаясь мейнстримом и постсоветского либерализма. Описывая эту культурную идеологию (поэтику дискурса), Липовецкий выделяет такие ее черты, как эссенциализм, сопротивление сложности, двойное противостояние власти и "народу" и вытекающую из этого противостояния позицию культурной исключительности. Наиболее емким обобщением этого комплекса стал созданный братьями Стругацкими образ "прогрессора", представителя высокоразвитой (коммунистической - в специфическом для ИТР-дискурса понимании) цивилизации, заброшенного в средне­вековое/фашистское общество, но знающего о пагубности револю­ционных преобразований. В статье прослеживается эволюция этого образа. По мнению автора, прямыми наследниками "прогрессоров" становятся циничные манипуляторы массовым сознанием, проходящие через творчество Виктора Пелевина, что, как полагает автор, отражает трансформацию культурной идеологии научно-технической интелли­генции 1960-х в постсоветский период. В заключении высказывается предположение о том, что дальнейшее развитие протестного политиче­ского движения 2011-2012 гг. возможно только на основе преодоления описанной в статье культурной идеологии.

Evoliucionuojant medijoms požiūriai į auditorijas nuolat kito. Auditorijos kaip kolektyvinės medijų pranešimų gavėjos savo esme yra itin dinamiškos ir kintančios struktūros. Kiekviena naujai atsirandanti medija darė įtaką auditorijų kaitos procesams ir skatino mokslininkus iš naujo įvertinti auditorijas formuojančius veiksnius bei persvarstyti jų sampratos aktualumą.Straipsnyje nagrinėjama, kaip kito auditorijų samprata per visą studijų laikotarpį, ir klausiama, kokios auditorijos koncepcijos gyvuoja šiandien, kai iškyla medijų auditorijos, veikiančios daugiakanalėje daugialypės terpės erdvėje.Reikšminiai žodžiai: publikos, minia, masės, auditorijos, masinė auditorija, naujosios medijos, konvergencija, medijų naudotojai, medijų auditorijos.Shifts of the audience's paradigmsDaiva SiudikienėSummaryThis paper reveals the main theoretical approaches which influence the construction and shifts of the audience's paradigms. The audience studies developed eventually under the influence of contradictory theoretical perspectives. It was stated that the significant processes had started long before the academic discipline formation, but intellectual discussions on the reflections of the massification processes were significant for developing the theoretical background for further audience studies. Contemplations on such concepts as public, crowd, mass, mass society, mass audience are closely related to the traditions of political theory, social philosophy and cultural history of the late 19th and the 20th centuries. Development of the communication sciences measures more than one hundred years, but the audience as an equivalent participator of the communication process had been recognized only at the end of the 20th century. For a long time, the audiences had been approached as unqualified and unable to evaluate the media production properly. Therefore, the conception of audience as the market dominated throught a couple of decades and formed the research traditions of the audience as a quantitatively measured object. The extent remains the most significant indicator in this research area, but the audience studies have generated much more concepts. Side by side with the citizens audience, there emerged the notions of the interpretive communities and lifestyle audiences. The recognition of the fact that the audience members differ in their socio-cultural and national characteristics, knowledge, experience in the use of media and other aspects, clarification of this notion remain a complicated matter. The most important facet should be the point that the individuals realize their role differently as an audience, but all together they are in the process of creating the cognitive schemes and the collective ideals as a certain united community. The rise of the new media has generated unprecedented processes in the post-modern societies and new notions applied for media users. It was stated that, despite the media explosion and the audience fragmentation, this term remains relevant. The new media environment is recasting the notion of audience for covering a wide range and multifaceted activities of media users. Therefore, the new roles of media users are under consideration. According to the author of this paper, as the most meaningful concepts should be recognized those that indicate the creative potential of the audience.

