Suchergebnisse

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</style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal;">O aumento da competitividade na economia global trouxe para as empresas uma preocupação que consiste em oferecer bens e serviços com qualidade para uma clientela cada vez mais exigente. Tendo em paralelo uma tendência irreversível da crescente industrialização do setor de serviços que cada vez mais utiliza novas tecnologias, principalmente o processamento eletrônico de dados e de telecomunicações, deve-se ampliar a importância deste setor através do desenvolvimento de técnicas de gestão adequadas, não esquecendo da preocupação que se deve ter com a qualidade e produtividade do mesmo para que contribua cada vez mais para melhoria do padrão de vida das pessoas. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo analisar a qualidade dos serviços bancários <em>on-line</em> pelo computador sob o ponto de vista dos clientes no papel de usuários. Utilizou-se abordagem de aporte do método qualitativo ao quantitativo, com aplicação de questionário aberto aos clientes, em entrevista face a face e questionário fechado construídos com frases-resposta e escala ordinal, tratados com estatística descritiva. A amostra caracterizou-se como de conveniência devido a diversas dificuldades encontradas para uma amostragem aleatória. A pesquisa revela onze fatores de qualidade operacionalizados; e a existência de três grupos de respondentes, formados a partir da aplicação da análise de clusters, que possuíam características similares internamente e diferenças cruciais externas, no que tange ao comportamento em relação às variáveis de pesquisa. </span></p>

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</style> <![endif]--> <p class="Texto" style="margin-top: 0cm; line-height: normal;"><span>Há alguns anos, as empresas têm sido levadas a ter uma atitude socialmente responsável. Devido a isso, as empresas começaram a se preocupar em realizar atividades socioambientais bem como registrar essas ações de modo a que todos os interessados tivessem acesso (CASTRO, 2008). Essa necessidade de relatar as ações socioambientais levou a criação do conceito de balanço social ou relatório de sustentabilidade. Todavia, ainda hoje continua a persistir a dificuldade em saber o que reportar bem como a dificuldade de comparação entre os relatórios de sustentabilidade pela falta de um padrão único de relatório. Em função disso, este trabalho pretende fazer uma análise do grau de aderência dos relatórios de sustentabilidade das empresas em relação aos indicadores essenciais da versão 'G3', da Global Reporting Iniciative. Nesse sentido foram analisados os relatórios da Natura, da Petrobras e do Bradesco a fim de avaliar o nível de sustentabilidade dessas empresas tendo como base a metodologia de pesquisa dedutiva e indutiva, na qual uma estrutura conceitual e teórica é desenvolvida e depois testada pela observação empírica. Para isso foram utilizados os relatórios de sustentabilidade das empresas, as diretrizes da GRI, o balanço social do IBASE dentre outras fontes. Como conclusões do trabalho observou-se que a empresa que melhor reportou os indicadores essenciais exigidos pela GRI foi a Petrobras seguido do Bradesco e Natura. Esta última, apesar de ser a primeira empresa brasileira a adotar o GRI, foi a que teve o maior número de indicadores essenciais apresentados de forma parcial e regressão nos seus relatórios de sustentabilidade do ano de 2006 para 2007. </span></p>

The field of 'trans' studies, which incorporates transsexual, transgender, and cross‐dressing among its experiences and theorizing, has undergone tremendous changes within the century or so in which it has been developing. Initially, the scope of transsexual studies spans for almost a century, across social institutions and within a rigid model of proving a person's 'true transsexuality'. On the other hand, the reach and depth of transgender studies, emergent only less than 20 years ago, moves across disciplines, incorporates first and third person accounts, and it is less invested in reifying 'true' transgender identity and expression (although there are emergent movements attempting to solidify transgender as a multiple gender response to the gender binary, often by elite or privileged citizens). In summary, the field of transgender and transsexual studies is in constant development and change, and there are significantly some tensions that could offer much newer theorizing (e.g. between the categories of transsexuality and transgender as an umbrella term).Sociology's continued influence within the transsexual and transgender studies/fields require our attention to interdisciplinarity, while at the same time a serious grounding on the sociological literatures concerning the topic. Sex, gender, and sexuality are analytical concepts of much importance in order to study 'trans' populations and issues, as are questions of social location based on ethno‐racial, class, and other positionalities. These recommended readings, films and exercises form a foundation to implement critical views on the topic of 'trans' studies, and its intersections with other topics such as gender identity, homosexuality, gender presentation, and some historical accounts of the formation and solidification of the transgender category.Author recommendsStryker, Susan, and Stephen Whittle (eds) 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.A compilation of a number of old articles, and recent contributions by emergent scholars from many areas (including sexology, psychiatry, queer theory, feminist scholars, and transgender men and women), this reader is a critical reference to those interested in trans studies. Susan Stryker, herself one of the originators of transgender studies, poses a critical look at the resistance to acknowledge transgender (and transsexual) embodiment and identity. Stephen Whittle, a European scholar, also bridges the field in his beginning remarks. The chapters are a varied contribution to the scholarship of transgender studies, broadly defined. Its first part is a compilation of previously published work on transsexuality, but the majority of the text uncovers a series of issues newly developed (such as intersectionality, embodiment, and identities and communities).Valentine, David 2007. Imagining Transgender: An ethnography of a Category. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.This book is empirically based on fieldwork among three groups of transgender populations in New York City. Ranging from the staff and volunteers of the Gender Identity Project at the Gay and Lesbian Community Center, sex workers in the area of the 'meat packing district' (a district in the lower part of Manhattan) and at 'House Balls' (events of dance and competitions among queer youth of color), Valentine draws from all of these experiences to formulate the solidification of the 'transgender' category. A compilation of previously published articles and new material, this book is award winning within its field – anthropology. One of its main contributions is the use of 'transgender' as a term that evokes current debates and political struggles to solidify distinctions between gender and sexuality, and in many instances, the transgender category as relational to homosexuality.Bryant, Karl 2006. 'Making Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood: Historical Lessons for Contemporary Debates.'Sexuality Research and Social Policy 3 (3): 23–39.This article is a social history of the diagnostic category of 'gender identity disorder' and, in particular, how it was applied to children (mostly boys) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders from the American Psychiatric Association. The discourses surrounding the psychiatric diagnosis are traced from the beginning of related studies and the inception of the term (from the 1960s on) and into the present. Bryant gives a significant review of past debates in order to inform the contemporary ones taking place through his analysis of archival data, interviews with key mental health and psychiatry providers, and published reports on the development of this diagnosis. Among the aspects he looks at are the controversies as to whether atypical gender behaved boys will grow up to be homosexual, transsexual, or transvestite, and how current advocates for or against this diagnosis may be reproducing similar assumptions, or producing normative results, in their critiques of this diagnosis.Halberstam, Judith 2005. In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York, NY: New York University Press.This book is a significant development from a humanities‐based cultural studies angle that takes a close look at artistic and media portrayals of transgender experience. Halberstam argues for a complex relationship (much closer than otherwise portrayed) between transgender and transsexual identities by looking at various individuals and their experiences – most notably Brandon Teena, who was killed in Nebraska by acquaintances, when it was 'discovered' that Brandon was a female‐bodied person who 'passed' as male. Halberstam's introduction to the book is a great challenge to the privileging of analysis of space in contemporary social theorizing (drawing on criticisms of works such as David Harvey's) and centering a newer analysis of queer uses of time as a challenge to normative assumptions about family and the nation. In a Queer Time and Place seriously engages the relationship between embodiment and representation, and the urban and rural contrasts in trans theorizing.Meyerowitz, Joanne 2002. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA, and London, UK: Harvard University Press. How Sex Changed is an elaborate historical examination of the ways sex, gender, and sexuality are tied together in early sexual science studies through the authority of medical and scientific 'experts'. Meyerowitz offers a broad historical and geographic discussion on transsexuality, ranging from the 19th century to the 1980s United States, and at times draws excellent comparisons between the US and European nations in their (often imprecise) dealings with transsexuality. A significant feature of Meyerowitz's work is the tracing of medical and scientific authority over access to technologies that would allow transsexuals to 'change sex'; transsexual narratives countered this authority with their accounts of self. The book illustrates the complex negotiation between what doctors considered to be the reasons and symptoms of transsexuality and the kinds of stories put forth by transsexuals seeking their help.Rubin, Henry 2003. Self‐Made Men: Identity and Embodiment among Transsexual Men. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press. Self Made Men is a sociological study of the experiences of 22 transsexual men from various US cities. Rubin answers questions about the body and identity for his research subjects by weaving two discussions: of genealogy and phenomenology; the former a more discursive argument, the latter, a more grounded one. In this way, Rubin attempts to engage in structure versus agency theorizing in the narratives shared by the female‐to‐male transsexuals he interviewed. Rubin's book has a significant overlap to Meyerowitz, where he discusses the 1970s division between female‐bodied transsexual and lesbian identifications – worth taking a close look at as well. But Rubin's contributions also attest to the embodied experiences of the transmen he interviewed, by weaving experiences of betrayal and misrecognition, identities in progress, and some of the historical determinants for the development of a male transgender identity.Irvine, Janice 1990. Disorders of Desire: Sex and Gender in Modern American Sexology. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.This book gives a comprehensive look at the sexological field in the 20th century. As a sociologist, Irvine produces a compelling set of critiques of the ways in which a normative set of perspectives – about what takes place in one's sexual lives, about seeking help for sexual health, and about homosexuality and gender variant men and women – is dissected by the fields of psychiatry, psychology, and medicine. The text gives a comprehensive sense of the professionalization of sexology as a field – discussing Alfred Kinsey's work, the visibility and political mobilization of feminists and gay/lesbian groups, and later sexological scholarship on the physiological reactions to sex, erotic sensations, and pleasure. An award‐winning book, this is a great text to combine with readings on the social construction of sex, gender, and sexuality in contemporary USA.Kessler, Suzanne, and Wendy McKenna 2000. 'Who Put the "Trans" in Transgender? Gender Theory and Everyday life.'International Journal of Transgenderism, 4 (3): July–September. http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/kessler.htm.This very brief online essay offers a set of reflections on the uses and claims of 'trans' as a prefix that means different things to various populations (including academics and transgender people). The authors link their current reflections to their early work (Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach) in order to politicize the various possible social change results that can come out of radical uses of trans. Their discussion is a refreshing approach that combines sociological and feminist analyses of gender identity in transgender people. Moving through the meanings of trans, and the history of the study of transsexuality and transgender identity nowadays, they evoke a social constructionist perspective to how gender develops, but as well, to how the biological is also a social construction.Mason‐Schrock, Douglas 1996. 'Transsexuals' Narrative Construction of the True Self.'Social Psychology Quarterly, 59 (3): 176–92.This article shows the development of interactive strategies to solidify an identity construction among several identities and experiences expressed in a support group for transsexual, cross‐dresser, transvestites and other gender variant men and women. Through naming, 'modeling', guiding each other through their past histories, and ignoring certain 'facts' about each other's past, the participants in these support groups foregrounded a transsexual narrative, to the detriment of other expressions. The work Mason‐Schrock developed here is an exploration of identity negotiation at its core, and one that merits attention by scholars on gender and sexuality, as well as transgender studies. Centro: Journal of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies. Special Issue: 'Puerto Rican Queer Sexualities', Volume XIX, Number 1 (Spring 2007) (Guest Edited by Luis Aponte‐Parés, Jossianna Arroyo, Elizabeth Crespo‐Kebler, Lawrence La Fountain‐Stokes, and Frances Negrón Muntaner).This special issue of the Centro Journal has an introduction that frames the place of Puerto Rican sexualities in social scientific knowledge. I recommend this issue in particular due to several articles that illustrate the lives of an important Puerto Rican transgender woman (Sylvia Rivera, key figure in the Stonewall riots), as well as José Arria, another key Latino individual whose visibility in the gay/trans communities has often been overlooked. The special issue also reproduced the talk that Sylvia Rivera gave at the Latino Gay Men of New York (the largest Latino gay male group in New York City) in 2000, a few years before her death, as well as an interview with Antonio Pantojas – a long‐time female impersonator in Puerto Rico. For the reader interested in literature, the special issue also includes some discussion and analysis of Caribbean fiction that gave visibility to transgender people.Films and documentaries Screaming Queens: The Riot at Compton's Cafeteria (Victor Silverman, Susan Stryker, writers, directors, producers, 2005). Info at: http://www.screamingqueensmovie.com/.This documentary illustrates a challenge to the notion that a queer revolution started in 1969 in New York City, but instead, was initiated in the Tederloin, a marginalized San Francisco neighborhood. The historical accounts of transwomen that experienced life in the neighborhood where the Compton's cafeteria was located at the time of the riot are presented through interviews and archival documentation. You Don't Know Dick: Courageous Hearts of Transsexual Men (Bestor Cram, Candace Schermerhorn, producers, 1997. Info at: http://www.berkeleymedia.com/catalog/berkeleymedia/films/womens_studies_gender_studies/gay_lesbian_transgender_issues/you_dont_know_dickAlthough old, this documentary shows the stories of several female‐to‐male transsexual men whose lives, their sexual experiences, and their gender negotiations are made evident. A very heartfelt documentary to show students the range of histories of transsexuality in an often ignored group – transgender men.Online materials

Sexuality Research and Social Policy e‐journal. Many articles published in this electronic journal showing the range of trans experiences (see in particular special issues December 2007 and March 2008, co‐edited by Dean Spade and Paisley Currah).
Trans‐academics.org. An excellent website with many resources for scholars.

Suggested syllabiInstead of providing a single (and perhaps, narrower) view of 'trans' studies and issues through a sample syllabus, I urge the reader to go to Trans‐academics.org. There are several syllabi addressing the various perspectives in teaching trans issues (and from various disciplines). The page can be accessed here: http://trans‐academics.org/trans_studies_syllabiProject ideas and suggested exercises1. This exercise explores various issues foundational to discussions of trans experiences by looking at self‐representations, or other representations, as well as potential sociological analyses.Take a look at recent films, documentaries, research articles and books, and first person testimonials from transgender people. Divide the classroom into groups of 4–5, and assign each of them a different cultural text/document to look at. After exploring general reactions in each of the groups, assign each of the groups a collective response to some or all of the following questions:

What are the representations of transsexuality or transgender identity or experience in your assigned text?
What is the relationship between sex and gender as evidenced in the films/videos/documentaries/articles/research reviewed? What, if any, are the discussions of gender and sexuality in the text?
How are first person narratives authorized? What are the underpinnings – the history, the encounters with regulating social institutions, and the community formation as expressed in these texts?
How does your group see sociology and sociological analyses in these texts? (This is important to assess whether the source you are reflecting upon is sociological or not.)

2. This assignment may lead students to think critically about the separation of gender and sexuality as analytical constructs. The document utilized also makes students reflect on migratory experiences and whether (and to what extent) they influence one's own knowledge and perceptions about transgender and transsexual experiences.Look at the Sexilio document (a comic‐book style autobiography) in the AIDS Project Los Angeles website (apla.org). Sexilio (Sexile) is a life history of a male‐to‐female transsexual who was born and raised in Cuba, and migrated with the Marielitos, the massive 1980 migration from Cuba to Miami, Florida. It is but one example of a first person illustration of transgender issues that complicates the relationship between gender identity and sexual orientation, adding migration experiences as yet another layer of analysis. Specific links: http://apla.org/publications/sexile/Sexile_web.pdf (English) http://apla.org/espanol/sexilio/Sexilio_web.pdf (Español)3. This assignment is intended to make students aware of the differences between first person representations, and media representations, of trans experiences.Have students research blogs, newspaper articles, films/documentaries, made‐for‐TV movies, other media coverage, and interviews (when available) of trans people that have been recently on the public eye, such as Calpernia Adams, Gwen Araujo, Tyra Hunter, Fred Martinez, and Brandon Teena. Then, have students explore:

What are trans people saying about themselves? (In the cases in which they have said anything about themselves – there are cases where they became well known after death.)
What are the various media outlets saying about trans people? Trans experience? (And here, pay special attention to the various media outlets and the regional, cultural, and religious differences, as well as other potential differences, in their reporting.)
Are the messages about transsexual and transgender expression/identity clearly separated in these illustrations?
Which (re)presentations link homosexuality to transsexuality? Which separate it? Under what arguments are these fusions and distinctions being made?

4. This is an exercise for smaller classrooms, where there can be significantly more discussion about one's own personal experience.Have students evaluate their own gender presentation and the ways in which others attribute their gender identity. For such a discussion, refer to the reflections on Lucal (1999). Then have the students discuss the different meanings of trans as discussed by Kessler and McKenna (2000), or the gender insignia as discussed by West and Zimmerman (1987).Kessler, Suzanne, and Wendy McKenna 2000. 'Who Put the "Trans" in transgender? Gender Theory and Everyday Life.'International Journal of Transgenderism 4 (3): July–September. http://www.symposion.com/ijt/gilbert/kessler.htm.Lucal, Betsy 1999. 'What It Means to Be Gendered Me: Life on the Boundaries of a Dichotomous Gender System.'Gender & Society 13 (6): 781–97.West, Candace; Don H. Zimmerman 1987. 'Doing Gender.'Gender & Society, 1 (2): 125–51.5. This assignment aims to break away from the transgender versus transsexual discussion, by incorporating cross‐dressing and drag performances.Discuss the meanings of 'trans' beyond the transgender and transsexual as explored in the article. Focus on cross‐dressing and drag queen/king discussions, by taking a comparative approach to cross‐dressing among some of the following scholars:Schacht, Steven P. (ed.) 2004. The Drag Queen Anthology: The Absolutely Fabulous but Customary World of Female Impersonators. New York, NY: Haworth Press.Schacht, Steven P. 2002. 'Four renditions of doing female drag: feminine appearing conceptual variations of a masculine theme.' Pp. 157–80 in Gendered Sexualities (Advances in Gender Research, Volume 6), edited by Patricia Gagne and Richard Tewksbury. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Press.Shapiro, Eve. 2007. 'Research Report: Drag Kinging and the Transformation of Gender Identities.'Gender & Society 21 (2): 250–71.Taylor, Verta, and Leila J. Rupp. 2006. 'Learning from Drag Queens.'Contexts, 5 (3): 12–17.Taylor, Verta, and Leila J. Rupp. 2003. Drag Queens at the 801 Cabaret. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Discuss: What are some of the assumptions about gender that those 'doing drag' engage in? Likewise, what are some of the ways in which the researchers apply those assumptions themselves? Is there a difference between cross‐dressing and drag? Have the students exhaust the potential differences, and name what they perceive to be the similarities between the two.If possible, further the conversation by incorporating drag and cross dressing as part of the transgender umbrella term. What are some of the historical implications of drag and cross‐dressing? Where do they see cross‐dressing in relation to sex, gender, and sexuality? And doing drag? Do they see a distinction between doing drag for female‐bodied and male‐bodied individuals? If yes, how so? If no, why not?6. This assignment is intended for a theory or sociology of gender class where theoretical discussions are expected – ideally, an upper‐level sociology course.Discuss the ways in which ethnomethodology, phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, cultural studies, queer theory, and discourse analysis all frame transgender and transsexual experience. Use any of the sociology references in the 'Transgender and Transsexual Studies' article.