Abstract: It is widespread accepted that a creditor, who after a breach of contract wishes to safeguard his entitlement to full compensation for loss incurred, has a responsibility to take reasonable steps to mitigate this loss. There are, however, different views with regard to the scope of this duty to mitigate. Here it is advocated that the legal consequences of a failure to avert or minimize a loss must be similar to those of any joint occurrence of a fault of the wrongdoer with neglect of the aggrieved party. This implies that the liability of the wrongdoer should be reduced by apportioning the loss, which both parties could and should have avoided, between them both. Most modern legal systems do in fact acknowledge the assimilation of the doctrines of contributory negligence and failure to mitigate the loss and thus recognize the prospect of an apportionment of the damage. Not so, however, the European Commission's Expert Group. They exempt the debtor from liability insofar as the creditor contributed to his own loss. This contribution presents some critical reflections on how the duty to mitigate the loss is sanctioned in the newly proposed instrument on European contract law. The author illustrates that the provision in question - Article 163 of the proposal - does not provide for an adequate representation of the latest developments in the various European legal systems on this matter. Résumé: Il est largement admis qu'un créancier qui, à la suite d'une rupture de contrat, souhaite sauvegarder son droit à entière réparation du dommage subi, doit effectuer des démarches raisonnables pour atténuer son dommage. Il existe toutefois différentes opinions quant à la portée du devoir d'atténuer le dommage. La thèse ici défendue est la suivante : les conséquences juridiques du défaut d'empêcher ou de diminuer un dommage doivent être similaires à celles de tout événement conjugant une faute de l'auteur du dommage et une négligence de la partie lésée. Ceci implique que la responsabilité de l'auteur du dommage devrait être réduite en répartissant la perte que les deux parties auraient pu ou auraient dû éviter, entre elles deux. La plupart des systèmes juridiques modernes reconnaissent en réalité l'assimilation des doctrines de la faute de la victim ('négligence contributive') et du défaut de modération du dommage, et admettent donc l'idée de la répartition du dommage. Ce n'est cependant pas le cas du Groupe d'Experts de la Commission Européenne. Ils exonèrent le débiteur de sa responsabilité pour autant que le créancier a contribué à son propre dommage. La présente analyse présente quelques réflexions critiques sur la question de savoir comment l'obligation de modérer le dommage est sanctionnée dans l'instrument nouvellement proposé en droit européen des contrats. L'auteur explique que la disposition en question - Article 163 de la proposition - ne réflète pas de manière adéquate les récents développements des divers systèmes juridiques Européens en cette matière.

- The author examines the question of how the future of Europe can be foreseen, whether it is moving towards integration or towards a reassertion of the national features of all EU member states. The French and Dutch rejection of the European Constitution in 2004 triggered a search for a lower-key, less political form of European integration. Possible initiatives to break out of the current state of immobility include two interconnected paths: one is a return to the functional method for horizontal integration and the other is a development and broadening of Europe's big regional areas. The need therefore arises to give people a sense of responsibility for European integration in order to convince governments to relinquish more of their sovereignty. Reconstructing the European Union meaning and reality, by Myrianne Coen The fall of the Berlin Wall has thrown a stark light on the loss of reference points for Europeans: those of good and evil - values, of their territory and their interests. Religion is discredited, technology has no conscience. In this context there is a reawakening of ethics. But now the question arises as to the values on which this ethics is to be based, its deep meaning. The history of our civilisation shows that such values have always been rooted in the survival of the species, which implies protection of the individual. Nowadays they are expressed in respect for human (individual) rights and the primacy given to the democratic system applied to a society conceived as a "significant space of exchange". Managing change in complete security is therefore a question of evaluating policies, taking the individual as a benchmark according to an interpretation which has the survival of the species as a temporal limit and the respective territories of individual freedom as a spatial limit. All of this has to take account of reality, assuring a dialectic management between the dynamics of what we are able to do and the meaning which tells us what it is permissible to do. Devising management structures able to reconcile security and change should thus take account of everything that is effective and ethical. Conducting a suitable policy - the necessary condition for effectiveness - entails taking account of reality as it is in such a way that it may be modified (the dynamics of the possible) while respecting others in (individual) space and time (future generations). On the basis of these criteria it is therefore a question of determining, in the light of reality and principles, the meaning that emanates from democratic decisions, of considering the significant spaces that the meaning covers and of structuring them so that they encompass mutual relations. The individual is placed in this context as a benchmark by which the planet should measure itself, and the planet in turn should be considered "for mankind", since it is mankind who gives it a meaning.