As late back as 1993, Ahmed noted that many Muslims voiced concern of the negative representation of Islam and Muslims by the Western media. However, following on from such incidents as the Rushdie affair, the first Gulf War and 9/11, interest in media representations of Islam have grown. An ever‐increasing body of research has argued that the images, representations and discourses relating to Islam and Muslims in mainstream Western media tend to be negative and hostile (Poole and Richardson 2006). Various studies have examined the specific relationship between media and Islam (Ahmed 1993; Runnymede Trust 1997); the representations of Muslim minorities in the West (Allen 2005; Poole 2002) and others on Muslims and Islam in the global media (Poole and Richardson 2006; Zelizer and Allan 2002). Ideologically, these constructions can be traced back the expansion of Western imperialism where a dichotomy of 'West' versus 'East' was constructed (Said 1978).The following suggested reading list provides a starting point for researchers that are interested in exploring issues of representation and minority groups. This is not an exhaustive list but provides some of the fundamental texts that help us to understand the relationship between one minority group in the West (i.e. Muslims) and their representations in the media.The reading list is constructed in the following way. First, it presents key cultural theory (i.e. Orientalism) and relates this to issues of 'race'. Second, it examines the link between media research on minority groups and representations of Muslims/Islam. Finally, it provides some background knowledge on Muslims/Islam within the West.Suggested textsCultural theorySaid, Edward 1978. Orientalism. London, UK: Penguin (republished, 2003 and 2005).Edward Said's Orientalism (1978) is a theory that has transformed the ways in which power relations between West and East can be understood. This explores the ideas that have become embedded in Western culture through history that justify imperialism/colonialism on the basis that the West is viewed as superior to the East. Within the book, Said offers three major claims. First, he describes Orientalism as an objective, disinterested and esoteric set of ideas, the overall function of which is to serve political ends. These, for example, provided an ideological justification for Orientalist scholars to allow Europeans to take over Oriental lands. Second, Said looks at how these tools are important in helping Europe to define its image and to establish and maintain opposites and others. On this basis, Europe was given its own cultural and intellectual superiority over Islamic cultures, and this led the West to see the Islamic culture as static both in place and time. Third, Said points out that Orientalism has produced a false description of Islamic cultures, including a belief that that it is possible to unconditionally define the essential qualities of a whole Islamic culture and the people within it. The qualities of this culture are usually defined in negative terms.The following link provides a summary by Said on the new edition of Orientalism: http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1010417,00.html (last accessed 24 June 2008)Ferguson, Robert 1998. Representing 'Race': Ideology, Identity, and the Media. London, UK: Arnold.The operations of ideology in the media are also discussed in Representing 'Race'. Ferguson argues that the study of 'race' and the media cannot be seriously undertaken without engaging with theories of ideology and without an awareness of contemporary theoretical work, such as approaches to Orientalism, hegemony and critical discourse analysis. Ferguson also highlights the danger of accepting at face value socially constructed and ideologically charged notions such as 'race'. The book also provides a useful summary and critique of Orientalism and applies various concepts to case studies within the media.For a good analysis of how hegemony, representation and notions of 'race' are intertwined that draws upon Ferguson's work, see the following: Can Gramsci's theory of hegemony help us to understand the representation of ethnic minorities in western television and cinema? By Reena Mistry at http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr‐rol6.htm (last accessed 24 June 2008).Media and 'race'Cottle, Simon 2000. Ethnic Minorities and the Media: Changing Cultural Boundaries. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.This key text brings together international researchers who have investigated some of the latest issues, debates and examples informing the field of ethnic minorities and the media. It provides a useful opening chapter that reviews the developments within this field. It also explores changes in media representations as well as different approaches that examine discourse, production and identity and debates within broader media theory such those about the media' role as the public sphere.Van Dijk, Teun 1991. Racism and the Press. London, UK: Sage.Van Dijk notes that most white people have very little contact with ethnic minorities and that their attitudes towards ethnic groups are therefore influenced on this basis by the media. He states that the media play a central role in the reproduction of racism in Western countries. Using discourse analysis, his book investigates the nature of the existence of racism through an analysis of statements on racial/ethnic relations found within the Dutch and British press. Van Dijk links the idea of 'primary definers' to the notion that the media constitute an 'elite' in society. Whilst accepting that the media represent conflicts over these ideas that include the voices of other social actors, he argues that in terms of race and ethnicity, an ethnic consensus is prevalent here. Van Dijk notes that the media constitute a cultural elite, and as the experts in matters of 'formulation' (and re‐formulation), the media produce the dominant discourse environment of a racist society.A collection Van Dijk's work on racism, discourse analysis and media can be found on the following web site: http://www.discourses.org Representations of Islam/muslims in the mediaPoole, Elizabeth 2002. Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London, UK: I.B. Tauris.Poole examines the claim that Muslims are negatively represented in the British press. She argues that media images of Muslims are informed by official definitions of Islam that serve elite interests and that these change over time to suit political purposes. Orientalist discourses, it is argued here for example, maintain the view of Islam as a coherent, trans‐national monolithic force that has been engaged in a confrontational relationship with the West throughout history. The book makes clear and concise connections between theory and representation and provides excellent examples to illustrate this.Poole, Elizabeth and John Richardson (Eds) 2006. Muslims and the News Media. London, UK: I.B. Tauris.This book examines the role and representations of Muslims in the news media in context of the current discussions of the 'War on Terror'. It includes chapters by both academic authorities and media practitioners and demonstrates how theory can be exemplified in practice. Furthermore, it is set in both a British and international context and recognizes similarities and differences present within coverage from around the globe. From a media perspective, the book clearly explores the connections between national/global context, content, production and different audiences (Muslim and non‐Muslim) and looks also at how Muslim media is organized and structured.Muslim minorities in the WestModood, Tariq 2006. Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity and Muslims in Britain. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.In Multicultural Politics, Tariq Modood explores how much of the 'blame' for the failure of multiculturalism has been attached to Islamic culture's incompatibility with the 'democratic' principles of the West. Arguing that the old 'racial' division of black–white has been complicated by factors such as cultural racism and the rise of Islamophobia, the book moves to chart these developments within the British context whilst also paying attention to global political developments. The book has an impressive range of topics covered such as 'race', racism, Islamophobia, the multicultural debate and even summarizes broader relevant cultural theory.Films, videos and on‐line sourcesVisual sources are an excellent teaching method that can be employed to explain theories of 'race' and media representation. Rather than concentrate on 'actual' films, videos online material that may considered Islamophobic the following provides academic and more critical sources that may be useful for teaching issues of Islam, Muslims, minority representation and even 'race'.Edward Said: On Orientalism (1998)In this documentary, Said talks about the context within which his book was conceived, its main themes and how its original thesis and ideas still relate to a contemporary understanding of 'the Orient' that is represented in the mass media and wider public politics.A brief version of the documentary can be found here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xwCOSkXR_Cw http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BjlRR‐qRkcc (last accessed 26 June 2008)Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (2008)Race, the Floating Signifier: Featuring Stuart Hall (2006)Stuart Hall discusses the concept of 'race' and how race is represented and naturalized in the media. This interview gives relevant examples to help to understand the concept of mediated representations. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7cxBOdBoxpg&feature=related (last accessed June 26 2008)A documentary supported by the Media Education Forum based on academic research on how Muslims/Islam/Arabs are represented (and treated as a homogenous group) by Hollywood. It builds upon media representations of various minority groups and then looks specifically at similarities and differences in Arab portrayalsThe trailer and a brief version of the documentary can be found at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ko_N4BcaIPY http://www.democracynow.org/2007/10/19/reel_bad_arabs_how_hollywood_vilifies (both last accessed 26 June 2008)Online sourcesRace, racism and ethnic minority affairs http://www.cre.gov.uk/ The home page for the Commission for Racial Equality provides up to date information on news and current affairs. It also provides links to a variety of other relevant sources form the media to black history groups. http://www.irr.org.uk The Institute of Race Relations (IRR) was established as an independent educational charity in 1958 to carry out research, publish and collect resources on race relations throughout the world. This website contains links to academic research, policy research and also media stories that are relevant to anyone interested in the area of 'race' and ethnicity. It also published the highly respected journal 'Race and Class'. http://www.islamophobia‐watch.com/islamophobia‐watch/ The above link also provides useful information on examples of racist and Islamaphobic sources that maybe useful for teaching or illuminating theories. I have purposefully not included the original links to many of these because they are, in my opinion, racist. http://www.guardian.co.uk/race The Guardian has a link to a database of back issues of relevant race articles. These include information on media representations and provide links to a variety of other sources as well as events/topics such as 9/11 and Asylum Issues. http://www.johnpilger.com/ This site contains articles on a variety of opinions from the respected author John Pilger. Much of this is relevant to issues of 'race' and ethnicity. http://www.insted.co.uk/islam.html The above links to a full text of the commission's 2004 report, plus also some extracts from it, including Islamophobia and Race Relations and Debate and Disagreement. http://www.fairuk.org/ Useful range of recent newspaper articles and several valuable fact sheets.Sample SyllabusModule justificationIt is clear that as issues of race, ethnicity and religion are as crucial to the 21st century as at any time in human history. We need to build clear understanding of these topics as well as an awareness of how they have evolved into present debates. Many of these debates and issues have invoked the use of racial, ethnic or national terminology but the discussion is not always fashioned around theories of 'old' racism but around concepts of 'new' racism.Whilst traditional notions of racism may have been challenged, these have been replaced in the West by fears of minority cultures, especially fear of Muslims. Following the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, the subsequent War on Terrorism has in some quarters been debated in terms of a clash of civilisations invoking representations of the 'Others' and based on historical conceptions of the 'Orient'.Furthermore, the European community as a whole is now debating issues of asylum seekers and refugees in what could be argued to be ethnic and racial terms. Thus, there is a need for a module that examines issues of race and ethnicity by linking media representations with theoretical and historical considerations.Section 1 Theories of 'race', racism and the 'other'This reading looks at how the concept of 'race' has been ideologically constructed. This will be done by examining race theory and applying this to historical and contemporary examples.Donald, James 1992. Cultural Identity. London, UK: Sage/Open University.Dyer, Richard 1997. White. London, UK: Routledge.Fryer, Peter 1984. Staying Power: History of Black People in Britain. London, UK: Pluto Press.Gilroy, Paul 1993. Small Acts: thoughts on the politics of black cultures. London, UK: Serpent's Tail.Gilroy, Paul 1987. There Ain't No Black In The Union Jack. London, UK: Hutchinson.Hiro, Dilip 1991. Black British, White British, 2nd edn. London, UK: Grafton Books.Mason, David 1995 Race and Ethnicty in Modern Britain. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Modood, Tariq 1997 Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage. London, UK: PSI.Solomos, John 1993. Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain. Basingstoke, UK: MacMillan.Solomos John and Les Back 1996. Racism and Society. Basingstoke, UK: MacMillan. Possible Seminar discussion Is racism about class or colour? Would you consider yourself racist? Section 2 'Race' history and imperialismThis reading examines how representations of race and culture are mediated through ideological power and explain this through historical and contemporary examples.Bhabba, Hommi 1990. Nation and Narration. London, UK: Routledge.Fanon, Frantz 1986. Black Skin: White Masks. London, UK: Pluto.Gandhi, Leela 1998. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.Said, Edward 1978. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London, UK: Penguin Books.Said, Edward 1997. Covering Islam. London, UK: Vintage.Section 3 Islam, Islamophobia and cultural racismThese readings look at how constructions of religion in popular media are increasingly racialised and consider at the case study of Western media representations of Islam and Muslim communities.Ahmed, Akbar 1992. Postmodernism and Islam. London, UK: Routledge.Anthias, Floya and Yuval‐Davis, Nira 1992. Racialized Boundaries. London, UK: Routledge.Ballard, Roger (Ed.) 1994. Desh Pradesh, The South Asian Presence in Britain. London, UK: Hurst and Co.Conway, Gerald 1997. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. London, UK: Runnymede Trust.Modood, Tariq 2006. Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity and Muslims in Britain. London, UK: I.B. Tauris.Said, Edward 1978. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London, UK: Penguin Books.Said, Edward 1997. Covering Islam. London, UK: Vintage.Note
* Correspondence address: Department of Media and Cultural Studies, University of Sunderland, St Peters Campus, SR6 ODD. Email: amir.saeed@sunderland.ac.uk

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AbstractThe purpose of this research was to adapt Antonak and Harth's (1994) Mental Retardation Attitudes Inventory for the Kuwaiti culture and to investigate its four‐dimensional structure. The study also aimed at identifying a unidimensional subset of items besides examining the quality of the identified items and the overall inventory. The 34 ‐item adapted inventor y was administered to 56 4 college students. Item analysis indicated that 29 items have had good psychometric characteristics. However, the exploratory factor analysis, cross‐correlations of scale and item scores, and correlations among scales did not support the four‐dimensional structure of the adapted inventory. Further, the sample was split into two random halves. A uni‐dimensional subset of 20 items was identified in one sample by iterative factor analyzing the item data and discarding items with small loadings. The other sample was used to cross‐validate uni‐dimensionality of the identified items. Analysis indicated that scores of the 20‐item inventory have high Cronbach coefficient alpha, and high stability and generalizability coefficients. Partial support for the validity of the scores had been ascertained by comparing the scores of male and female students, and by regressing the inventor y scores on indicators of familiarity with individuals with mental retardation. Findings were discussed with reference to Kuwaiti culture.Over the last two decades, inclusion has internationally become a critical part of the reform efforts to improve the delivery of services to individuals with Mental Retardation (MR). This trend focuses on increasing the opportunities for the placement of these individuals in the same social and educational set tings as individuals without MR. The new arrangements for providing services have created challenges to people without disabilities concerning acceptance, integration, and inclusion of individuals with MR into the mainstream of society (Praisner, 2003). Many researchers (e.g. Priestly, 1998; Yazbeck McVilly & Parmenter, 2004) have convincingly argued that these challenges have their roots in the societal norms and values that concurrently developed throughout the unfolding history of the meaning of MR. As Priestly (1998) noted, although people with differences have existed in all societies, the degree to which they were integrated or excluded varied according to predominant cultural perceptions. Yazbeck, McVilly and Parmenter (2004) suggested that people's attitudes toward individuals with MR are socially constructed and are acquired through experience over time.Individuals with MR are often judged by people based on their disability instead of their whole lives and what they may accomplish and experience during their life (Blatt, 1987). Consequently, People may rely on false generalization and develop negative attitudes towards individuals with MR. Makas, Finnerty‐Fried, Sugafoos, and Reiss (1988) noted that for nondisabled persons, positive attitude toward people with disability is usually conceptualized as being 'nice' and 'helpful', whereas for a person with a disability, the attitude would be dispensing with the category of disability entirely. A study of community attitudes in one state of Australia found that up to 86% of respondents reported feeling 'uncomfortable' when interacting with individuals with disabilities (Enhance Management, 1999). Another study (European Commission, 2001) found that 40% of Europeans reported feeling 'uneasy' in the presence of people with disabilities.Attitudes manifest themselves as positive or negative reactions toward an object, driven by beliefs that impel individuals to behave in a particular way (Yuker, 1988). They comprise a complex of feelings, desires, fears, convictions, prejudices, or other tendencies learned through varied experiences that give rise to a set or readiness to act toward a person in a certain way (Chaiken & Stangor,1987). This means that attitude is not behavior, but the precondition of behavior. In addition, Myers, Ager, Kerr, and Myles (1998) identified three types of attitudes that influence how non‐disabled people interact with, and include or exclude people with disabilities: (1) A preparedness to engage with people as consumers, neighbors, or friends; (2) a lack of awareness about individuals with MR; and (3) a wariness or hostility regarding the idea of community integration.Research has shown that the third type of attitudes, which represents negative and non‐acceptance of individuals with MR is commonly observed (Gething, 1994; Schwartz & Armony‐Sivan, 2001). Such negative attitudes in a society may present people with MR as a burden on the welfare system. Moreover, people might not see individuals with disabilities as possessing a valuable social role or possessing the same abilities and characteristics that the majority of people possess. Tus, individuals with MR may not be accepted or included in society and may often be treated badly. In turn, Wolfensberger (1988) indicated that individuals with MR, being in a devalued position, would behave badly as they think that this is what is expected of them.As integration of persons with MR is increasingly becoming a global reality, Kuwait has designed social policy aimed at promoting acceptance and inclusion of people with disabilities into the mainstream of society. To implement the policy of integration, the Kuwaiti government is continually forming inclusive services for individuals with MR. The recent policy of inclusion (law 13/96), which has been adopted in 1996, asserts that people with disabilities have a fundamental right to live and grow within their local communities. This law has spawned an expanded system of services to encourage people with disabilities to live like people without disabilities. Inclusion policies give individuals with MR the right to be involved in the same situations as people without MR. For example, more individuals with MR, for example, are being employed. Moreover, most children with Downs syndrome now attend Kindergarten and are included in social programs for children in the general population. The general goal of all types of services provided for individuals with MR is to improve their participation in society.Although the Kuwaiti government has shown a growing interest in the integration of individuals with MR, the chances of these individuals being able to integrate into mainstream society would depend on the attitude of others, such as students, teachers, coworkers, social workers, professionals, towards them. These attitudes, as found in many Western studies (Antonak & Harth, 1994; Gordon, Tantillo, Feldman & Perrone, 2004) are, for the most part, negative, which may contribute to negative outcomes on the part of individuals with MR (Byon, 2000). According to Wright (1983), disability situations are vulnerable to fundamental negative attitudes, and this would seem to be even truer in the culture found in Kuwait.In Kuwaiti culture, disability has stigmatizing effect on members of the immediate and extended family; families tend to keep members with MR out of the sight of other people. This contributes to social exclusion of people with MR. There is also the traditional common belief that disability is related to (1) God's willing that the parent should have a child with a disability, (2) God is punishing the parent, (3) God is testing the parent, or (4) God is selecting the parent for an unknown reason. Commonly, persons with MR have been considered burdensome and shameful, because they are incapable of contributing to traditional social obligations and roles.While those traditional beliefs still exist, the law 13/96 was legislated to support the integration of persons with MR into various aspects of life. Consequently, we expect that people in the society would react to this trend with frustration, anger, or refusal. Usually, people in Kuwait have little or no information about individuals with MR; thereby uninformed determinations, such as stereotypes, reflect their attitudes toward these individuals. According to Blatt (1987), a stereotype will fill in the cracks and unanswered questions in a situation with which people are not familiar. Langer (1989) in her theory of 'mindfulness' also shows that stereotype is 'premature cognitive commitments' that leads people to make judgments without enough information and reflection.Moreover, the society labels given to individuals with MR are often accompanied with stigma and negative connotations. This situation makes it difficult for those individuals to be included into society and be accepted for what they actually are and not for what others assume them to be. According to Biklen and Bogdan (1977), this type of discrimination is called 'handicapism' and is defined as'…a set of assumptions and practices that promote differential and unequal treatment of people because of apparent or assumed physical, mental, or behavioral differences' (p.206). These perceptions may prevent individuals with MR from being accepted, and they might be viewed, based on Erikson's theory, as a pseudo species, or as less than human (Smith, 1981).Furthermore, professionals', leaders', and students' views and beliefs about the integration of individuals with MR into society may result in slowing the process of inclusion and discouraging people from accepting these individuals as what they are. For example, though senior staff in Kuwait's Ministry of Social Affairs succeeded in including children with Downs syndrome into public kindergarten, no other effort has been made since 1996 to integrate other children with disabilities into inclusive educational settings. More critical is that, while leaders make efforts toward inclusion, they continue to support the permanent residence of individuals with MR in social welfare institutions and urge the government to provide free health, social and educational services for the residents. Ahmad (2004) found that between 1992 and 2002, there was an increase in the number of children, and males and females adults with MR who live in the Social Welfare Institution for permanent care. The number of residents with MR has increased from 223 to 296.According to Philips (1992), leaders' and professionals' beliefs about individuals with MR could have commenced with the industrial revolution that brought with it the practice of classifying people who were different, and who were not able to pursue personal dreams or act as the industrial society required. Leaders and professionals may perceive individuals with MR, as Blatt (1987) stated, blessed innocents or surplus population that is unnecessary and expendable. These beliefs may never give the individuals with MR an adequate opportunity to present themselves and their abilities to others.Praisner (2003) suggested that leaders' attitudes are the key factor in successful inclusion. Due to leadership position, leaders' and professionals' attitudes about inclusion either could result in increased opportunities for individuals with MR to be served in different settings or increased efforts to support the segregated special education services. According to Goodlad and Lovitt (1993), leaders and professionals have the decision to develop an inclusive setting, if they (1) make and honor commitments, (2) do what they say in formal and informal settings, (3) express interest in inclusion, (4) act and make their actions known, and (5) organize their staff and their physical surroundings to implement inclusive programs. As Praisner (2003) stated, the success of inclusion depends on how leaders exhibit behaviors that advance the integration, acceptance, and success of individuals with disabilities in general settings.Researchers (e.g., Horne, 1985) have also shown that students' positive attitudes may increase their willingness to work with individuals with MR, and lead to removal of barriers to integrate them into society. The positive attitudes of students may help to encourage the establishment of policies and the allocation of resources to increase the integration of individuals with MR into different settings in the society (Yazbeck, et al., 2004).To enhance the policy of inclusion in Kuwait, society needs to evaluate some of its structures and change people's attitudes to fit the needs of individuals with MR instead of making these individuals fit society's structures. Helping individuals with MR to be included into society and establish socially valued roles would not be difficult if the attitudes of society are less restrictive and less resistant to change.As Kuwait continues to develop social and educational policy about inclusion, researchers must pay attention to the connection between integration and attitudes. The provision of educational and social opportunities for individuals with MR can be legislated by Kuwait's government, but acceptance from other people cannot be ensured without knowing people's beliefs and thoughts about persons with MR.Developing an understanding of the attitudes that is predominant in society, which in turn influences the actions of its members, is critical if we plan for social changes and for evaluating the effectiveness of public policy on promoting an inclusive society (Schwartz & Armony‐Sivan, 2001). Given that there are negative attitudes toward people with MR, particular care must be taken to monitor changing social attitudes toward these individuals to identify any serious impediment to the progress of their inclusion in different settings: schools, workplace, and the wider community.Research that is relevant to individuals with disabilities (e.g. Geskie & Salasek, 1988; Antonak & Harth, 1994) has revealed the need for researchers to investigate the attitudes of people toward MR. Wolfensberger (1983) suggested that the key to changing how people are valued socially is to change the perceptions people have about individuals who may differ from the norm. Research, however, has indicated that the investigation of attitudes toward individuals with MR requires a psychometrically sound instrument. It is crucial to conduct research to gather accurate information about these attitudes; it would clarify people's awareness of persons with MR, and assist in evaluating intervention programs and developing appropriate course work for special education fields. Further, it would inform public policy decisions, funding priorities, and service delivery, which in turn, enhance the likelihood of achieving successful integration and improving qua lit y of life for persons with MR (Antonak & Harth, 19 94; Schalock, 1990). Accurate measurement of attitudes could also lead to early detection of negative attitudes, such as personal prejudices, misconceptions, and irrational fears of professionals, social workers, and teachers when they first get involved in disability work settings. Furthermore, it would help in providing a baseline for monitoring changes in their attitudes over time (Byon, 2000).Changing attitudes would help in supporting efforts of individuals with MR to become autonomous (Philips, 1992), and help to decrease the resistance of others to allow people with MR to make decisions about their own lives and to be independent (Schalock, 1990). As the history of the deinstitutionalization movement has shown, becoming autonomous and independent are not as simple as releasing people from state facilities and hoping they survive on their own. Autonomy and independence are based upon choice‐making, and choice‐making must be taught to people with MR, as they have never been allowed to make their own choices and do not know how to rationally choose for themselves.However, as Crutcher (1990) noted, personal choice is based on opportunity, and opportunity is accessible only when society decides it should be. Therefore, in order for individuals with MR to have the opportunity to make their own decisions and be successfully included in society, special effort must be taken to change peoples' attitudes towards them.Moreover, a psychometrically sound instrument of attitudes helps researchers to assess with known precision respondents' feelings about individuals with MR (affective aspect of attitudes), and their conceptions about them (cognitive aspect of attitudes). On the affective side, there are feelings of approval or disapproval of individuals with MR in the society. On the cognitive side, there are beliefs, knowledge, and expectations that affect people's behavior towards individuals with MR. The affective and cognitive aspects affect the respondents' opinions of what services should be provided for individuals with MR and what policy should be adopted. These also assist in the design, implementation, and evaluation of social intervention program and strategies geared toward removing barriers to integration (Geskie & Salasek, 1988).The present study focused on adapting, for use in Kuwait, the Mental Retardation Attitude Inventory‐Revised (MR AI‐R) of Antonak and Harth (1994). The MRAI‐R was chosen because of the limitations of the MR attitudes' instruments in the Gulf States, and in particular the lack of such an instrument in Kuwait. After reviewing literature, it seemed that there was only one measure of attitudes; an inventory developed by Qaryauti (1988). Despite the claimed appropriateness of Qaryauti's scale, we decided to use the MRAI‐R of Antonak and Harth for several reasons. First, Qaryauti's scale was based on Western instruments that Antonak and Harth criticized and motivated them to construct the MRAI‐R. In contrast, Antonak and Harth constructed the MRAI‐R based on a review of more than 50 years of the attitude literature, and developed their inventory on the most available valid instrument.Second, by reviewing the items of the MRAI‐R and Qaryauti's scale, it was clear to us that the MRAI‐R is more consistent with the requirements of the law 13/96 that was mandated in Kuwait to assure the right of individuals with MR to be included into public schools, workplace, and the wider community (see Table 1). Third, the MRAI‐R, unlike Qaryauti's scale, incorporates several components of attitudes: (1) the integration‐segregation of individuals with MR in various school programs, workplace, and community; (2) the willingness of people to be associated with individuals with MR (Social Distance); (3) the rights of individuals with MR to be included in schools, communities, and the workplace (Private Rights); and (4) the derogatory beliefs of people about the moral character and social behavior of individuals with MR. Of the 22 items in Qaryauti's scale, 13 were related to derogatory beliefs, six to social distance, and only three to private rights and integration‐segregation.Fourth, many transcultural researchers have used the MRAI‐R in populations as diverse as the United States, Australia, and Korea. In the US, Ward (1998) used the MRAI‐R to explore relationships between empathy and attitudes among 200 parents and adult consumers with developmental disabilities. Also, Yozwiak (2002) utilized the MRAI‐R to examine the beliefs and attitudes of 210 community members toward a child with MR who was a witness to a sexual abuse case. In an Australian study, Yazbeck and others (2004) used MRAI‐R to examine differences in attitudes between students and professionals in disability services, and persons in the general community (N=492). In Korea, Byon's study (2000) used the MRAI‐R to investigate the effect of social desirability on attitudes toward MR, and to compare the relationships between attitude measures (both direct and indirect measures) and behavioral outcome indicators. Obviously, findings from a large number of studies using the MRAI‐R contribute to its validity. In contrast, we failed to find any study in which Qaryauti's scale was used.Based on the above arguments, it seems that the MRAI‐R would be useful in needs assessments, especially in schools and mental health clinics. For example, when the ministry of education decides to implement the inclusion policy in schools, there would be a need to assess attitudes of teachers and students towards students with MR. The results of such assessment would help in designing programs that improve attitudes as needed. The MRAI‐R can also be useful for social workers, professionals, and researchers who work in a variety of primary social welfare settings. It helps them to identify and target those people who are the most in need of training and preparation to change their attitudes toward MR. In a wider scale, non‐profit organizations can use results of assessing attitudes in advocating the rights of those individuals.In general, the primary usage of the MRAI‐R could be: (1) screening for early identification of negative attitudes; (2) assessing attitudes of specific groups toward persons with MR; (3) pre‐ or post‐ measurement in intervention studies; and (4) helping researchers who aim at studying the effects of attitudes on different variables in the life of people with MR (i.e. job satisfaction, life satisfaction, family relationship, social support), or the relationship between attitudes and demographic variables (i.e. gender, age, marital status, employment, educational status, familiarity with individuals with MR).Following the recommendation of Antonak and Livneh (1988) that researchers should use the existing instruments and stop creating new ones, the purpose of the present study is to develop an Arabic inventory of attitudes toward individuals with MR by adapting the MRAI‐R to be suitable for use in Kuwait. Specifically, the study aimed at: (1) revising the MRAI‐R items to make them suitable to Kuwait's culture; (2) investigating the suitability of the four‐factor‐structure of the MRAI‐R for measuring attitudes toward individuals with MR in Kuwait; (3) selecting a uni‐dimensional subset of items, if the four‐factor‐structure was not confirmed; and (4) examining the psychometric characteristics of the adapted inventory.We decided to carry out this study on college students for various reasons: (1) college students are prospective educators or professionals who will be either dealing with people with MR or making decisions that affect their lives; (2) college students in Kuwait play an active role in social change and in changing public opinions;(3) they are representative cross‐section of Kuwaiti society; (4) a sample of college students is more easily acquired than a sample from the general population.