Universiteterne er i krise og har været under pres udefra i mange år. Denne artikel behandler det interne pres på universiteterne. Forskerne selv blokerer den faglige kritik, livsnerven i det videnskabelige arbejde. Den populære socialkonstruktivistiske relativisme har udviklet sig til en ekstrem udgave af tidligere tiders herskende akademiske mantra – hvis du lader mig i fred, forstyrrer jeg ikke din niche. For at komme ud af dødvandet genintroduceres Karl Poppers berømte udtryk Det Venligt-fjendtlige Samarbejde mellem Forskerne. Det drejer sig om de grundlæggende sociale relationer i forskningen, der hele tiden truer med at blive nedbrudt til alene at være almindeligt lønarbejde, hvor kritik tolkes som mangel på solidaritet, og den udeblevne faglige kritik udtrykker en vellykket konkurrencebegrænsning.
Med udgangspunkt i Umberto Ecos selvkritiske udsagn om, at der er grænser for fortolkning, diskuteres Poppers begreb om videnskabelighed og objektivitet som sociologiske begreber. Her spiller den permanente faglige kritik og Den kritiske holdning den centrale rolle, og det vises gennem en diskussion af kritikken af Popper, at den "normalvidenskabelige" afvisning af Popper som falsifikationist og empirist er forfejlet. Udviklingen af Poppers kritikbegreb benyttes til at undersøge mulighederne for et opgør med de sidste årtiers socialkonstruktivistisk fornufts- og oplysningskritik og for at etablere (institutionalisere) kritikken som afgørende for universiteternes eksistens.

ENGELSK ABSTRACT:
Nils Bredsdorff: The Necessity of Criticism or The Friendly-Hostile Cooperation Between Scientists

This article deals with the internal pressure in universities, in that scientists themselves block scientific criticism. The widespread relativism of social constructivism has developed into an extreme version of the previously prevailing mantra of academia – if you leave me alone, I promise not to interfere in your niche.
To get out of this dilemma, the author reintroduces Popper's famous expression: The friendly-hostile cooperation between scientists. It concerns basic social relations within research. These relations are constantly under pressure and might disintegrate into ordinary wage labour, a kind of wage labour in which criticism is understood as lack of solidarity, and the absence of scientific criticism is seen as a result of successful restriction on competition.
The article starts with Umberto Eco's self-critical statement that there are limits to interpretation, and then addresses Popper's concept of science and objectivity as sociological terms under discussion. In Popper's concept, permanent scientific criticism by peers and The Critical Attitude are the crux of the matter. It is argued that the "normal scientific" rejection of Popper for being a "falsificationist" and an empiricist is wrong. Popper's concept of criticism is employed to examine the possibilities of a showdown with the recent decades of social constructivist criticism of reason and enlightenment, and to establish (institutionalized) criticism as a decisive factor for the survival of the universities.

Key words: Karl Popper, criticism, epistemology, critical attitude, social constructivism.