<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves /> <w:TrackFormatting /> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning /> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas /> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF /> <w:LidThemeOther>PT-BR</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables /> <w:SnapToGridInCell /> <w:WrapTextWithPunct /> <w:UseAsianBreakRules /> <w:DontGrowAutofit /> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark /> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp /> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables /> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx /> <w:Word11KerningPairs /> <w:CachedColBalance /> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math" /> <m:brkBin m:val="before" /> <m:brkBinSub m:val=" " /> <m:smallFrac m:val="off" /> <m:dispDef /> <m:lMargin m:val="0" /> <m:rMargin m:val="0" /> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup" /> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440" /> <m:intLim m:val="subSup" /> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr" /> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%;">RESUMO:</span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Este estudo examina materiais instrucionais de uma entidade do Terceiro Setor – Instituto Ayrton Senna (IAS) –, adotados por inúmeras esferas de governo no Brasil a partir de 1995. Tem por objetivo analisar conceitos de participação e trabalho voluntário na gestão da educação difundidos nesses materiais e sua relação com a reestruturação produtiva. O texto é parte de estudos do doutorado em Educação; com abordagem qualitativa, incluiu análise de documentos. Sobre o aspecto analisado, conclui-se que as mudanças no mundo do trabalho afetaram diretamente os referidos conceitos, ressignificando-os. A difusão dessas ideias influencia a política educacional e contribui para a substituição do papel do Estado na educação.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Palavras-chave</span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%;">: participação; trabalho voluntário; gestão da educação.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; tab-stops: 54.8pt;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> </span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">ABSTRACT:</span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">This study examines instructional materials of a Third Sector entity (Ayrton Senna Institute – IAS) which have been adopted by a number of spheres of government in Brazil since 1995. It aims at analyzing concepts of participation and volunteer work in education management as publicized in those materials and their relation with the restructuration of production. This text is part of doctorate studies in Education; with a qualitative approach, it includes a documental analysis. Regarding the aspect analyzed, it has been concluded that changes in the work world have directly affected the concepts mentioned by re-signifying them. The publicization of such ideas has influenced educational policies and contributed to the replacement of the State role in education.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Keywords: </span></strong><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">participation, volunteer work, education management.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">RESUMEN:</span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: ES-TRAD;" lang="ES-TRAD">Este estudio examina materiales instrucionales de una unidad del Tercer Sector – Instituto Ayrton Senna (IAS) -, adoptado por innúmeras esferas del gobierno en Brasil a partir de 1995. Tiene por objetivo analizar conceptos de participación y trabajo voluntario en gestión de la educación difundidos en estos materiales y su relación con la reestructuración productiva. El texto es parte de estudios del doctorado en Educación; con abordaje cualitativa, incluye análisis de documentos. Sobre el aspecto averiguado, concluyese que las mudanzas en el mundo del trabajo afectaron directamente los referidos conceptos, resinificándolos. La difusión de esas ideas influyen la política educacional y contribuye para la sustitución del papel del Estado en la educación.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: ES-TRAD;" lang="ES-TRAD">Palabras clave: participación; trabajo voluntario; gestión de educación</span><span style="mso-ansi-language: ES-TRAD;" lang="ES-TRAD">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: red; mso-ansi-language: ES-TRAD;" lang="ES-TRAD"> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-ansi-language: ES-TRAD;" lang="ES-TRAD"> </span></p> <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true" DefSemiHidden="true" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99" LatentStyleCount="267"> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" SemiHidden="false" UnhideWhenUsed="false" 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Author's introductionAlthough criminologists have long dominated the field of school violence research, there has been a growing body of research by cultural sociologists in this area as well. In many ways, a cultural approach to understanding school violence has taken school violence beyond the realm of just criminal and physical acts of violence. These scholars have begun to examine verbal, emotional, sexual, and racial expressions violence, as well as violence that is perpetuated by institutions, what Bourdieu has called symbolic violence. Courses that take this perspective explore how cultural concepts, or what Swidler calls a 'cultural toolkit', can be used as a lens for analyzing the experiences and practices of school violence. This can include, for example, an examination of how the dominant American ideology of meritocracy and competition can foster fights between middle school students, or how a feminine identity might push girls to be relationally aggressive towards each other rather than physically aggressive. In this regard, cultural sociology broadens our understanding of what constitutes school violence to uncover a wide spectrum of behaviors, attitudes and beliefs that may indeed lead to more overt expressions of violence. In doing so, a cultural approach can also help educators rethink discipline policies that have been created to resolve this social problem.Author recommendsSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review51: 273–86.Swidler's concept of a cultural toolkit provides a strong foundation for any cultural sociology course. Swidler defines a cultural toolkit as the symbols, stories, rituals, beliefs, ideologies and practices of daily life through which people use to shape their behavior. This paper presents a broad understanding of culture, which Swidler argues is not a unified system, but rather a set of complex and changing concepts from which we select different pieces from in order to construct different strategies of actions. When considering cultural approaches to school violence, it is useful to consider this broad definition of culture.Henry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.'Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science567: 16–30.Henry provides a definition of school violence that transcends physical violence and interpersonal violence between students to include psychological, emotional, ethical and moral violence that occurs not only between students, but also includes harm committed by teachers and organizations against students. This latter form of harm can include tracking, school security, sexual harassment, or essentially anything that hinders the creativity, learning and academic success of a student. Henry argues that school violence must include symbolic violence, which he defines as the use of authority, power, and coercion to dominate an individual or group of people.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Ferguson builds on Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence and Foucault's theory of disciplinary power to examine an intervention program for 'at‐risk' students, which was comprised of mainly 5th and 6th grade African‐American males. Her ethnography provides a great example of the benefit of using a cultural approach to studying violence, discipline and punishment in schools. For example, Ferguson argues that fighting among boys should be seen as a symbolic expression of masculinity and a space for boys to do emotional work, as well as a site for the production of power and a form of resistance to authority. Her work also explores how teachers and administrators can enact a form of symbolic violence onto students. She observed how the cultural behaviors of African‐American boys, for example, their use of Black English, was often translated by the teachers as 'problem behavior' and resulted in their label of 'Troublemaker'. Such labels often condemned the boys to the bottom rung of the social order and negatively impacted their academic success.Spina, Stephanie Urso, ed. 2000. Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.This edited collection examines school violence as a complicated and multi‐faceted phenomenon, exploring how political, economic, ideological and discursive practices contribute to school violence. This interdisciplinary book includes chapters from Donna Gaines, Henry Giroux, Peter McLaren, Stanley Aronowitz, and Paulo Freire and Donald Macedo. The authors expand the definition of violence by arguing that youth violence, adult violence and societal violence are all intricately connected, and therefore prevention of school violence would requires educators to move beyond reform that only takes place in the school system. Instead, violence prevention needs to implore a broader strategy for change that includes schools, families, communities, and beyond.Brown, Lyn Mikel 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. New York, NY: New York University Press.Mikel Brown conducted qualitative interviews with more than 400 girls from first grade through high school who were from different economic, racial and geographic backgrounds. She begins the book by analyzing the cultural messages that girls receive in the media; messages and images that she argues provide girls with a context for fighting among their peers. She draws on Paulo Freire's notion of horizontal violence to look at how girls' meanness to other girls is a result of their struggle to make sense of gender‐saturated images of beauty and heterosexuality that often reinforce their subordinate status in the world. Girlfighting then becomes an avenue to power for young girls in a culture that is rife with sexism. Unlike many other recent books on relational aggression among girls, Mikel Brown interrogates the complicated intersections of race, ethnicity, and class as it relates to girlfighting.Casella, Ronnie 2001. 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Casella's ethnography of Brandon High School, a small city school in a diverse neighborhood in upstate New York, takes a cultural‐ecological approach to school violence, capturing systemic, interpersonal and hidden forms of violence. He provides a thoughtful critique of intervention strategies that have been created to deal with school violence, such as peer mediation programs, the use of police officers in the hallways, and D.A.R.E. programs, because these programs only address individual acts of violence and do not account for the realities of urban environments, prejudice, economic injustice and poverty that underlie and contribute to school violence.Merten, Don E. 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly25(1): 29–43.Don Merten has published several articles that provide a useful framework for examining aggressive behavior from a cultural standpoint. The data from this article come from a larger ethnographic project of predominantly middle class students in a suburban area who recently transitioned from elementary to junior high school. Merten argues that middle class culture promotes and celebrates individualism, success and hierarchy, which in turn creates a culture that promotes aggressive behavior among students, because students learn that meanness can be an easy avenue for gaining power and status in the hierarchy of cliques in schools.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives48(1): 25–48.Morris draws on Bourdieu's classic reproduction theory to look at the relationship between cultural capital and bodily discipline as it relates specifically to clothing styles and manners. This article is based on an ethnographic study of an urban middle school in Texas that recently enlisted a 'Standard Mode of Dress' uniform policy. The regulation of dress became a constant source of conflict between the students and staff at the school, but had the most punitive effect on poor and racially ethnic minority students, whose cultural styles tended to be negatively stereotyped by the teachers. These students were more likely to punished for violating the policy, even though all social class and racial groups, to some degree, violated the policy. This harsher punishment engendered resistance and alienation among the minority students, which Morris argues had the potential of pushing these students away from school, further reproducing the very inequalities that the school was trying to change.Online materials http://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/crimeindicators2008/ The National Center for Education Statistics puts out an annual report on indicators of School Crime and Safety. The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, and principals. The report covers not just overt forms of school violence, such as bringing a weapon to school, fighting, and teacher injuries, but also covers bullying, victimization, student perceptions of school safety, and availability and use of drugs and alcohol. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm The Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System is a school‐based survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The survey is conducted every 2 years and provides a representative sample of 9th through 12th graders in public and private schools in the United States. The YRBSS asks a wide variety of questions, but most relevant to school violence include self‐reported responses about behaviors that might lead to unintentional injuries and violence, such as carrying a weapon to school, being threatened by a weapon or being in a fight on school grounds. These data serve a useful comparison between student self‐reporting of violent behavior and school reporting of incidents of school violence. http://www.sshs.samhsa.gov/default.aspx The Safe Schools/Healthy Students website is a federal initiative by the U.S. Departments of Education, Justice, and Health and Human Services. It provides many useful resources, including links federal reports on school safety, a list of related websites, and video podcast discussions of school violence that can be used in the classroom. http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/uslgbt/toc.htm 'Hatred in the Hallways: Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Students in U.S. Schools' is a report conducted by the Human Rights Watch. Data consists of interviews with 140 students, ages 12–21, and 130 parents, teachers, administrators and counselors across seven states, in every region of the U.S. The findings discuss a broad spectrum of violent behavior, including verbal harassment, homophobia, and physical violence. It can be useful for classroom discussion because each finding section of the report includes a 'case study' of one of the participants with direct quotes from their interview. http://www.aauw.org/research/hostile.cfm 'Hostile Hallways: Bullying, Teasing and Sexual Harassment in School' is a national report conducted by American Association of University Women on 8th to 11th grade students. The study found that 8 in 10 students experienced some form of harassment during their time in school. Both the executive summary and entire report are available to download on the website.Sample syllabusCourse outline and selected reading assignmentsSection 1: Introduction to cultural sociologyDefining CultureSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review 51: 273–86.Jepperson, Ronald and Ann Swidler 1994. 'What Properties of Culture Should We Measure?'Poetics 22: 359–71.Cultural Capital and Symbolic ViolenceBourdieu, Pierre and Jean‐Claude Passeron 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage.Lareau, Annette, and Elliott B. Weininger 2003. 'Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.'Theory and Society 32: 567–606.Reproduction TheoryMacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 2, 'Social Reproduction in Theoretical Perspective.' Pp. 11–24 and Chapter 8, 'Reproduction Theory Reconsidered,' pp. 135–54.Cultural PedagogyGiroux, Henry 2000. 'Representations of Violence, Popular Culture and Demonization of Youth.' Pp. 93–105 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. Edited by Stephanie Urso Spina. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 2: Broadening the definition of school violenceHenry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.' Annals of the American Academy of Political and social Science 567: 16–30.Watkinson, Ailsa 1997. 'Administrative Complicity and Systemic Violence in Education.' Pp. 3–24 in Systemic Violence in Education: Promise Broken. Edited by Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press.Urso Spina, Stephanie 2000. 'Violence in Schools: Expanding the Dialogue.' Pp. 1–40 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and LittlefieldCasella, Ronnie 2001. 'What is Violent about School Violence? The Nature of Violence in a City School.' Pp. 15–46 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Edited by Joan Burstyn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Elliott, Delbert S., Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams 1998. 'Violence in American Schools: An Overview.' Pp. 3–30 in Violence in American Schools. Edited by Delbert S. Elliott, Beatrix A. Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part I, Chapters 1–3, pp. 3–76.Section 3: Ideology and aggressionMerten, Don 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly, v. 25 (1): 29–43.Willis, Paul 1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Farnborough, England: Saxon House.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part II, Chapters 4–7, pp. 77–178.MacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 6, 'School: Preparing for Competition,' pp. 83–111.Devine, John 1997. Maximum Security: The Culture of Violence in Inner‐City Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read Chapter 1, 'Schools or 'Schools'? Competing Discourses on Violence,' pp. 19–46.Section 4: Cultural scripts – masculinityKimmel, Michael S. and Matthew Mahler 2003. 'Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence.'The American Behavioral Scientist 46(10): 1439–58.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 4, 'Naughty by Nature,' pp. 77–99 and Chapter 6, 'Getting into Trouble,' pp. 163–96.Bender, Geoff 2001. 'Resisting Dominance? The Study of a Marginalized Masculinity and its Construction within High School Walls.' Pp. 61–78 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Klein, Jessi and Lynn S. Chancer 2000. 'Masculinity Matters: The Omission of Gender from High‐Profile School Violence Cases.' Pp. 129–62 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 5: Cultural scripts – femininityEder, Donna 1985. 'The Cycle of Popularity: Interpersonal Relations among Female Adolescents.'Sociology of Education 58(3): 154–65.Merten, Don 1997. 'The Meaning of Meanness: Popularity, Competition, and Conflict Among Junior High School Girls.'Sociology of Education 70(3): 175–91.Merten, Don 2005. 'Transitions and 'Trouble': Rites of Passage for Suburban Girls.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 36(2): 132–48.Artz, Sibylle 2004. 'Violence in the Schoolyard: School Girls' Use of Violence.' Pp. 167–90 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities, edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Morris, Edward W. 2007. ''Ladies' or 'Loudies'? Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms.'Youth & Society 38: 490–515.Mikel Brown, Lyn 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. NY: New York University Press.Section 6: Culture resources and school violence – languageLanguage and Symbolic ViolenceFerguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 7, 'Unreasonable Circumstances,' pp. 197–226.Youth Talk about ViolenceDiket, Read M. and Linda G. Mucha 2002. 'Talking about Violent Images.'Art Education March: 11–7.Morrill, Calvin, Christine Yalds, Madelaine Adelman, Michael Musheno, and Cindy Bejarano 2000. 'Telling Tales in School: Youth Culture and Conflict Narratives.'Law & Society Review 34(3): 521–65.Burman, Michele 2004. 'Turbulent Talk: Girls Making Sense of Violence.' Pp. 81–103 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities. Edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Obidah, Jennifer 2000. 'On Living (and Dying) with Violence: Entering Young Voices in the Discourse.' Pp. 49–66 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 7: Culture resources and school violence – clothingClothing and School Safety DebatesHolloman, Lillian and Velma LaPoint, Sylvan I. Alleyne, Ruth J. Palmer, and Kathy Sanders‐Phillips 1996. 'Dress‐Related Behavioral Problems and Violence in Public School Settings: Prevention, Intervention, and Policy—A Holistic Approach.'The Journal of Negro Education 65(3): 267–281.Stanley, M. Sue 1996. 'School Uniforms and Safety.'Education and Urban Society 28(4): 424–35.Gereluk, Dianne 2008. 'Limiting Free Speech in the United States.' Pp. 41–64 in Symbolic Clothing in Schools: What Should Be Worn and Why. New York, NY: Continuum.Brunsma, David L., ed. 2006. Uniforms in Public Schools: A Decade of Research and Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Clothing, School Policies and Symbolic ViolenceHorvat, Erin McNamara 1999. '"Hey, Those Shoes are Out of Uniform": African American Girls in an Elite High School and the Importance of Habitus.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 30(3): 317–42.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives 48(1): 25–48.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 3, 'School Rules,' pp. 49–73.FilmsTough guise: violence, media, and the crisis in masculinity (2002)This Media Education Foundation film explores the relationship between popular culture and the construction of violent masculinity. Of particular relevance to this class, the film examines how the construction of masculinity relates to school shootings. The film is directed by Sut Jhally and narrated by Jackson Katz. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.Wrestling with manhood: boys, bullying and battering (2004)This Media Education Foundation film, written and directed by Sut Jhally, examines the relationship between professional wrestling and the construction of masculinity. The film looks at how wrestling contributes to homophobia, violence against women and bullying in school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.School violence: answers from the inside (2000)This film originally aired on PBS''In the Mix,' a television series created by and for teens. The film examines stereotyping and conflict in schools through the eyes and voices of teenagers attending a diverse suburban high school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Resources – Language.The killer at Thurston high (2000)This PBS Frontline film focuses on Kip Kinkel, who in 1998, at the age of 15, shot his mother and father, and then opened fire at his school in Springfield, Oregon, killing two and injuring 25. He is currently serving 111 years in prison. The film provides an understanding of the tragedy through multiple viewpoints, including interviews with Kip's sister, teachers and psychiatrists. This film could be used in the section Broadening the Definition of School Violence.Mean girls (2004)Written by Tina Fey and based on Rosalind Wiseman's book, Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence, this fictional account of 'mean girls' is a film that most college students will be familiar with. Clips from the film can be used in the section Cultural Scripts—Femininity to begin a discussion about relational aggression between girls in schools. It can also be used to examine the role that racism and classism play in our public perception of violent behavior, particularly since 'mean girls' in this film tend to be constructed as white and upper class, whereas in contrast, 'violent girls' in film have historically been constructed as poor, young women of color.Project ideas1. Social Policy and Intervention. This assignment is intended to get students critically thinking about how educators approach school violence. Have students pick either a national intervention program, such as D.A.R.E., or a local school policy created to deal with school violence. Begin by analyzing how school violence is defined and what type of intervention/prevention is being proposed. Require students to use a cultural approach to understand and critique the policy. In writing the paper, students should consider the following questions. How would a cultural sociologist define violence? What types of violence are missing from this policy? How would this policy be different if it took into account a cultural approach? The book, 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools (2001) by Ronnie Casella provides a good background resource for completing this assignment.2. Observation Project: Clothing and School Safety. Students will begin by gaining permission to observe at a local middle school or high school. Begin by analyzing the school policy towards clothing. Some schools might have an official uniform policy, whereas others might have policies regarding certain types of clothing (i.e. gang clothing, clothing with profanity, etc.) Next, spend several days observing students in non‐classroom settings, like the hallways, cafeteria, bus or playground. Take detailed fieldnotes. Pay particular attention to the clothing that students wear, any discussion made about clothing by either students or teachers, the relationship between clothing and identity, how clothes are used as a site of resistance, and how clothes might cause conflict between students, or between students and teachers. (You may also want to informally interview students about their perception of the school's policy on clothing, how they negotiate rules about clothing, and how they see clothing policies as contributing to conflict and violence, as well as school safety.) As a class, develop a coding scheme for the fieldnotes. Each student will then individually write an analysis paper on the relationship between clothing, conflict, discipline policies, and school violence.3. Mean Girls: Examining Relational Aggression in Schools. There has been much public attention in recent years to 'mean girls.' As a class, view the film Mean Girls during the course section, Cultural Scripts – Femininity. As a class, develop an interview guide with about six open‐ended questions (i.e. What were your experiences with 'mean girls' in high school? How did you or a close friend deal with being the victim of relational aggression? To what extent did you ever participate in being a 'mean girl'? How did teachers at your school respond to relational aggression between girls?) Next, have students interview six female students using the class interview guide. Students can work individually or in groups to write a paper that compares and contrasts the social construction of mean girls in the film with the actual perceptions of mean girls from their research participants. The analysis should be grounded in the social science research that students are reading on relational aggression.

Innovation in family firms is still a controversial issue within the academic community and poses some unique challenges for family business owners and managers. This special issue on innovation in family firms results from the cooperation of both academic and business guest editors, in a pioneering initiative that is not usual in academic journals. Indeed, a key feature of this Special Issue has been the collaboration with two family business leaders, who have been involved in the editorial process together with the academics.
The two business editors that we involved are Antonio Gallardo, Vicepresident of Almiralland former director of FBN-Family Business Network,andIgnacio Osborne, CEO of the Osborne Groupand Chairman of the Spanish Family Firm Institute.
In order to introduce the six papers that make up this special issue on innovation in family firms, we as academic editors are pleased to include some comments from the business editors that emerged during our interactions with the aim to make a step forward toward bridging the gap between research and practice on family business innovation, acknowledging the different perspectives and approaches adopted by academics and practitioners. As the business editor Mr. Osborne points: "Innovation issues in family firms are nowadays more important than ever, due to the rapid developments that are occurring in the business world and its corresponding technologies".
Despite being a topic analyzed by a number of authors over time (Feranita, Kotlar and De Massis, 2017; Aparicio, Iturralde and Sánchez-Famoso, 2020 in this issue; Chrisman, Chua, De Massis, Frattini and Wright, 2015), the study of innovation in family business still requires a greater volume of research to provide answers to the needs of family businesses. The distinctive nature of family firms results in a complex influence on the innovation process (De Massis, Frattini and Lichtenthaler, 2013), which is reflected in mixed research findings. For instance, the conclusions of the published research offer sometimes contradictory results, since family businesses can be considered innovative (Aronoff, 1998; Craig and Moores, 2006) or conservative (Sharma, Chrisman, y Chua, 1997; Zahra, Hayton y Salvato, 2004; Gómez-Mejía et al., 2007), with several studies that can support whatever of the two options.
Family businesses present a number of characteristics that, a priori, seem to favor innovation, such as long-term orientation (Tagiuri and Davis, 1996; Ward and Aronoff, 1994), the desire for continuity through the following generations (Miroshnychenko et al., 2020; Gallo, 1995), patient capital (De Massis, Audretsch, Uhlaner and Kammerlander, 2018; Sirmon and Hitt, 2003), and the long tenure of their main leaders (Lorenzo, 2020). The replacement of the prior generation by the next generation implies the access of younger people to the leadership of the company, who also often present a greater level of qualification (De Massis et al., 2008; Cabrera-Suárez, 2011). Young and qualified leaders would provide a new momentum to the firm, by means of the renewal of the firm (Núñez-Cacho and Lorenzo, 2020). Likewise, the successors receive an important legacy by means of the values of the family business (Erdogan et al., 2020), such as effort, perseverance, austerity, excellence, long-term orientation and entrepreneurial spirit, as basic foundations of their way of understanding business activity (Bermejo, 2008). Accordingly, the new generation managers could be in the best conditions to reinvent the company, since they know the business from within and they also provide the new vision of a person with a working life ahead. Another factor that favors the renewal impulse of the next generation is the familial support to carry out a prolonged tenure over time, which will not be as conditioned by short-term results as in other types of companies, by the so-called patient capital (Sirmon and Hitt, 2003) of the family business (Lorenzo, 2020). But, even if these ideal conditions are met in a specific family firm, it is not guaranteed that the company realizes the innovation it needs. Therefore, it is needed to shed more light about the determinants and conditions for innovation.
The editors of this special issue selected a number of papers to reflect the state-of-the-art on this topic, indicating some of the most promising research lines on innovation. According to the business editor Mr. Gallardo, "A very important aspect emerging from this special issue is that the papers published in it reveal that external contributions to the internal know-how of the family and the business are often vital to help produce the changes needed by a family firm for innovation to take place".
Innovation in the family business has been a phenomenon of great interest to researchers, especially in the last decade. This is highlighted in the article that opens this special issue by presenting a complete bibliometric review of the literature on innovation in family businesses. Generally, researchers have noted that the influence of the family is the factor that makes this type of businesses different from the other ones (Habbershon and Williams, 1999; Lorenzo and Núñez-Cacho, 2012). However, in order to conclude that this is really true, it is necessary to identify the nature of these differences and determine how and why they affect the innovative behavior of the family business.
The paper Innovation on family businesses: A holistic bibliometric(Aparicio, Iturralde and Sánchez-Famoso, 2020) offers an overview of the research field through an analysis of 207 articles that were published between 1994 and 2017. The authors complement other recent reviews such as those by Feranita, Kotlar and De Massis (2017) and Calabrò, Vecchiarini, Gast, Campopiano, De Massis and Kraus (2019), and reflect about the take-off of research on innovation that takes place since 2009. In the study two differentiated periods are highlighted: An initial one that covers the years 1994 to 2009, and one of expansion from 2010 to 2017. In addition, they identify the most influential journals, the most referenced articles, the most productive scholars -namely, De Massis, Frattini, Craig, Chrisman, Fang, Kotlar and Nordqvist appear as the most productive and referenced ones- and the main lines of research developed, providing a clear and synthetic map of innovation research in family businesses today. This paper approaches innovation from a more theoretical perspective, and also presents the lines of research that are currently being developed. These lines include the internal factors of the family business and its influence on innovation, as well as external factors, among others advances in research in the subject.
The paper An Analysis of Open Innovation Determinants: The Case Study of Singapore based Family owned Enterprises, by Koh, Kong and Timperio (2020, this issue) analyzes the drivers of open innovation by studying cases of family businesses in Singapore. The authors highlight the external determinants and catalysts of innovation projects, such as family and business culture, access to external funds, government support for initiatives, market dynamics and partnership between companies. In addition to these six external determinants, there are two other factors that have a great influence on open innovation. First, family capital, which is the main source of financing for innovative initiatives. Second, a strong external network, supported by Singapore's legal and regulatory framework that fosters innovation, promotes the development of an enabling business environment so that the spirit of innovation can truly thrive. Most of the surveyed companies' managers mentioned process innovation as the most critical aspect, and also organizational innovation. Process innovation is considered superior by the companies included in the sample due to their capabilities to drive product innovation, marketing and organizational structure (and people). Organizational innovation is also considered of utmost importance, due to the need to adopt technologies such as digitalization, robotics or automation, which require an adequate organizational structure. Some ideas from the surveyed managers highlight these statements, like: "The correct processes create the necessary conditions to shape the products, as well as the marketing and organization structures," as well as "Having cutting-edge processes underway is a key differentiator." This study also reflects the need to establish new financing mechanisms adapted to the peculiarities of innovation processes. External capital injection and stimulus policies are necessary, although not sufficient, since they must be combined with the determinants of the internal functioning of family businesses.
The relevance of the external network is also highlighted in the paper Collaborative innovation in the family SME: conceptualization, goals, and success factors, by Arzubiaga, Maseda, Uribarri and Palma Ruiz (2020, this issue), which analyzes the strategy of collaborative innovation that seeks the creation of knowledge, new product designs and Improving the efficiency of the production process.
Among the conditions of collaborative innovation, four groups stand out: The composition of the management team (in terms of family members percentage and number of generations involved in management), abilities (cognitive factors, absorption capacity and trajectory in innovation), attitudes, and legacy preservation, (referring to socio-emotional wealth and internal behavior). These factors of small and medium family businesses play a crucial role in the successful design and implementation of collaborative innovation. The main contributions of this paper can be summarized in the need for establish solid bases to deepen in the future the study of collaborative innovation. Moreover, a second contribution refers to the identification of the distinguishing characteristics of family SMEs. Arzubiaga, Maseda, Uribarri and Palma Ruiz (2020, this issue) also propose the analysis of the possible moderating effects of firm size and the sector to refine the impact of the variables in this model, looking to achieve excellence in collaborative innovation. As business reviewer, Mr. Osbornehave highlighted collaborative innovation as one of the relevant issues in order to reinforce the role of innovation in their companies.
Absorptive capacity is another aspect of great interest to researchers. There are numerous factors that condition it, some of them are features of the family character that make the behavior of family businesses paradoxical (Kotlar et al. 2020). The paper titled A mediating model of innovative capacity between absorptive capacity and family business performanceby Hernández-Perlines, Ariza-Montes and Araya-Castillo (2020, this issue) addresses the issue about absorptive capacity. Absorptive capacity is related to the identification, assimilation and exploitation of new knowledge by the company. Those family businesses that have these capabilities improve their performance. In addition, this effect is enhanced by the innovative capacity of the company, which acts as a mediator between absorption capacity and the company's performance, reinforcing this relationship. Thus, family business managers should focus their efforts on providing their organizations with the necessary skills to absorb and exploit knowledge. This will be easier if the company has developed innovative capabilities. In this sense, the business editor Mr. Gallardo points that: "There is also the possibility of establishing an advisory council with external collaborators that serves as a contrast to the company's board, in which oftentimes the weight of the family is too decisive."
The last two papers in this special issue address the role of family involvement in relation to innovation. Does too much love hinder innovation? Family involvement and firms' innovativeness in family-owned Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs), by Filippo Ferrari (2020, this issue) reflects on the role of family cohesion and its flexibility in the process of innovation, drawing upon the Olson Circumplex model (Olson, 2000) which is applied in a sample of Italian family businesses. The study indicates that unbalanced families show the lowest levels of innovation, although family cohesion and flexibility do not show a significant correlation with the overall level of organizational innovation. Flexibility shows a positive correlation with the process and behavioral innovation, which can be explained by the demand for new forms and organizational routines to deal with process innovation. Here the author suggests some human resources practices that promote flexibility, such as labor rotation (Ortega, 2001), or the development of a horizontal internal career (Ichniowsky et al. 1996, 1997, 1999). Families that lack cohesion show a negative correlation with strategic innovation and process innovation. Ferrari (2020, this issue) considers as disconnected family systems those in which family members are not cohesive and have little family loyalty. On the other hand, innovation in processes is encouraged with new ideas through contributions in terms of new ways of doing things. According to the authors, the Olson Circumplex model (Olson, 2000) offers a framework that can diagnose the extent to which family systems are balanced and how the effects of balanced or unbalanced family dynamics can affect the family business (Daspit et al. 2018). Business reviewers were especially interested on the conclusions of this paper, and also pointed that it would be necessary more research on that kind of negative influences stemmed from lack of cohesion within the business family.
Entrepreneurial orientation and product innovation: The moderating role of family involvement in management, by Fredyma, Ruiz Palomo and Diéguez (2020, this issue) addresses a classic concept closely linked to the study of innovation such as entrepreneurial orientation. The relationships between this variable and product innovation, incremental innovation and radical innovation are examined. The influence of family performance on the company is also analyzed. In their conclusions, Fredyma, Ruiz Palomo and Diéguez (2020, this issue) point out that family involvement weakens the positive effect of entrepreneurial orientation in product innovation, especially in case of radical innovation. Therefore, the family business must be aware of these weaknesses to correct them, professionalizing with non-family managers and including their participation in innovation decisions. This conclusion is stressed by both business editors, Mr. Osborne and Mr. Gallardo, who point out that: "Having a network of external collaborators, some of them generalists and others specialized in specific problems, is nowadays practically indispensable."
Finally, the academic editors sincerely appreciate the contributions of two prominent Spanish businessmen, who have contributed to enrich this special issue with a business perspective, which helps to overcome the division that is sometimes perceived between the academic world and the business one. Both Antonio Gallardo and Ignacio Osborne represent the entrepreneurial vision that they have been able to maintain in their families and in their companies for generations. We all know how challenging it is for a family business to be entrepreneurial across generations (e.g., De Massis, Eddleston and Rovelli, 2020). Last but now least, we want to express our gratitude to the editor of the European Journal of Family Business, Professor Vanesa Guzmán for her collaboration and contributions.
The Osborne Group, founded in 1772, is one of the oldest family businesses in Europe. The group evolved from the original business of raising and exporting wines from Jerez to a wider food and beverage group which includes quality wines from various Spanish designations of origin, premium spirits, and products derived from Iberian pork, with a growing international acceptance, entering markets as demanding as China. Ignacio Osborne, a member of the sixth family generation, is the current president of the company since 2017, after 21 years as CEO. The company has been especially innovative in marketing, creating the symbol of the bull in the 50s, which has become a symbol that identifies the Spanish, transcending its initial origin as a reference for the winery.
Almirallis a pharmaceutical company founded in 1943. It is currently run by the second generation, which are giving way to the third. Although innovation is an essential requirement to compete in pharmaceutics, Almirall has managed to develop some well-known products in Spain, as Almax and Cleboril, becoming one of most innovative companies in the industry. Antonio Gallardo is honorary vice president of his company, which he chaired for 26 years. In addition, he was also president of the Family Council and the Family Office, as well as a member of the Executive Committee of the Family Business Network and vice president of the Family Business Institute.