The Canadian province of British Columbia has been widely recognized as the North American leader in employing Design, Build, Finance Operate public–private partnerships to create new public infrastructure. Canada is one of the most decentralized federations in the world. Provinces exercise considerable autonomy and have powerful revenue raising power at their disposal. Although Canadian local governments are generally seen as substantially inferior to the two senior levels of government, those in British Columbia have in fact managed to achieve quite a bit of autonomy due to non-constitutional factors. Large infrastructure projects, for which municipalities and other local government agencies must look to the province for financial support are among the most controversial of issues within the provincial–local government relationship. The introduction of public–private partnerships represents a classic example of a political entrepreneur changing the rules of the game to favour their desired outcomes. In this case, a government leader determined to pursue an infrastructure program that the province lacked the capital to support and the re-structuring of the state along New Public Management lines. However, even though the rule change favoured the Premier's immediate goals, and allowed him to over-ride much local objection, it can be argued that in the long run neither local governments nor the province have necessarily gained in power by changing the rules of the game. In keeping with the general tenants of the New Public Management, the introduction of public–private partnerships has given precedence to technocratic forms of knowledge, especially those involved with finance and accounting, with the aim of pursuing public goals in the most "economically efficient" manner possible. The flip side is that democratic input is strictly limited to the initial question as to whether or not a project is desirable, not how it can be best achieved or whether, once underway, it still represents a wise move. As a result, if there are any real winners in terms of autonomy, it has been senior public managers at both the provincial and local level and their financial and accounting advisors. These actors have had the range of issues for which they are accountable markedly simplified when it comes to major infrastructure projects, even as the complexity of such projects are increased by the use of public–private partnerships. Evidence is drawn from government documents, news accounts and interviews conducted by the author with senior managers, politicians and appointed board members of local government organizations (a quasi-governmental agency and a regional municipality's transit authority) as well as a provincial ministry, which acts as a control case. By employing three cases within the same province and the same time-frame, many of the contextual factors that can confound a study of this sort have been held constant for the purpose of comparison.

Nuestro periodo de estudio muestra un clima surcado por crisis, paradojas y enfrentamientos, en un contexto en que germinan nuevos movimientos sociales. Se inicia con el primer golpe de Estado que quiebra el orden formal constitucional y provoca el derrumbe del proyecto liberal agroexportador junto con la restauración del conservadurismo de tintes nacionalistas. Estos vertiginosos cambios políticos y económicos son acompañados desde lo demográfico con la ruptura de diversas tendencias: se hace visible el descenso de la fecundidad, los saldos migratorios europeos se vuelven negativos, se profundiza la migración interna y se inauguran los casamientos entre cónyuges que pertenecen a la primera generación de argentinos. La elite política aristocratizante muestra, en lo poblacional, una visión tradicional del rol de la mujer y una mirada racista de los flujos migratorios. En este trabajo indagamos el papel del Estado como receptor de las ideas, demandas y presiones que le exponían diferentes sectores sociales. Nos preguntamos cuáles eran los "problemas" y cuáles las "soluciones" que planteaban al Estado los industriales, los militares, los obreros y los profesionales de la salud pública sobre las variables demográficas; qué políticas formuló el Estado en respuesta a estos reclamos, y cuáles eran sus relaciones y discursos en el marco de los intensos debates poblacionales del periodo. Nuestro análisis nos exhibe un Estado firmemente interpelado, colocado en el centro de las discusiones sociales y capaz de formular un intervencionismo cuyo principal destinatario serían los sectores populares. AbstractThe period of study reveals a climate of crises, paradoxes and confrontation, in a context that saw the origin of new social movements. This period began with the first coup d'état, which destroyed the formal constitutional order and led to the collapse of the liberal agro-export project, together with the restoration of nationalistic conservatism. In the demographic sphere, these dizzying political and economic changes were accompanied by the interruption of several trends: there was a visible decrease in fertility, European migra­tory rates became negative, internal migration increased and marriages began to occur between members of the first generation of Argentineans. In the population sphere, the patrician political elite displayed a traditional view of woman's role, together with a racist attitude towards migratory flows. This study explores the state's function as a receptor of the ideas, demands and pressures expressed by the various social sectors. The author examines the problems and solutions put to the state by industrialists, the military, workers, and public health professions regarding demographic variables, the formulas the state provided to meet these demands and their relations and discourses within the context of the intense debates on population at the time. The analysis reveals a state that was constantly questioned, located at the center of social discussions and capable of formulating a type of interventionism whose main target would be the popular sectors.