Author's introductionNon‐human animals constitute an integral part of human society. They figure heavily in our language, food, clothing, family structure, economy, education, entertainment, science, and recreation. The many ways we use animals produce ambivalent and contradictory attitudes toward them. We treat some species of animals as friends and family members (e.g., dogs and cats), while we treat others as commodities (e.g., cows, pigs, and chickens). Our constructions of animals and the moral and legal status we grant them provide rich topics for sociological study.This teaching and learning guide can serve as a resource for those who want to learn more about the field or for those preparing to teach a course on animals and society. The materials have the common theme of examining animals within the context of larger social issues. The guide begins with an annotated list of major works in the area. It then lists useful online resources. Finally, it provides a sample syllabus, concluding with ideas for course projects and assignments.Author recommends:Arnold Arluke and Clinton R. Sanders, Regarding Animals (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1996). Regarding Animals was the first book‐length sociological work on human‐animal relationships. Arluke and Sanders focus on the ambivalent and contradictory ways that we humans view other species. It examines how we cherish some animals as friends and family members, while we consider others as food, pests, and resources. Based on research in animal shelters, veterinary clinics, primate research laboratories, and among guide‐dog trainers, the book provides sociological insight into how we construct animals – and how in the process we construct ourselves.Arnold Arluke and Clinton R. Sanders, Between the Species: A Reader in Human‐Animal Relationships (Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2009).Arluke and Sanders have divided this reader into three units. The first, animal, self, and society, includes topical sections on 'Thinking with Animals', 'Close Relationships with Animals', 'The Darkside', and 'Wild(life) Encounters'. The second unit, which focuses on animals in institutions, includes readings on science, agriculture, entertainment and education, and health and welfare. The third unit is organized around the 'changing status and perception of animals'. Its chapters examine healing, selfhood, and rights. The articles, drawn largely from social science journals, have been edited for readability at the undergraduate level.Clifton Flynn, Social Creatures: A Human and Animal Studies Reader (New York, NY: Lantern, 2008).Flynn's edited volume examines the role of animals in language, as food, and as companions. It delves into issues of animal abuse and grief after pet loss. It contains over 30 chapters, mostly reprints of articles in scholarly journals, representing a range of perspectives. Part I gives an overview of the field of human–animal studies. Part II focuses on studying human‐animal relationships. Part III offers comparative and historical perspectives on those relationships. Animals and culture is the focus of Part IV. Part V examines attitudes toward animals. Part VI offers essays on criminology and deviance. Inequality and interconnected oppression focuses the essays in Part VII. The chapters in Part VIII concern living and working with animals, and Part IX includes readings on animal rights, as both philosophy and social movement. Each chapter offers study questions for study and discussion.Adrian Franklin, Animals & Modern Cultures: A Sociology of Human‐Animal Relations in Modernity (London, UK: Sage, 1999).This book examines the changes in human‐animal relationships over the 20th century. It argues that at the start of the century, animals were regarded most often as resources. Moreover, we drew a distinct boundary between humans and other animals. By the end of the century, our attitudes toward animals had changed, and we began to question the subordination implicit in the human–animal boundary. Franklin highlights companionship with animals, hunting and fishing, the meat industry, and leisure activities involving animals, such as bird watching and wildlife parks. He emphasizes variations by gender, class, ethnicity, and nation.Leslie Irvine, If You Tame Me: Understanding our Connection with Animals (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2004).This book examines our relationships with dogs and cats, arguing that animals have a sense of self. Drawing on research conducted at an animal shelter, in dog parks, and in interviews and observation, the author argues that animals become such important parts of our lives because of the subjective experience they bring to the relationship. Challenging the view that we simply anthropomorphize animals, Irvine offers a model of animal selfhood that explains what makes relationships with animals possible. Offering an alternative to George Herbert Mead's perspective on the self, Irvine argues that interaction with animals reveals complex subjectivity, emotionality, agency, and memory.Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald, The Animals Reader: The Essential Classic and Contemporary Writings (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).This edited volume is notable for its diversity in perspectives. It includes readings on ethics, philosophy, sociology, cultural studies, environmental studies, history, and anthropology. It examines questions ranging from 'what is an animal?' to those surrounding the ethics of cloning. Part I examines animals as philosophical subjects. Part II includes essays that suggest that animals are reflexive thinkers. Part III considers the various roles of animals as domesticates, 'pets', and food. The chapters in Part IV focus on animals in sport and spectacle. Part V focuses on animals as symbols. Part VI examines animals as scientific objects. Each chapter offers an introduction and list of further readings.David Nibert, Animal Rights/Human Rights: Entanglements of Oppression and Liberation (Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002).David Nibert connects oppression based on species, gender, ethnicity, and social class to the institution of capitalism. By modifying Donald Noel's theory of ethnic stratification, Nibert explains the oppression of non‐human animals in all forms, from meat eating to vivisection. He then argues that the systematic oppression of animals led to the oppression of other humans.Online materials Animals and Society Section of the American Sociological Association http://www2.asanet.org/sectionanimals/ This website offers membership information specifically for sociologists interested in human–animal studies. It is especially notable for its online syllabi from courses on animals and society. Animals and Society Institute http://www.animalsandsociety.org/ The Animals and Society Institute includes programs in three areas: Human–animal Studies; AniCare, a program dedicated to animal abuse and other forms of violence; and the Animals' Platform, a set of guidelines for animal protection legislation at the state, local, or national levels. The website's homepage includes a link to a video introducing the institute and its programs. The 'Resources' link leads to useful web and print documents and other web pages, including lists of human–animal studies centers and courses. Animal Studies Bibliography http://ecoculturalgroup.msu.edu/bibliography.htm This extensive, well‐organized bibliography is the project of the Ecological & Cultural Change Studies Group at Michigan State University. It includes works on Animals as Philosophical and Ethical Subjects; Animals as Reflexive Thinkers; Domestication and Predation; Animals as Entertainment and Spectacle; Animals as Symbols and Companions; Animals in Science, Education, and Therapy; and a 'miscellaneous' category. HumaneSpot.org http://www.humanespot.org/node HumaneSpot is the creation of the Humane Research Council. It requires registration as a user, and users must complete a short online application and attest that they are animal advocates, but advocacy in the form of scholarship counts. Once registered, users have access to extensive research on all aspects of animal welfare. Users can also have summarized updates of recent studies delivered by email. The Hoarding of Animals Research Consortium (HARC) http://www.tufts.edu/vet/cfa/hoarding/ The HARC website offers a collection of research on animal hoarding or 'collecting'. The studies address issues of animal welfare, public health, mental health, connections with other forms of abuse, and intervention. Pet‐Abuse.com http://www.pet‐abuse.com/ Alison Gianotto started Pet‐Abuse.com after someone kidnapped one of her cats and set him on fire. The cat died of the subsequent injuries and the abuser was never caught. Despite its name, Pet‐Abuse addresses abuse among many species, not just those commonly kept as pets. The project tracks incidents of cruelty throughout the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia, and Spain. The website offers a database that is searchable by location, type of cruelty, gender of offender, and more. It also allows for the creation of real‐time graphic displays of statistics on cruelty cases.Sample syllabusPart I: introduction and overviewWhat is human–animal studies? How can we study animals sociologically? What can the study of animals offer to the field?Reading:Arnold Arluke, 'A Sociology of Sociological Animal Studies,'Society & Animals 10 (2002): 369–374. Leslie Irvine, 'Animals and Sociology,'Sociology Compass 2 (2008):1954–1971. Jennifer Wolch, 'Zoöpolis,' In: Jennifer Wolch and Jody Emel (eds), Animal Geographies: Identity in the Nature Culture Borderlands (London, UK: Verso), 119–138.From Social Creatures:Kenneth J. Shapiro, 'Introduction to Human: Animal Studies'Clifton Bryant, 'The Zoological Connection: Animal‐related Human Behavior'Barbara Noske, 'The Animal Question in Anthropology'Part II: studying human‐animal relationshipsHow can we study our interactions and relationships with animals? What approaches have been used, and what are their strengths and weaknesses?Leslie Irvine, 'The Question of Animal Selves: Implications for Sociological Knowledge and Practice,'Qualitative Sociology Review 3 (2007): 5–21.From Social Creatures:Kenneth J. Shapiro, 'Understanding Dogs through Kinesthetic Empathy, Social Construction, and History'Alan M. Beck and Aaron H. Katcher, 'Future Directions in Human – Animal Bond Research'Clinton R. Sanders, 'Understanding Dogs: Caretakers' Attributions of Mindedness in Canine – Human Relationships'Part III: historical and comparative perspectivesIn this section, we examine how people have regarded animals in other times and places.Reading:Lynda Birke, 'Who – or What – are the Rats (and Mice) in the Laboratory?'Society & Animals 11 (2003): 207–224.From Social CreaturesBarbara Noske, 'Speciesism, Anthropocentrism, and Non‐Western Cultures'Michael Tobias, 'The Anthropology of Conscience'Harriet Ritvo, 'The Emergence of Modern Pet‐keeping'Part IV: animals and cultureThis section focuses on how animals are portrayed in language, advertisements, and other media. It also considers how culture influences our attitudes toward animals.Reading:Rhonda D. Evans and Craig J. Forsyth, 'The Social Milieu of Dogmen and Dogfights,'Deviant Behavior 19 (1998): 51–71.Fred Hawley, 'The Moral and Conceptual Universe of Cockfighters: Symbolism and Rationalization,'Society & Animals 1 (1992): 159–168.Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald, 'Reading the Trophy: Exploring the Display of Dead Animals in Hunting Magazines,'Visual Studies 18 (2003): 112–122.Jennifer E. Lerner and Linda Kalof, 'The Animal Text: Message and Meaning in Television Advertisements,'The Sociological Quarterly 40 (1999): 565–585.From Social Creatures:Andrew Linzey, 'Animal Rights as Religious Vision'Leslie Irvine, 'The Power of Play'Tracey Smith‐Harris, 'There's Not Enough Room to Swing a Dead Cat and There's No Use Flogging a Dead Horse'Part V: attitudes toward other animalsThis part of the course examines how we think about animals, including what research reveals about how our attitudes develop.Reading:Mart Kheel, 'License to Kill: An Ecofeminist Critique of Hunters' Discourse,' In: Carol J. Adams and Josephine Donovan (eds), Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995): 85–125.From Social Creatures:Harold Herzog, Nancy S. Betchart, and Robert B. Pittman, 'Gender, Sex‐role Orientation and Attitudes toward Animals'Elizabeth S. Paul and James A. Sarpell, 'Childhood Pet Keeping and Humane Attitudes in Young Adulthood'David Nibert, 'Animal Rights and Human Social Issues'Part VI: criminology and devianceThis section examines animal abuse and neglect, and its possible connections to other forms of violence, particularly that directed at human beings.Reading:Arnold Arluke, 'Animal Abuse as Dirty Play,'Symbolic Interaction 25 (2002): 405–430.From Social Creatures:Frank R. Ascione, 'Children Who Are Cruel to Animals: A Review of Research and Implications for Developmental Psychology'Linda Merz‐Perez, Kathleen M. Heide, and Ira J. Silverman, 'Childhood Cruelty to Animals and Subsequent Violence against Humans'Clifton P. Flynn, 'Women's Best Friend: Pet Abuse and the Role of Companion Animals in the Lives of Battered Women'Gary J. Patronek, 'Hoarding of Animals: An Under‐recognized Public Health Problem in a Difficult‐to‐study Population'Part VII: inequality – interconnected oppressionsThis section considers how our treatment of other animals influences our treatment of others, especially women and people of color.Reading:Isabel Gay Bradshaw, 'Not by Bread Alone: Symbolic Loss, Trauma, and Recovery in Elephant Communities,'Society & Animals 12 (2004): 144–158.Linda Kalof, Amy Fitzgerald, and Lori Baralt, 'Animals, Women, and Weapons: Blurred Sexual Boundaries in the Discourse of Sport Hunting,'Society & Animals 12 (2004): 237–251.From Social Creatures:Marjorie Spiegel, 'An Historical Understanding'Carol J. Adams, 'The Sexual Politics of Meat'David Nibert, 'Humans and Other Animals: Sociology's Moral and Intellectual Challenge'Part VIII: living and working with other animalsWe hold contradictory attitudes toward animals. We love our pets, but we consider some animals as disposable. What do our close living and working relationships with animals reveal about the roles of animals in society?Reading:Leslie Irvine, 'Animal Problems/People Skills: Emotional and Interactional Strategies in Humane Education,'Society & Animals 10 (2002): 63–91.Rik Scarce, 'Socially Constructing Pacific Salmon,'Society & Animals 5 (1997): 115–135.From Social Creatures:Andrew N. Rowan and Alan M. Beck, 'The Health Benefits of Human—Animal Interactions'Rose M. Perrine and Hannah L. Osbourne, 'Personality Characteristics of Dog and Cat Persons'Gerald H. Gosse and Michael J. Barnes, 'Human Grief Resulting from the Death of a Pet'Stephen Frommer and Arnold Arluke, 'Loving Them to Death: Blame‐displacing Strategies of Animal Shelter Workers and Surrenderers'Mary T. Phillips, 'Savages, Drunks, and Lab Animals: The Researcher's Perception of Pain'Part IX: animal rights – philosophy and social movementThis section examines the leading animal rights perspectives. It also considers who animal activists are and how animal rights exists as a social movement.Corwin Kruse, 'Gender, Views of Nature, and Support for Animal Rights,'Society & Animals 7 (1999): 179–197.From Social Creatures:Peter Singer, 'All Animals are Equal'Tom Regan, 'The Case for Animal Rights'Josephine Donovan, 'Animal Rights and Feminist Theory'Lyle Munro, 'Caring about Blood, Flesh, and Pain: Women's Standing in the Animal Protection Movement'Project ideasEssay topicsWrite an essay on each of the following topics:
Topic 1: Focus on any species (other than dog or cat) and explore and present the nature of human–animal relations for that species. You should find and evaluate scholarly and popular print and Internet resources regarding this species and its relationships with humans. At least two of your sources should come from articles in scholarly journals.Topic 2: Find current media coverage of an event or issue that applies and extends material in the assigned text. This can involve an individual animal, a group of animals, or an entire species. For example, coverage of the role of livestock in global warming could be approached through several of the readings in the course. You cannot predict when these events will occur, so be continually on the lookout throughout the semester.
JournalingTo help you think about the readings and ideas we are discussing, as well as relate the material to your own lives, you must keep a journal throughout the semester. You must have two entries per week. These need not be long; one page for each entry will suffice. However, they must demonstrate that you are thinking about the issues we are studying. The entries are to be analysis, not cute stories of how much you love animals. You must apply the material to your thoughts about and/or your interaction with animals. Each entry should have three parts: a personal reflection, a sociological insight, and an action step.1. Personal reflection (In this section, note any new observations, feelings, epiphanies, or other insights prompted by the course material.)
Example: I never knew, or even thought about, the emotional lives of farm animals. Somehow, I have been able to draw a line between pets and other animals. I know many wild animals have emotions. I have seen programs about elephants experiencing grief, for example. However, I always bought into the idea that cows, chickens, and pigs were 'dumb'. I guess we have to think of them that way in order to treat them the way that we do. I was particularly struck by ...
2. Sociological insight (In this section, draw out some of the sociological relevance of the material.)
Example: Farm animals have such a huge role in so many institutions. So much of the economy has to do with raising animals, transporting animals, killing them, processing their skin, muscle, organs, coats, and bones. It makes sense that we have commercials promoting 'Beef, it's what's for dinner' and 'Got Milk' ads. If it were 'natural' and necessary to consume animals, we would not need advertising campaigns designed to encourage us to do so. The 'animal industrial complex' depends on a steady supply of consumers. Vegetarians and vegans are very threatening to the status quo. No wonder popular culture makes fun of them.Farm animals also have a huge role in families. We eat animals on most of our holidays and other occasions. In addition, the histories of agricultural families go back ...
3. Action Step(s) (In this section, note at least one and as many as three ways that you will share your new knowledge. Action steps might include taking your cat to the vet, finding out about volunteering at an animal shelter, or becoming vegetarian.)
Example: I intend to tell my roommates about the emotional lives of farm animals, and about the animal industrial complex. I will look for information about Farm Sanctuary online and pass it on to my sister.

<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:OfficeDocumentSettings> <o:AllowPNG /> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">Neste trabalho apresento uma análise do texto <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A pesquisa em Educação no Brasil </em>das autoras Elisabeth Macedo e Clarilza Prado de Sousa. Utilizo o materialismo histórico dialético, que fundamenta o pensamento marxista, como possibilidade de interpretação do texto acima descrito. O texto apresenta aspectos da política de pós-graduação em educação relacionando-os com a política de pesquisa. Elisabeth Macedo e Clarilza Prado de Sousa asseguram que, nos últimos trinta anos, o sistema de pós-graduação e a pesquisa em educação no Brasil se consolidou tendo em vista a ampliação das demandas por financiamentos nas diferentes agências de fomento.</p><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves /> <w:TrackFormatting /> <w:HyphenationZone>21</w:HyphenationZone> <w:PunctuationKerning /> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas /> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF /> <w:LidThemeOther>PT-BR</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables /> <w:SnapToGridInCell /> <w:WrapTextWithPunct /> <w:UseAsianBreakRules /> <w:DontGrowAutofit /> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark /> <w:EnableOpenTypeKerning /> 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La importancia de esta investigación se plantea desde la estrategia de comunicación para la ejecución de un proyecto de diseño de mediana complejidad para el mercado digital, como elemento fundamental para plantear el diseño de estrategias de comunicación y análisis de datos, que se ajusten a las necesidades y el presupuesto de la empresa.
Partiendo desde un análisis del mercado en la comparación de precios, diseño web, estrategias de comercialización y publicidad que permitan a emprendimientos y pequeñas empresas conseguir llegar a nuevos mercados evitando intermediarios.El poder llegar directamente a sus clientes en el mercado de usuarios de internet le permitan analizar y buscar los estímulos en el proceso compra, tratando de entender la configuración mental o el comportamiento de compra de los usuarios a través de la experiencia con la comunicación e interacción en el sitio web.
El proceso de compra por internet a cambiado la relación con el mercado tradicional de venta de productos y servicios, dando una nueva dinámica a las relaciones de las personas en el manejo de los medios de comunicación y los comportamientos de consumo ofrecidos por el desarrollo constante de la tecnología aplicada en internet, con la facilidad de comunicación que dan estas interfaces necesarias para el desempeño de las empresas y los usuarios en sus interfaces auto gestionadas como los correos electrónicos, buscadores, redes sociales y portales de comercialización.
El capítulo uno hace una introducción al fenómeno de la sociedad de la información y la manera como se está gestionando los procesos tecnológicos con el desarrollo macro estructural de la empresas al nivel de los factores externos que puedan influenciar su rendimiento.
El segundo capítulo se trabaja sobre el micro entorno, donde se definen los conceptos y diferencias entre la publicidad tradicional y publicidad en internet, profundizando en los espacios publicitarios que brinda internet a sus anunciantes y la capacidad de segmentación que brindan al poder medir el comportamientos de los usuarios en internet.
El capítulo tres busca documentar el fenómeno de las nuevas plataformas de comunicación en internet y la diferenciación de la publicidad tradicional, definiendo el uso dado a cada una de estas plataformas utilizadas en internet, detallando cuales son las más sobresalientes en el mercado online en este caso el elección de buscador Google con respecto a los otros medios como: las redes sociales, foros, plataformas de comercio. Analizando el uso que hace el internauta argentino de estos medios online en cuanto acceso a internet, consumo de medios, comercio electrónico y la diferenciación en la identidad adquirida de la publicidad tradicional con respecto a la publicidad online.
El capítulo cuarto es la investigación por medio de entrevistas realizada a los especialistas del proyecto de cuentas nuevas de Google AdWords, especialista en el desarrollo de PYMES y especialistas en estrategias de publicidad, documentando el comportamiento del marketing online en el surgimiento del consumo de la publicidad online en Buenos Aires Argentina, como parte fundamental del diagnóstico.
En el quinto capítulo se analiza la publicidad como medio de comercialización para PYMES y su capacidad de innovación y mejoramiento de productos y servicios en los procesos de comercialización al llegar cliente de forma directa. Se analiza el fenómeno del nuevo concepto de marketing digital creado por Google donde el usuario recibe estímulos publicitarios que lo llevan a tomar la decisión de compra, la diferenciación de estrategias de posicionamiento y comunicación orgánica y patrocinada en Google AdWords y en la red de YouTube. Se diseña un Plan estratégico para la aplicación de publicidad patrocinada a una estrategia de posicionamiento en motores de búsqueda para las PYME, por medio de un caso real de éxito de una PYME en Bogotá-Colombia.
Además, se muestra el seguimiento de las campañas de Google AdWords y los distintos tipos de estrategias y análisis que se puede lograr con las herramientas diseñadas para la optimización de sitios web y campañas de Google AdWords, al igual que la capacidad del diseño de las estrategias de comunicación en móviles y en el seguimiento de posibles clientes con estrategias de publicidad en Remarketing.
El periodo escogido para esta investigación fluctúa entre el año 2011 al 2013, periodo donde se identifica parte de la creación de la operación tercerizada de Google y el análisis de estudios que versan sobre el crecimiento de la publicidad online de Internet en Buenos Aires.Estado del arte
Cabe destacar que uno de los antecedentes más interesantes para comprender el auge de la publicidad en Buenos Aires reside en la elección de Argentina como país presidente de la Comisión Interamericana de Ciencia y Tecnología durante el período de 2008 al 2009, el país propone y coordina proyectos y actividades de cooperación entre países miembros. Para esto, se recogen estudios e índices que se vinculen con el uso y desarrollo del Internet, y tras el análisis de esos estudios, se comparan con los índices de otros países latinoamericanos, pese a la minuciosidad del trabajo, aun no existe ningún estudio que establezca la dinámica mediante la cual las PYMES se relaciona con las plataformas de publicidad online. Por esta razón, se decidió realizar una investigación que realice un análisis del uso de la plataforma auto gestionada Google AdWords por parte de las PYMES en la ciudad de Buenos Aires durante el período 2011-2013.
Dados los fines de investigación del fenómeno de la publicidad online, el estudio se enfocará en un estudio aplicado a especialistas que se vinculen con la operación que realiza la Agencia Atento para Google desde el año 2011 en Argentina. Este estudio se reforzará con una entrevista de preguntas abiertas, tomando una muestra del marcado y considerará a un grupo de ambos géneros, mayores de 18 años y que residen en la capital porteña. Las entrevistas tendrán como finalidad encontrar el público más idóneo con el manejo de la plataforma de Google AdWords y cómo ésta se vincula con las PYMES.
A su vez, este trabajo se ubica dentro de las líneas Temáticas de nuevas tecnologías, medios y estrategias de comunicación, identificando la importancia que tienen éstas en la cotidianeidad gracias a las innovaciones creativas que introducen al área del diseño y la comunicación como herramientas de trabajo que permiten explorar otros lenguajes, que aportan a la renovación de los modelos organizativos de las empresas, junto con movilizar la dinámica del consumo de bienes y servicios.
De esta forma, se puede indicar que el tema de esta investigación nace a partir de una inquietud natural de todo aquel que ya se siente preparado para enfrentar el mundo profesional del diseño y considerarlo desde otros puntos de vistas, como la creación de planes estratégicos que contribuyan al desarrollo de nuevos campos del conocimiento.
Así, se puede precisar que, tras una vinculación laboral dentro del desarrollo de la publicidad online, esta investigación ha logrado identificar la necesidad de analizar el uso que hacen las PYMES de la publicidad online como un medio de comunicación auto gestionado a través de interfaces virtuales que le permiten crear y medir su propia comunicación, por medio de una planificación estratégica a nivel de los medios tradicionales de comunicación que permita sopesar las altas inversiones que requiere la publicidad tradicional en televisión, radio, revistas y prensa, supliendo la necesidad de comunicación con interfaces que le permiten personalizar la comunicación segmento de mercado hacia el cual se dirige sus productos o servicios.Teniendo en cuenta las herramientas precisas y desarrollando una planificación inteligente y perspicaz, se logra un impacto mayor, que deriva en un crecimiento económico para la empresa en cuestión. De esta forma, se desea exponer los beneficios que ha tenido el uso de Internet para generar una dinámica de consumo que permita un crecimiento rentable y sostenible.Aspectos metodológicos
El proyecto aplica el método de investigación descriptivo, porque examina las características del problema escogido, se definen y formulan las hipótesis y los procesos adaptados, por medio del diagnóstico del comportamiento de las PYMES respecto a la publicidad online, por medio de entrevistas a funcionarios, desde 2 puntos de vista, el de las agencia Atento Google quienes conocen a fondo la realidad de las necesidades y problemas de las PYME y desde el punto de vista del director de desarrollo y PYMES de la Bolsa de Comercio de Buenos Aires. El proyecto busca el porqué de los hechos mediante el establecimiento de relaciones causa-efecto. En este sentido, se analizan los efectos del diagnóstico, como los efectos de la investigación experimental realizada en las entrevistas, presentación del caso y del plan estratégico para probar la hipótesis. Sus resultados y conclusiones constituyen el nivel más profundo de conocimientos.
Incluye la explicación del problema y la deducción de los resultados de las entrevistas y el diseño del plan estratégico como solución tanto a las PYME como a los profesionales en diseño y comunicación en manejo de campañas online en Google Adwords.Hipótesis
La hipótesis propone que el uso de Google AdWords tuvo un crecimiento sostenido por parte de las PYMES de la Buenos Aires Argentina entre el año 2011 y 2013, con bajo rendimiento en los resultados esperados respecto a su inversión en campañas publicitarias, debido a la falta de capacitación en el uso de la interfaz Google AdWords, de conocimiento en la segmentación del público objetivo y la falta de seguimiento y control de las campañas publicitarias online, por lo anterior se formula la siguiente pregunta: ¿Cómo incorporan las PYMES en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina, las exigencias que han surgido con las nuevas formas tecnológicas de publicidad en internet y específicamente en el caso de Google AdWords? En este sentido, la hipótesis de esta investigación se basa en el gran crecimiento que tuvo el uso de Google AdWords por parte de las PYMES de Buenos Aires, pero que obtuvo bajo rendimiento en los resultados esperados respecto a su inversión en campañas publicitarias. Así, esta investigación considera esta relación inversamente proporcional, debido a la falta de capacitación en el uso de la herramienta Google AdWords, en la falta de conocimiento de la segmentación del público objetivo y la falta de seguimiento y control de las campañas publicitarias online.Objetivo general
Como objetivo general se busca analizar el comportamiento publicitario online de las PYMES en Buenos Aires Argentina a través de la herramienta Google AdWords, durante el periodo 2011-2013.Objetivos específicos
Los objetivos específicos proponen indagar las ventajas y desventajas comparativas que ofrece Google AdWords para los diferentes clientes PYMES frente a otros sistemas de publicidad online; analizar las formas de segmentación de las plataformas publicitarias online y las utilizadas por Google AdWords para promocionar los productos y servicios de la PYMES; conocer las dificultades más frecuentes y los modelos de capacitación que tuvieron los PYMES de Buenos Aires Argentina en el uso de Google AdWords; diagnosticar el Micro y Macro entorno de las Pymes de Buenos Aires - Argentina en el uso de la publicidad online; y diseñar un plan estratégico de diseño y comunicación para que las Pymes puedan aplicar la plataforma Google AdWords de una forma fácil y estructurada, con el fin que tanto las Pymes como los profesionales con maestría en Diseño y Comunicación puedan implementarlo, por medio de un caso de éxito.Antecedentes
Para efectos de esta investigación, se tiene en cuenta que la herramienta de Google AdWords es un medio de comunicación y publicidad online nuevo en el mercado Latinoamericano, ya que es países como España y Estados Unidos, tienen procesos de comercialización por internet avanzados y a gran escala. Por esto, para el caso en Buenos Aires Argentina se realiza un análisis desde los inicios de los años 90s, donde un grupo de físicos encabezado por Tim Berners-Lee creó el lenguaje HTML y luego el WWW -Word Wide Web- y generó nuevas facilidades de interconexión y herramientas gráficas amigables. Han pasado casi 22 años y la importancia de las TIC's (tecnologías de la información y la comunicación) es cada vez mayor, incluyendo el desarrollo en las redes sociales, que parte desde los diferentes procesos de manejo de la información en su producción, circulación y utilización, que se ha basado en diferentes conocimientos científicos, empíricos, subjetivos, prácticas sociales e instrumentalismo acerca del desarrollo de la información y la comunicación en la realidad, política, cultural y económica desde un contexto social tecnológico, en el cual se encuentran la información con la comunicación.
Manuel Castells afirma que "La Era de la Información" es nuestra era (Castell, 2007): "Es un periodo histórico caracterizado por una revolución tecnológica centrada en las tecnologías digitales de información y comunicación, concomitante, pero no causante, con la emergencia de una estructura social en red, en todos los ámbitos de la actividad humana, y con la interdependencia global de dicha actividad. Es un proceso de transformación multidimensional que es a la vez incluyente y excluyente en función de los valores e intereses dominantes en cada proceso, en cada país y en cada organización social. Como todo proceso de transformación histórica, la era de la información no determina un curso único de la historia humana; sus consecuencias, sus características dependen del poder de quienes se benefician en cada una de las múltiples opciones que se presentan a la voluntad humana. Pero la ideología tecnocrática futurológica trata de presentar la revolución tecnológica, la ley del mercado, se refuerza la una a la otra. En ambos casos, desaparece la sociedad como proceso autónomo de decisión en función de los intereses y valores de sus miembros, sometidos a las fuerzas externas del mercado y la tecnología".Internet se convierte en un fenómeno masivo a nivel mundial donde se crea un gigantesco centro comercial virtual, de tiendas que están abiertas las 24 horas del día, 7 días a la semana, 365 días al año, que permiten el libre acceso de todas las personas que tengas acceso a la red. Existen tiendas que venden de todo: productos, servicios, ideas, creencias, contactos, en fin es un centro comercial donde sólo algunos clientes saben a qué tienda van, mientras que la mayoría, para no perderse, pide ayuda en un stand a la entrada que dice "buscadores". (Ordozgoiti, 2010, p. 17)Este espacio creado por la Internet no solo propició una comercialización masiva, sino que también permitió innovar en las relaciones interpersonales, diseños web personalizados, nuevos modelos de negocio, nuevas formas de publicidad y nuevas formas de comunicación a través de redes sociales. En la actualidad los usuarios conocen gente, intercambian opiniones, comparten experiencias, compara precios, productos y calidad, se compra y se vende, y la gente se siente como en su casa, por lo cual no desea ser molestada (Ordozgoiti, 2010, pp. 17-18).
De esta forma, se puede ver cómo el desarrollo de Internet y la evolución sostenida de las TIC impusieron una modificación ineludible de los procesos de comunicación entre los hombres, mujeres y niños de cada país de Latinoamérica. Son cada vez más las personas que utilizan la web como plataforma para la búsqueda de información, el entretenimiento y la interacción con otros individuos. En Argentina según el diario La Nación (Julio, 2013), el crecimiento de la publicidad –online– es importante, puesto que ha superado considerablemente a la publicidad en medios tradicionales. En el año 2010, la web se consolida como medio publicitario de amplia relevancia en Argentina, creciendo un 49.5% respecto de 2009 y superando en 528 millones de pesos la inversión efectuada en los diarios y la televisión.
En 2011, los pronósticos que estimaban un crecimiento del 40%, la publicidad –online– creció un 117%, facturando 1147 millones de pesos, pasando al 3º puesto entre los medios más demandados (Crettaz, 2012). Se atribuye este crecimiento principalmente al cambio de hábito en el consumo de medios por parte del público argentino.
Los cambios generados por Internet y su vertiginoso crecimiento, han llevado a las empresas a replantear sus modelos de negocios e incorporar estrategias basadas en los medios –online–, lo que se ha visto apoyado por el cambio de costumbres, hábitos de información, comunicación y consumo de los usuarios. El novedoso fenómeno comunicacional que es Internet, también ha tenido etapas de grandes cambios que se trasladaron inmediatamente a empresas y usuarios. La banda ancha y la web 2.0 y el surgimiento y ascenso de Google, simplificaron el acceso y la navegación, así como los niveles de creación y participación de los usuarios. Por su parte, la banda ancha permitió que los usuarios pasaran más tiempo navegando y la web 2.0 dio acceso a los usuarios a herramientas de uso relativamente sencillo, debido a su diseño focalizado en el usuario. Con estas herramientas, el usuario puede crear y compartir contenidos que se suban a la red, gestionando sus propias redes sociales o utilizando plataformas como Facebook o Twitter para compartir opiniones, conocimiento, contenidos e información. Desde esta perspectiva, los nuevos modelos de publicidad, dilucidaron nuevas oportunidades de negocios dentro de esta participación activa del usuario en el Internet, debido a que eran los mismos usuarios quienes daban cuenta de sus gustos e intereses, información sumamente valiosa para las empresas.
La nueva facilidad en la información creó un mercado o ventana de visualización para las empresas ofertantes, beneficiándose de aquella información obtenida de los propios usuarios denominados nuevos modelos de investigación de mercados y de consumo del usuario. Algunas de empresas han hecho grandes esfuerzos para posicionar la promoción de sus servicios y productos en miles de páginas web y blogs a través de publicidades en Google, Facebook, YouTube, MercadoLibre, Taringa y otros, para que dichos usuarios puedan satisfacer sus necesidades de manera rápida desde cualquier lugar. Estas tendencias hacen a la publicidad online cada vez más accesible y rentable.
Desde este contexto mencionado, ha llevado al ámbito empresarial argentino y latinoamericano de pequeñas y medianas empresas –PYMES– a replantearse sus estrategias de marketing y comunicación, debido al gran potencial que propicia hoy en día el Internet para poder tener un acceso mucho más fluido a las nuevas tendencias, permitiendo delimitar las nuevas posibilidades que tiene la empresa dentro del mercado. Así, se demuestra cómo Internet tiene que ser estudiado de manera consciente, puesto que se constituye en una fuente creciente de difusión de bienes y servicios. En este sentido, la posibilidad de las empresas no solo tienen ser considerada por las grandes corporaciones, sino que, sobre todo, por aquellas PYMES y comerciantes que están comenzando sus emprendimientos, puesto que Internet les ofrece la posibilidad de visualizarse de manera fácil y económica. Lo importante, es tener una planificación estratégica que permita reconocer cada una de las fortalezas del producto o bien a ofrecer.
En las etapas iniciales de Internet en las década de los ochenta, los modelos de negocio online requerían de una importante inversión inicial, pero el escenario se vio profundamente modificado por las interacciones de Google, la banda ancha y la intervención de la web 2.0. Según (Zanoni, 2008) "Google cambió todo, en 1999 Google era irrelevante y hoy domina Internet. Este hecho tiene efectos fenomenalmente relevantes. En 1999, para lograr tráfico masivo hacia un sitio era necesario hacer publicidad masiva y para eso era necesario mucho capital, millones de dólares". Por esta razón, Google en parte fue el gran responsable de la dinamización y circulación de las ofertas dentro de la red. Es tan potente que puede ayudar a una empresa a que se posicione rápidamente. Lo importante es que ésta tenga una página web bien construida para que la empresa logre indexar el contenido (lo cual se realiza por medio de la herramienta Webmaster tools y Adsense, de esta manera comienza a generar divisas o clientes en la red).
El éxito obtenido a través de la popularidad del buscador de Google desde su lanzamiento en septiembre de 1998 llevó a la empresa a replicar su eficiente modelo de indexación (o formato de ordenación de información para elaborar posteriormente su índice) como medio de publicidad para cualquier anunciante. Bajo esta premisa nace Google AdWords una interfaz que permite a sus usuarios crear sus propias campañas de comunicación en el año 2000 como su sistema de publicidad online auto gestionado, que relaciona las palabras clave usadas por los internautas con anuncios patrocinados relacionados a la búsqueda. Este modelo es desarrollado a partir de las ciencias de la información, área del conocimiento encargada de la gestión y organización del conocimiento, así como la indexación de la información en los sistemas de bases de datos que usando los análisis de los buscadores o querys, usan los tesauros o palabras claves para identificar y organizar la información dentro del sistema de buscador de Google, la base del sistema es conocido como page rank. Las herramientas y facilidades que brinda Internet han sido rápidamente captadas por los usuarios, quienes las han adoptado para sus actividades de consumo. Este fenómeno se ha visto profundizado por las sucesivas crisis y distintas recesiones que muchas economías del mundo han sufrido estos últimos años, lo que ha permitido sacar provecho la a información directa sobre proveedores, marcas, precios, productos y servicios, establecer comparaciones y aún efectuar la compra desde la comodidad de su hogar, o desde su teléfono inteligente, sin necesidad de un intermediario. Esto ha llevado a afirmaciones como la realizada por la comunidad de emprendedores Red innova "Salir de la crisis económica pasa por emprender y más concretamente, por emprender en el entorno digital" (Diario informático, 2012). Se puede afirmar así, que los medios elegidos tradicionalmente para publicitar como la televisión, la radio o la gráfica han perdido la hegemonía que poseían entre las preferencias de los potenciales consumidores. Esta situación obligó a las empresas a gestionar nuevas estrategias para captar y retener sus clientes.
Fue así como apareció el concepto de Marketing online. Este fenómeno comunicacional ha cambiado el modo en que se consume, puesto que permite resolver con mayor velocidad las necesidades, además de contar con información cada vez más precisa y detallada sobre los servicios y productos disponibles para los consumidores, también permite combinar la información online, con actividades offline, como acercarse a la tienda más cercana al lugar en el que el usuario realiza la búsqueda y que provea el servicio o producto que éste está dispuesto a comprar. Así, el Internet se convierte en una herramienta de venta fundamental para el éxito de las empresas y marcas, y la publicidad juega en ello un rol indispensable: ser visible en Internet es un factor clave de éxito. Así mismo las nuevas formas del diseño en la publicidad, pues adquieren nuevos parámetros, estilos, estructuras.
La evolución tecnológica no solo genera cambios en los usuarios sino que también en la forma en que se realiza publicidad y es por causa de este dinamismo incesante que la información resulta indispensable para elaborar estrategias comunicacionales acertadas que permitan conocer profundamente al público objetivo, por lo que conocer sus conductas online, sus necesidades, expectativas y preferencias en materia publicitaria, resulta cada vez más necesario, en un contexto de rápidos cambios, alta competencia y de nuevas oportunidades, tanto para las grandes corporaciones, como para las pequeñas empresas. Cabe detenerse en la nueva posición en la que se encuentran las empresas al momento de vender sus productos. Los usuarios de Internet cuentan con una herramienta que les permite obtener con facilidad información sobre un determinado producto o servicio, comparando las ventajas que les ofrecen las diversas marcas. De esta manera, la competencia entre las empresas se intensifica, induciéndolas a presentar sus productos con creatividad e inteligencia a los diversos públicos objetivos.
Ante tal situación, se percibe que las condiciones de éxito empresarial están condicionadas por la manera en que se capitalizan las herramientas que provee Internet. Las reglas del juego para competir en el mercado se han modificado, y todo parece indicar que quien no se adapte a ellas terminará perdiendo en rentabilidad y crecimiento económico.
Como se dijo anteriormente, esta realidad no solo tiene que ser consideradas por las grandes empresas, dispersas por el mundo entero, sino que también por las pequeñas y medianas (PYMES). Es importante enfatizar que el uso adecuado de la web exige a las empresas contar con un equipo dedicado exclusivamente a esta tarea. De aquí la importancia de un departamento de marketing digital. Sin embargo, el presupuesto y estructura de las PYMES no se ajusta a tal requerimiento, no cuentan con el personal suficiente para distribuir las tareas tal como se desearía, haciendo muchas veces que una misma persona ejecute diversas funciones. En estas condiciones, se hace más difícil estar atentos a las condiciones cambiantes del mercado y capacitarse para responder a dichas exigencias.