Antanas Maceina (1908–1987) – iškilus tarpukario Lietuvos ugdymo mokslo – tautinio auklėjimo teorijos, pedagoginio santykiavimo, švietimo ir mokyklų vaidmens lietuvių kultūroje, pedagoginio vitalizmo problemos, fenomenologinės pedagoginio akto analizės, visuotinės pedagogikos istorijos – atstovas, pagrindęs filosofijos ir pedagogikos santykį, teigęs realistinį idealizmą. Pirmasis VDU apgynęs pedagogikos daktaro disertaciją Tautinis auklėjimas (1934, vadovas – prof. Stasys Šalkauskis), A. Maceina parašė kapitalinį Pedagogikos istorijos veikalą (1939), kuriame svarsto tautinio auklėjimo ir atitautinimo problemas, aiškina lavinimo ir auklėjimo esmę, teigia ugdymo kūrybinį pobūdį ir mokyklų laisvę valstybėje. Straipsnio autorius, vertindamas įvairialypį A. Maceinos pedagoginį palikimą, koncentruoja dėmesį į tautinio auklėjimo teorijos reikšmingumą, švietimo ir mokyklų vaidmenį keliant lietuvių kultūrą, taip pat į fenomenologinę ugdymo, ypač pedagoginio akto, analizę. Iš akiračio neišleidžiama A. Maceinos pedagoginių pažiūrų raida, ugdymo interpretacijų kaita, ryškėjančio filosofo pastanga kurti universaliąją pedagogiką. Nors A. Maceinos palikimo leidėjai suskubo ugdymo teoriją pavadinti "pedagogikos filosofija", straipsnio autorius linkęs sugrąžinti autentiškesnį, paties pedagogikos veikalų autoriaus teiktą "filosofinės pedagogikos" įvardijimą ir analizuoti jos virsmą į ugdymo filosofiją. Pagrindiniai žodžiai: ugdymo filosofija, pietizmas pedagogikoje, tautinio auklėjimo ir atitautinimo teorija, švietimas ir mokykla valstybėje, kūrybinis ugdymo pobūdis.Philosophical Pedagogy of A. MaceinaJuozas Vytautas Uzdila
SummaryAntanas Maceina (1908–1987) is an outstanding representative of pedagogical education inbetween the two wars. He worked in the spheres of the theory of national education, pedagogical correlation, and the history of world pedagogy, analyzed the role of education and educational institutions in Lithuanian culture, the problem of pedagogical vitalism, and gave a phenomenological analysis of the pedagogical act. A. Maceina grounded the close connection between philosophy and pedagogy, asserted their integral synthesis and realistic idealism. At Vytautas Magnus University he was the first to maintain a doctoral dissertation in pedagogy "National Education" in 1934 (scientific research supervisor Prof. Stasys Šalkauskis). In 1939, A. Maceina wrote his great work "A History of Pedagogy" where, with his characteristic pietism, he considered the problems of national education and denationalization, elucidated the essence of education and training, asser ted the creative nature of fostering and the freedom of educational institutions in Lithuania. The article focuses on A. Maceina's diverse pedagogical heritage emphasizing the significance of his theory of national education, the role of school education in promoting Lithuanian culture, the phenomenological analysis of the pedagogical act, the development of his ideas of pedagogy, and his determined attempt to create world pedagogy. Although the publishers of A. Maceina's works labeled his theory of education as "philosophy of pedagogy", the author of the article is inclined to call back a more authentic term "philosophical pedagogy" given by A. Maceina himself and then to analize its transformation to educational philosophy.Keywords: philosophical pedagogy, educational philosophy, pietism in pedagogy, theory of national education and denationalization, school education in the state, pedagogical act, creative nature of education.