Ali E. Abbas (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an associate professor in the Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He received an M.S. in electrical engineering (1998), an M.S. in engineering economic systems and operations research (2001), a Ph.D. in management science and engineering (2003), and a Ph.D. (minor) in electrical engineering, all from Stanford University. He worked as a lecturer in the Department of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford and worked in Schlumberger Oilfield Services, where he held several international positions in wireline logging, operations management, and international training. He has also worked on several consulting projects for mergers and acquisitions in California, and cotaught several executive seminars on decision analysis at Strategic Decisions Group in Menlo Park, California. His research interests include utility theory, decision making with incomplete information and preferences, dynamic programming, and information theory. Dr. Abbas is a senior member of the IEEE and a member of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). He is also an associate editor for the Decision Analysis and Operations Research journals of INFORMS. Email: aliabbas@illinois.edu . Kash Barker (" Decision Trees with Single and Multiple Interval-Valued Objectives ") is an assistant professor in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Oklahoma. He holds a Ph.D. in systems engineering from the University of Virginia, where he was a research assistant in the Center for Risk Management of Engineering Systems, and B.S. and M.S. degrees in industrial engineering from the University of Oklahoma. His primary research interests lie in modeling interdependent economic systems and decision making for large-scale system sustainment, with research funded by the National Science Foundation, the Federal Highway Administration, and the Army Research Office. Email: kashbarker@ou.edu . J. Eric Bickel (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus " and " A Simulation-Based Approach to Decision Making with Partial Information ") is an assistant professor in the Graduate Program in Operations Research (Department of Mechanical Engineering) at the University of Texas at Austin. In addition, Professor Bickel is a fellow in both the Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy (CIEEP) and the Center for Petroleum Asset Risk Management (CPARM). His research interests include the theory and practice of decision analysis and its application in the energy and climate-change arenas. His work has addressed the modeling of probabilistic dependence, value of information, scoring rules, calibration, risk preference, decision education, decision making in sports, and climate engineering as a response to climate change. Prior to returning to academia, Professor Bickel was a senior engagement manager for Strategic Decisions Group. He has consulted around the world in a range of industries, including oil and gas, electricity generation/transmission/delivery, energy trading and marketing, commodity and specialty chemicals, life sciences, financial services, and metals and mining. Professor Bickel is the vice president/president-elect of the Decision Analysis Society and an associate editor for Decision Analysis. He holds an M.S. and Ph.D. from the Department of Engineering–Economic Systems at Stanford University. Email: ebickel@mail.utexas.edu . Vicki M. Bier (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a full professor in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she is currently department chair and also directs the Center for Human Performance and Risk Analysis. She is also the past president of the Decision Analysis Society and is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. Her research interests include applications of operations research, risk analysis, and decision analysis to problems of homeland security and critical infrastructure protection. Email: bier@engr.wisc.edu . Samuel E. Bodily (" Multiplicative Utilities for Health and Consumption ") is the John Tyler Professor of Business Administration at the University of Virginia's Darden School. He has published textbooks and more than 40 articles in journals ranging from Harvard Business Review to Management Science. His publications relate to decision and risk analysis, multiattribute utility, forecasting, strategy modeling, revenue management, and eStrategy. Along with Casey Lichtendahl, he was runner-up for the 2012 Decision Analysis Publication Award. He has edited special issues of Interfaces on Decision and Risk Analysis, and Strategy Modeling and Analysis. Professor Bodily has published well over 120 cases, including a couple of the 10 best-selling cases at Darden. He received the Distinguished Casewriter Wachovia award from Darden in 2005 and three other best case or research Wachovia awards. Professor Bodily is faculty leader for the executive program Strategic Thinking and Action. He is the course-head of and teaches in a highly valued first-year M.B.A. course in decision analysis; has a successful second-year elective, Management Decision Models; and has taught eStrategy and Strategy. He is a past winner of the Decision Sciences International Instructional Award. He has served as chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. He has taught numerous executive education programs for Darden and private companies, has consulted widely for business and government entities, and has served as an expert witness. Professor Bodily was on the faculties of MIT Sloan School of Management and Boston University and has been a visiting professor at INSEAD Singapore, Stanford University, and the University of Washington. He has Ph.D. and S.M. degrees from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a B.S. in physics from Brigham Young University. Email: bodilys@virginia.edu . David V. Budescu (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is the Anne Anastasi Professor of Psychometrics and Quantitative Psychology at Fordham University. He held positions at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and the University of Haifa, and visiting positions at Carnegie Mellon University, University of Gothenburg, the Kellogg School at Northwestern University, the Hebrew University, and the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion). His research is in the areas of human judgment, individual and group decision making under uncertainty and with incomplete and vague information, and statistics for the behavioral and social sciences. He is on the editorial boards of Applied Psychological Measurement, Decision Analysis (associate editor), Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition (2000–2003), Multivariate Behavioral Research, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (1992–2002), and Psychological Methods (1996–2000). He is past president of the Society for Judgment and Decision Making (2000–2001), fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, and an elected member of the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychologists. Email: budescu@fordham.edu . John C. Butler (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a clinical associate professor of finance and the academic director of the Energy Management and Innovation Center in the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin, the outgoing secretary/treasurer of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society, and an associate editor for Decision Analysis. Professor Butler received his Ph.D. in management science and information systems from the University of Texas at Austin in 1998. His research interests involve the use of decision science models to support decision making, with a particular emphasis on decision and risk analysis models with multiple-performance criteria. Professor Butler has consulted with a number of organizations regarding the application of decision analysis tools to a variety of practical problems. Most of his consulting projects involve use of Visual Basic for Applications and Excel to implement complex decision science models in a user-friendly format. Email: john.butler2@mccombs.utexas.edu . Enrico Diecidue (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an associate professor of Decision Sciences at INSEAD (France) and holds a Ph.D. from the CentER (Center for Economic Research), Tilburg University, the Netherlands. Since 2001 he has been a resident faculty member at INSEAD, except for 2008–2009 when he was a visiting professor at Wharton and 2010–2011 when he was on sabbatical at the Erasmus School of Economics (the Netherlands). His main research interests are in individual decision making under uncertainty, health decisions, and experimental economics. He is interested in the role of regret, aspiration levels, and time in individual decisions. His current research is also addressing the role of groups in complex and ambiguous decisions. Professor Diecidue's research has appeared in leading journals in economics and management. He is on the editorial board of Journal of Risk and Uncertainty and is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. He teaches M.B.A., executive M.B.A., and executive participants on topics such as uncertainty, data and judgment, decision making under uncertainty, risk management, and management decision making. He has won teaching awards at INSEAD and Wharton. Email: enrico.diecidue@insead.edu . Robin L. Dillon-Merrill (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an associate professor in the McDonough School of Business at Georgetown University. Professor Dillon-Merrill seeks to understand and explain how and why people make the decisions that they do under conditions of uncertainty and risk. This research specifically examines critical decisions that people have made following near-miss events in situations with severe outcomes (i.e., hurricane evacuation, terrorism, NASA mission management, etc.). She has received research funding from the National Science Foundation, NASA, the Department of Defense, and the Department of Homeland Security through the University of Southern California's National Center for Risk and Economic Analysis for Terrorism Events. She has served as a risk analysis and project management expert on several National Academies Committees, including the review of the New Orleans regional hurricane protection projects and the application of risk-analysis techniques to securing the Department of Energy's special nuclear materials. She is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. Email: rld9@georgetown.edu . Raimo P. Hämäläinen (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a professor of operations research and director of the Systems Analysis Laboratory at Aalto University, Finland. He received his M.Sc. and Dr. Tech. degrees in systems theory and applied mathematics from the Helsinki University of Technology. His research interests include decision analysis, risk and game theory, and experimental economics, as well as dynamic optimization with aerospace applications. He is widely known for his work in environmental decision making and energy policy. He is the designer of widely used decision analysis software, including the first Web-based value tree software, Web-HIPRE; Smart-Swaps; and the Joint Gains negotiation support system. He has recently introduced the concept of Systems Intelligence, which opens a new perspective to organizational learning and personal growth. He is on the editorial board of a number of journals, including Decision Analysis (associate editor), European Journal of Operational Research, Journal of Group Decision and Negotiation, and EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Dr. Hämäläinen has received the Edgeworth-Pareto Award of the International Society for Multiple Criteria Decision Making. He is also the honorary president of the Finnish Operations Research Society. Email: raimo.hamalainen@aalto.fi . Ralph L. Keeney (" Value-Focused Brainstorming ") is a research professor emeritus at the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University. His education includes a B.S. in engineering from the University of California, Los Angeles, and a Ph.D. in operations research from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His research interests are in the areas of decision making and risk analysis. He has applied such work to important personal decisions and as a consultant for private and public organizations addressing corporate management problems, environmental and risk studies, and decisions involving life-threatening risks. Prior to joining the Duke faculty, Professor Keeney was a faculty member in Management and Engineering at MIT and at the University of Southern California, a research scholar at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Austria, and the founder of the decision and risk analysis group of a large geotechnical and environmental consulting firm. Professor Keeney is the author of many books and articles, including Value-Focused Thinking, Decisions with Multiple Objectives, coauthored with Howard Raiffa, and Smart Choices, coauthored with John S. Hammond and Howard Raiffa, which has been translated into 15 languages. Dr. Keeney was awarded the Ramsey Medal for distinguished contributions in decision analysis by the Decision Analysis Society and is a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering. Email: keeney@duke.edu . L. Robin Keller (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a professor of operations and decision technologies in the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine. She received her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in management science and her B.A. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles. She has served as a program director for the Decision, Risk, and Management Science Program of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). Her research is on decision analysis and risk analysis for business and policy decisions and has been funded by NSF and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Her research interests cover multiple attribute decision making, riskiness, fairness, probability judgments, ambiguity of probabilities or outcomes, risk analysis (for terrorism, environmental, health, and safety risks), time preferences, problem structuring, cross-cultural decisions, and medical decision making. She is the outgoing Editor-in-Chief of Decision Analysis, published by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). She is a Fellow of INFORMS and has held numerous roles in INFORMS, including board member and chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. She is a recipient of the George F. Kimball Medal from INFORMS. She has served as the decision analyst on three National Academy of Sciences committees. She has been appointed to the editorial board of the new EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Email: lrkeller@uci.edu . Anton Kühberger (" Explaining Risk Attitude in Framing Tasks by Regulatory Focus: A Verbal Protocol Analysis and a Simulation Using Fuzzy Logic ") is a professor of psychology at the University of Salzburg, Department of Cognition and Development, and a member of the Center of Neurocognitive Research at the University of Salzburg. His research interests include the following areas: judgment and decision making, in particular framing, and the role of risk, ambiguity, and uncertainty in decision making; thinking and reasoning, in particular counterfactual thinking and the notion of rationality; and social cognition, in particular the foundation of the understanding of oneself and others either by a theory of mind or by simulation. In addition, he is interested in the development of scientific methods such as verbal protocol analysis and in understanding the role statistics for the accumulation of knowledge. He is a member of the editorial board of several scholarly journals and currently is vice-dean of the Faculty of Natural Sciences at the University of Salzburg. Email: anton.kuehberger@sbg.ac.at . Kenneth C. Lichtendahl Jr. (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus " and " Multiplicative Utilities for Health and Consumption ") is an assistant professor of business administration at the Darden School of Business at the University of Virginia. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis. He received his Ph.D. in decision sciences from the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University. His research focuses on decision analysis, Bayesian statistics, game theory, and dynamic programming. Email: lichtendahlc@darden.virginia.edu . Jason R. W. Merrick (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is a professor in the Department of Statistical Sciences and Operations Research at Virginia Commonwealth University. He has a D.Sc. in operations research from George Washington University. He teaches courses in decision analysis, risk analysis, and simulation. His research is primarily in the area of decision analysis and Bayesian statistics. He has worked on projects ranging from assessing maritime oil transportation and ferry system safety, the environmental health of watersheds, and optimal replacement policies for rail tracks and machine tools. He has received grants from the National Science Foundation, the Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard, the American Bureau of Shipping, British Petroleum, and Booz Allen Hamilton, among others. He has also performed training for Infineon Technologies, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, and Capital One Services. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis and the EURO Journal on Decision Processes. Email: jrmerric@vcu.edu . Luis Vicente Montiel (" A Simulation-Based Approach to Decision Making with Partial Information ") is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Texas at Austin. His main research interest is mathematical modeling for optimization under uncertainty, with a special interest in decision analysis and simulation learning for optimization. His current research is dedicated to providing a theoretical and practical framework for approximating joint distributions under partial information. Luis has a Ph.D. in operations research from the University of Texas, an M.S. in financial engineering from Columbia University, and an M.S. in management science and engineering from Stanford University. Email: lvmontiel@utexas.edu . Jay R. Simon (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") is an assistant professor in the Defense Resources Management Institute of the Naval Postgraduate School. He holds a Ph.D. in operations and decision technologies from the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine, an M.S. in management science and engineering, and a B.S. in mathematical and computational science from Stanford University. His primary research interest is multiattribute preference modeling, particularly involving outcomes that occur over time, space, or groups of people. His current and recent work includes a prostate cancer decision model, preference models for health decisions, preferences over geographical data, altruistic utility modeling, and multiattribute procurement. He is an associate editor for Decision Analysis and is the webmaster and social media officer for the Decision Analysis Society of INFORMS. Email: jrsimon@nps.edu . Christian Wiener (" Explaining Risk Attitude in Framing Tasks by Regulatory Focus: A Verbal Protocol Analysis and a Simulation Using Fuzzy Logic ") received his doctorate from the University of Salzburg, Austria. His first research area was the application of the EEG in connection with dyslexia. Later he moved to the area of social cognition, where his research was focused on framing and especially the simulation of decision-making behavior using a fuzzy-logic expert system. Since the completion of his dissertation, he has been working as a clinical psychologist with developmentally delayed children. Email: christian.wiener@gmx.at . Kaycee J. Wilson (" Decision Trees with Single and Multiple Interval-Valued Objectives ") completed M.S. and B.S. degrees in the School of Industrial and Systems Engineering at the University of Oklahoma in 2012 and 2010, respectively. Her primary interests lie in healthcare operations and reliability-based decision making, and she holds a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. Email: kaycee.j.wilson-1@ou.edu . George Wu (" From the Editors: Brainstorming, Multiplicative Utilities, Partial Information on Probabilities or Outcomes, and Regulatory Focus ") has been on the faculty of the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business since September 1997. His degrees include an A.B. (applied mathematics, 1985), an S.M. (applied mathematics, 1987), and a Ph.D. (decision sciences, 1991), all from Harvard University. Prior to joining the faculty at the University of Chicago, Professor Wu was on the faculty at Harvard Business School. Professor Wu worked as a decision analyst at Procter & Gamble prior to starting graduate school. His research interests include descriptive and prescriptive aspects of decision making, in particular decision making involving risk; cognitive biases in bargaining and negotiation; and managerial and organizational decision making. Professor Wu is a coordinating editor for Theory and Decision, an advisory editor for Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, on the editorial boards of Decision Analysis (associate editor) and the Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, and a former department editor of Management Science. Email: wu@chicagobooth.edu .

This guide accompanies the following article: The Animal Rights Movement in Theory and Practice: A Review of the Sociological Literature, Compass 6/2 (2012): pp. 166–181, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00440.xAuthor's introductionThe animal rights movement has been described as one of the most neglected and misunderstood social movements of our era. However, social movement scholars are beginning to realise the political and moral significance of the world wide animal protection movement at a time when nature itself has been included in the specialist field of environmental sociology. Just as people are beginning to see that nature matters and is not separate from society, nonhuman animals (hereafter animals) too are increasingly perceived as worthy of our respect and consideration. The long‐running animal protection movement which began in England in the 18th century is today better known as the animal rights movement. It is the men and women of this movement who, atypically for a social movement, are campaigning for a species that is not their own. The movement's theories and practices are important for what they do for animals and also because of what the animal rights controversy reveals about human beings.Author recommendsGarner, Robert. 1998. Political Animals: Animal Protection Policies in Britain and the United States. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.The book describes the progress made by the animal protection movement in the two countries where animal rights protests have been most prominent. The author presents a comprehensive examination of animal welfare policies in Britain and the US thus providing an informative comparative study of the movement's relationship with the state in these two countries. Garner's focus on policy networks corresponds to the sociologist's concept of social movement organizations. More than fifty such organizations balanced evenly between animal protectionists and animal‐user industries are discussed in the book. Political Animals provides an excellent introduction to the politics of animal rights, although missing in the accounts are the voices of the animal activists and their opponents. In the final analysis, it is the meaning activists attribute to their cause that drives the movement, a fact which Garner tacitly acknowledges.Imhoff, Daniel (ed) 2010. The CAFO Reader: The Tragedy of Industrial Animal Factories. Published by the Foundation for Deep Ecology with Watershed Media, Berkeley, LA: University of California Press.The Reader's subject – concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO) – covers most of the topics relevant to factory farmed animals and is divided into seven parts: (1) The pathological mindset of the CAFO; (2) Myths of the CAFO; (3) Inside the CAFO; (4) The loss of diversity; (5) Hidden costs of CAFO; (6) Technological takeover; (7) Putting the CAFO out to pasture. The acronym CAFO suggests a bland, mundane practice and is therefore a name which the editor believes should be replaced by the more accurate label "animal concentration camps". The chapter titles indicate what is in store for the reader but the content is perhaps less confronting than the book's companion photo‐format volume of the same name. The reader is a very comprehensive survey of how living creatures are subjected to inhumane practices for their body parts by "corporate food purveyors" and is essential reading for anyone who cares about the future survival of all of the earth's species.Kean, Hilda. 1998. Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800. London: Reaktion Books Ltd.In this attractive book, the historian Hilda Kean provides one of the most comprehensive and interesting surveys of the early animal protection movement in England, the birthplace of animal rights. Kean tells a compelling story of how and why people's attitudes and practices involving animals changed over the past two centuries. She attributes these changes largely to the seemingly simple idea of "sight", or how people were influenced by seeing for themselves how animals such as horses and dogs were ill treated in public spaces such as in streets and markets. Animals "out of sight" in vivisection laboratories and in abattoirs also came to the attention of the early animal protectionists, most of whom were women. The sight and spectacle of animal abuse turned hearts and stomachs once a light was shone on these everyday cruelties by the pioneers of animal rights in England. Kean's book is nicely illustrated in keeping with the theme of seeing animals in their various relationships with humans.Munro, Lyle. 2005. Confronting Cruelty: Moral Orthodoxy and the Challenge of the Animal Rights Movement. Leiden & Boston: Brill.For most people animal cruelty is understood as unspeakable acts perpetrated by warped individuals mostly against dogs, cats, birds and sometimes horses. The animal rights movement seeks to broaden the issue of animal cruelty to include the vast numbers of animals that suffer and die in "the animal industrial complex" of intensive farming, recreational hunting and animal research and experimentation. The book draws on social movement theory to explain how and why an increasing number of people in the UK, US and Australia have taken up the cause of animals in campaigning against the exploitative practices of the animal‐user industries. Essentially, the thesis is that animal abuse is constructed by the animal rights movement as a social problem (speciesism) on a par with sexism and racism. This is the first book in the Human and Animal Studies Series which currently lists about a dozen monographs published by Brill under the editorship of Kenneth Shapiro of the Society & Animals Institute in the US.Noske, Barbara. 1989. Humans and Other Animals: Beyond the Boundaries of Anthropology. London: Pluto Press.As an anthropologist, Noske brings a different perspective to our relationship with nature, especially in the long process of animal domestication. Her chapter on "the animal industrial complex" shows how both human and nonhuman animals suffer within this structure of domination; for example, slaughterhouse work takes a heavy toll on the meat workers while the animals experience atrocious pain and misery on the assembly line of mass execution. Noske's book is valuable for its broad treatment of animal‐human relations in which she describes cultural, historical, structural and sociological aspects of these relations particularly in America and Australia.Wilkie, Rhoda and Inglis David (eds.) 2007. The Social Scientific Study of Nonhuman Animals: A Five‐volume Collection–Animals and Society: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences. (Vols 1–5), London: Routledge.This is a collection of 90 previously published articles and book chapters in approximately 2,000 pages on the social‐scientific study of animals. The papers range from the earliest in 1928 on "the culture of canines" to the latest in 2006 on "religion and animals." Three quarters of the papers were published in the last two decades and are derived from anthropology, sociology, psychology, geography, philosophy and feminist studies.Because Animals and Society is based mostly on work derived from more than 12 different specialist journals, it has a claim to comprehensiveness; however, the editors mention topics that are not covered in the collection:
 Ethical issues;
 Animal welfare;
 The characteristics of animal protectionists;
 "Wilderness";
 The role of animals in the lives of children; and
 The animal rights movement.
The main topics included in the collection provide a hint of its value to researchers:Vol I. Representing the animal (Introduction and critical concepts in the social sciences)Vol II. Social science perspectives on human‐animal interactions (I):
 Anthropology.
 Geography.
 Feminist studies.
Vol III. Social science perspectives on human‐animal interactions (II):
 Sociology.
 Psychology.
Vol IV. Forms of human‐animal relations and animal death – the dynamics of domestication:
 Human‐pet relationships.
 Human‐livestock relations.
 Animal abuse and animal death.
Vol V. Boundaries and quandaries in human‐animal relations:
 Border troubles: are humans unique and what is an animal?
 The legal, ethical and moral status of animals.
 "The Frankenstein syndrome": animals, genetic engineering, and ethical dilemmas.
NB. The above is a shorter version of my review in Society & Animals, 16. 91–93, 2008. I thank the journal for publishing the original review and for permission to include the above version in Sociology Compass.Online materialshttp://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2007/s2159904.htmThis is the story of a protest against the live animal export trade from Australia to the Middle East. The 7.30 Report of 11 February 2008, was one of several media stories on the cruelty involved in the transport and slaughter of cattle, goats and sheep which outraged thousands of Australians when they witnessed footage shot by animal activists. The four minute video recording provides commentary and images that explain why the live animal export trade is a "hot cognition" issue in Australia and the UK. More recently, in June 2012, the callous treatment of cattle in a number of Indonesian abattoirs became a major media story that prompted public outrage and calls for an immediate and permanent ban on the trade.http://www.sharkwater.com/For many people, sharks are the most feared of all creatures and also the most misunderstood. They have been called "the mother of otherness" and as a result when they are hunted and killed there is very little concern for their welfare. This groundbreaking film explains the importance of sharks to the ocean and seeks to dispel the main stereotype of the shark as the creature from hell. The film is the work of Rob Stewart whose lifelong fascination with sharks was the catalyst for his mission to save the great predator from extinction.http://www.wspa‐international.org/Regular internet users will probably have come across the advertisements from the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), particularly its campaign against the cruelty involved in bear dancing. The WSPA, as an international animal welfare organization, is one of a very select few animal and environmental organizations recognized by the United Nations. Another campaign which is featured on their website is "The Red Collar Campaign", the motto for which is "Collars not Cruelty". Viewers are warned that the two and a half minute video clip contains some confronting images of cruelty to dogs suspected of being infected by rabies. WSPA's objective is to end the brutality inflicted unnecessarily on thousands of dogs perceived as a human health and safety risk; its solution to the problem of rabies is simple, cheap and effective.http://www.awionline.orgThe Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) is one of the most effective animal protection societies in the US. Its founder, the late Christine Stevens, worked most of her life as an advocate and lobbyist for animals. The AWI's attractive website provides many useful features such as the AWI Quarterly and details of its seminal campaigns which include research animals, companion animals, farm animals, marine animals and wildlife. Since it was established in 1951, the AWI has had access to the US Congress and in gaining the attention of powerbrokers, the organization has succeeded in securing animal welfare improvements that are legislated in law, which owes much to the work of Christine Stevens.http://www.league.org.ukHunting is a controversial issue in England which has developed into what is actually a class war between the aristocratic class and the "great unwashed". Founded in 1924, the League is virtually a household name in England. Its website contains some revealing film clips about the cruelty involved in the hunting of foxes, deer, rabbits and other animals in the English countryside. There is a great deal of information contained in the blogs and its FAQs as well as elsewhere on its website. Mention is also made of one of the latest hunting fads, "trophy hunting" which is apparently gaining popularity in some parts of the USA.Topics for lectures & discussionPart I: introduction and overviewWhat is the animal rights movement? Why do people campaign on behalf of a species that is not their own? How do individuals and social movements make their claims on behalf of nonhuman animals? These are some of the questions that would traditionally be posed in introducing the animal rights movement.ReadingMunro, Lyle. 2012. 'The Animal Rights Movement in Theory and Practice: A Review of the Sociological Literature'. Sociology Compass6(2): 166–81.Waldau's recent book is a good introduction to what the movement is all about:Waldau, Paul. 2011. Animal Rights: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford: Oxford University Press.There are three main discourses on animal rights which provide insights into our constructions of "the animal": (1) Animals in this discourse are constructed as social problems (see Irvine, 2003 below for an example); (2) in this second discourse, animal defenders are demonised with labels ranging from "sentimental animal lovers" to "extremists" and even "terrorists" (see Munro, 1999 below for an example); (3) finally, the animal rights movement constructs our cruel treatment of animals as morally wrong and therefore deserving of the strongest condemnation (see Shapiro, 1994 below for an example). How and why people campaign against the exploitation of animals are issues explored in the following papers:Irvine, Leslie. 2003. 'The Problem of Unwanted Pets; A Case Study in How Institutions 'Think' About Clients' Needs'. Social Problems50: 550–66.Munro, Lyle. 1999. 'Contesting Moral Capital in Campaigns Against Animal Liberation'. Society & Animals7: 35–53.Shapiro, Kenneth. 1994. 'The Caring Sleuth: Portrait of an Animal Rights Activist'. Society & Animals2: 145–65.Part II: animal crueltyThis section includes some important contributions to explaining cruelty to animals.Agnew, Robert. 1998. 'The Causes of Animal Abuse: A Social‐psychological Analysis'. Theoretical Criminology2: 177–209.Munro, Lyle. 1997. 'Framing Cruelty: The Construction of Duck‐Shooting as a Social Problem'. Society & Animals5: 137–54.D'Silva, Joyce and John Webster. 2010. The Meat Crisis: Developing More Sustainable Production and Consumption. London and Washington: Earthscan.Merz‐Perez, Linda and Kathleen Heide. 2004. Animal Cruelty: Pathway to Violence Against People. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Ltd.Ascione, Frank. 2008. 'Children Who Are Cruel to Animals: A Survey of Research and Implications for Developmental Psychology.' Pp. 171–89 in Social Creatures: A Human‐Animals Studies Reader, edited by Clifton, Flynn. New York: Lantern Books.Winders, Bill and David Nibert. 2009. 'Expanding "Meat" Consumption and Animal Oppression.' Pp. 183–9 in Between the Species: Readings in Human‐Animal Relations, edited by Arnold, Arluke and Clinton Sanders. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.Part III: social movement theory and animalsThere is a large literature on social movement theory with relatively little that refers to nonhuman animals. Some of those which do take up the issue are included below along with the following books that provide a general introduction to the study of social movements.Lowe, Brian and Caryn Ginsberg. 2002. 'Animal Rights as a Post‐Citizenship Movement'. Society & Animals10: 203–15.Jasper, James. 2007. 'The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions in and around Social Movements.' Volume 4 Pp. 585–612 in Social Movements: Critical Concepts in Sociology Volumes 1–4, edited by Jeff, Goodwin and James Jasper. London and New York: Routledge.Buechler, Steven. 2011. Understanding Social Movements: Theories from the Classical Era to the Present. Boulder and London: Paradigm Publishers.Cochrane, Alasdair. 2010. Chapter 6 'Marxism and Animals.' Pp. 93–114 in An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory, edited by Cochrane's. Basingstoke Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.Einwohner, Rachel. 2002. 'Bringing the Outsiders in: Opponents' Claims and the Construction of Animal Rights Activists' Identity'. Mobilization7: 253–68.Part IV: animal advocacy and activism: strategy and tacticsThe above readings reveal to some extent at least why people campaign against animal cruelty. In this section's readings, the focus is on how animal activists run their campaigns in the streets (grassroots activism) and in the suites (organizational advocacy).Carrie Freeman Packwood. 2010. 'Framing Animal Rights in the "Go Veg" Campaigns of US Animal Rights Organizations'. Society & Animals18: 163–82.Paul, Elizabeth. 1995. 'Scientists' and Animal Rights Campaigners' Views of the Animal Experimentation Debate'. Society & Animals3: 1–21.Upton, Andrew. 2010. 'Contingent Communication in a Hybrid Multi‐Media World: Analysing the Campaigning Strategies of SHAC'. New Media & Society13: 96–113.Munro, Lyle. 2001. Compassionate Beasts: The Quest for Animal Rights. Westport, CT: Praeger.Munro, Lyle. 2002. 'The Animal Activism of Henry Spira (1927–1998).'Society & Animals10: 173–91.Munro, Lyle. 2005. 'Strategies, Action Repertoires and DIY Activism in the Animal Rights Movement.'Social Movement Studies4: 75–94.Jasper, James. 1997. The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography and Creativity in Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Singer, Peter. 1998. Ethics into Action: Henry Spira and the Animal Rights Movement. Lanham MD: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers Inc.Part V: academic/activist collaborationShould academic teachers collaborate with activists in their campaigns? Like the church/state relations debate this is a controversial question since there are arguments both for and against academic involvement in political and social movements. Most of the readings in the original Compass article and below tend to see more benefits than costs to collaboration; however, higher education administrators don't like dissent and it is hard to imagine an academic holding down his or her job if they were seen to be working with animal activists on a particularly controversial campaign. It might be seen as acceptable if the collaboration was with the SPCA in the US or the RSPCA in Britain but not if the activists were affiliated with members of a radical animal liberation group. Furthermore, an academic‐animal activist who campaigned say against the practice of animal experimentation at his or her university would surely be dismissed or at least threatened with dismissal unless they cut their ties with outside activists.Burnett, Cathleen. 2003. 'Passion through the Profession: Being Both Activist and Academic.'Social Justice30: 135–50.Kleidman, Robert. 1994. 'Volunteer Activism and Professionalism in Social Movement Organizations.'Social Problems41: 257–76.Focus questions
 Is the animal rights movement a genuine social movement when nonhuman animals are widely understood not to belong to society as it is generally understood?
 How would you respond to the claim that cruelty to animals is our worst vice.
 From your experience of seeing animal rights protests either on television or as the real thing, what do you think are the dominant emotions exhibited by the campaigners and their opponents?
 From what you've read or heard or seen of social movement protests, do you believe the most effective strategy is non‐violence or violence; and which of these two strategies do you think is more acceptable for the animal protection movement to follow and why?
 Should academics who lecture on social movements practice what they preach? What are some of the main benefits and problems associated with academic analysts of social movements collaborating with grassroots activists?
 The animal rights movement has been described as one of the fastest‐growing social movements in the West – and one of the most controversial. What evidence is there for these claims?
Seminar/project ideaPlease suggest an exercise to help bring the subject to life, appropriate either for undergraduate or graduate students, e.g. an assessment, a presentation, or other practical assignment.Project idea or presentation
 Compare and contrast the website of an animal welfare organization and an animal rights group in relation to (a) their objectives; (b) their most important campaign; and (c) their preferred overall strategies and tactics. Which of these organizations has the most potential in attracting new supporters and why? What advice would you give to these two organizations on how they might enhance their communicative effectiveness with the general public? (see Munro's Compass article for some clues).
 Do an oral presentation on a radical animal liberation group such as the Animal Liberation Front or SHAC in which you describe its stated objectives, its seminal campaigns, its preferred tactics and its communication strategy as indicated by the group's website. Explain how effective the group is in terms of improving the lives of animals and how the activists justify the use of violence in their campaigns.

Introducción
Esta investigación surge a partir de la observación continua en las aulas de clase de la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria en la Universidad de Palermo, siendo notoria una mayor cantidad de estudiantes mujeres frente a los varones, siendo constante en la mayoría de las cátedras ofrecidas por la universidad.
En consecuencia, resulta interesante seleccionar el Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria, conocido también como Diseño de Modas en otras universidades como título de la carrera, porque en comparación a las otras carreras, como el Diseño Industrial, Gráfico, de Interiores o incluso Arquitectura, no presentan de igual forma una diferencia tan marcada en la cantidad de estudiantes de un solo género, siendo que hoy en día la inscripción a la universidad está abierta para ambos géneros y en cualquier campo.
La construcción cultural de esta sociedad, en específico los conceptos que se desarrollan en términos de género con respecto a las labores culturalmente asignadas a la mujer y al varón, y los estereotipos sobre los varones que estudian esta carrera, ha generado una limitación social y por tanto un efecto de influencia en la elección y permanencia por parte de los estudiantes en la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria.
Teniendo en cuenta que estos conceptos culturales se introducen de un modo normal en la sociedad, por medio de los padres, los amigos y los medios de comunicación, quienes contribuyen a la continuación de estos imaginarios, definiendo el desempeño y adaptación de los estudiantes en el entorno social y por tanto limitando la elección de carrera con base en los ideales que la sociedad tiene presente.
De esta forma, en el campo de la moda se ha dado protagonismo a la relación de la mujer con la indumentaria, además de considerarse a la costura como una labor tradicional propia de la mujer en el hogar, pero contradictoriamente la historia menciona que la profesión fue iniciada por los varones, siendo equitativo el desarrollo de grandes aportes como por ejemplo el diseño de la primera colección de diseño de autor elaborada por Charles Frederick Worth, o la innovación en cuanto a la vestimenta para la mujer propuesta por Coco Chanel durante la Primera Guerra Mundial.
Es por esto que, en una sociedad donde el varón es quien domina el campo laboral y a su vez se prioriza su desarrollo profesional, el trabajo y en consecuencia el salario que recibe la mujer es secundario. Con base en la teoría de género, se explica por qué el varón es culturalmente asociado a las labores de fuerza, creación y la protección de la sociedad, en lo referente a la esfera pública, de esta forma, en las sociedades modernas el varón se convierte en el principal sustento económico del hogar, mientras que, por otra parte, la mujer por su capacidad biológica es asociada a la reproducción y al cuidado de los hijos, y en consecuencia las labores dentro del hogar o de la esfera doméstica, considerando culturalmente que el trabajo que desempeña en la esfera pública es un ingreso adicional, a la vez que limita su participación en ciertos campos, disminuyendo su crecimiento profesional y sus condiciones laborales.
A partir de esto, inició el interés por estudiar los factores culturales que influencian la elección de los estudiantes por la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria en Buenos Aires, con el fin de analizar la relación entre las creencias culturales y el interés de los estudiantes por las temáticas dentro de la carrera, tomando como punto de referencia los estudiantes de la Universidad de Palermo debido a su gran reconocimiento académico en el área del Diseño.
La publicidad que desarrolla la Universidad de Palermo en centros comerciales, vallas publicitarias, banners en internet, comerciales de televisión e incluso las reuniones informativas tanto en Buenos Aires como en otras ciudades capitales de Latinoamérica, cumple con el objetivo de convocar estudiantes a la vez que extiende su reconocimiento en el ámbito educativo y desarrolla oportunidades laborales para sus estudiantes.
Es por esto que estudiar la influencia de la mujer que se interesa por el Diseño de Indumentaria, a través de los medios de comunicación y la cultura visual globalizada, permitirá comprender cómo las definiciones sociales en épocas específicas han formado imaginarios culturales que afectan la posición de la mujer dentro de una determinada profesión, además de la influencia por parte de la industria del estilo que realiza constantemente un juicio moral sobre el cómo se es y el cómo se debería ser (Sabsay, 2009, p. ,76).
El movimiento feminista en Argentina y los estudios en torno a la mujer (Garone, 2003, Pérez, 2006, Zarza, 2001, De Felice, 2009, López, 2005), han señalado que las diseñadoras de indumentaria se interesan por obtener el reconocimiento de su profesión más allá de ser una tarea propia del rol de la mujer en el hogar, una idea construida desde el ámbito doméstico que no ha resultado fácil de cambiar, en especial cuando se intenta incursionar en el mundo laboral, intentando fomentar un concepto del Diseño de Indumentaria más como un proceso creativo para la concepción de una prenda que una labor de manufactura. (Pérez, 2006, p. 78).

Objetivos
En este marco, el presente trabajo de investigación tiene como objetivo general: estudiar la influencia de la construcción cultural de la mujer en la elección de las estudiantes por la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria en la Universidad de Palermo, abordando la temática desde tres perspectivas clave: el diseño textil y de indumentaria como profesión, la construcción de la mujer y su asociación con la moda, y la universidad como institución educativa para los nuevos profesionales.

Objetivos específicos
Los objetivos específicos proponen identificar los actores sociales, los imaginarios y los escenarios que influenciaron la elección los estudiantes por el Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria; analizar desde la perspectiva de los estudiantes, las temáticas y los medios que incentivaron el interés por los temas relacionadas con la moda y la producción de indumentaria; explorar la proyección del campo de acción propuesta por la universidad respecto a las expectativas laborales de las estudiantes en la industria de la moda y la situación actual de los diseñadores en el campo profesional; e identificar los conceptos socioculturales y de género presentes en la formación de los estudiantes que motivaron la elección de la carrera en el campo de la moda.

Hipótesis
En consecuencia, esta investigación postula la siguiente hipótesis: La relación cultural de las mujeres con la moda y la construcción socio-cultural de la profesión, aumenta la elección de las mujeres por la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria en la universidad de Palermo (2015).
En este sentido, para responder a la sustentación de esta hipótesis esta investigación se estructura en cuatro capítulos. El primero aborda la profesión del Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria desde el diseño, las tendencias y la historia, de tal forma que genera un recorrido desde lo general hasta lo específico. De esta forma se analizan las diferentes posturas frente a la profesión, y la diferencia entre el Diseño de Moda, el Diseño de Indumentaria y el Diseño Textil, además de describir su afinidad con otras disciplinas que generan nuevas profesiones y que en el campo de la moda complementan el trabajo de los Diseñadores.
El segundo capítulo examina la construcción cultural de la mujer desde la sociología y la antropología, describiendo las labores tradicionales del hogar asignadas a la mujer en la sociedad. Esta investigación aborda la relación de estos roles tradicionales con la costura y la moda, siendo este último, el medio en el que se generan los estereotipos sobre el comportamiento y el desempeño de la mujer a nivel laboral en la industria de la indumentaria, de este modo relaciona aspectos referentes a las construcciones de género en la mujer y en el varón interesados por la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria.
Por otra parte, se hace un recorrido histórico del desempeño de la mujer, y del logro por parte del movimiento feminista para el ingreso de la mujer en la universidad y en el entorno laboral, desde la mano de obra de las fábricas hasta las grandes diseñadoras creadoras de tendencias.
En el tercer capítulo se plantea desde un aspecto general el sistema educativo universitario de Buenos Aires, planificado por el Estado, con el objetivo de introducir a las políticas, normas y posturas que las universidades deben tener con respecto a las carreras. Asimismo, diferenciar la educación pública y privada y sus principales características.
Por lo que desde un aspecto más específico se plantea el funcionamiento de la Universidad de Palermo como institución educativa, describir las características de la facultad, especí- ficamente la metodología de enseñanza y la estructura curricular para la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria. En este punto es importante hacer énfasis en el contenido de las materias con el objetivo de fundamentar si existe influencia en los proyectos de clase que encaminen la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria hacia un perfil laboral específico. Finalmente, en el cuarto capítulo se desarrolla la metodología de investigación, basando el estudio en los perfiles de los estudiantes sobresalientes, esto como muestra del interés profesional de estos estudiantes para ser exitosos en el medio laboral que les espera, teniendo en cuenta además la diversidad cultural, debido a que una parte de los estudiantes son extranjeros. Aquí se pretende desde el trabajo de campo comprobar lo postulado en la hipótesis y por tanto sustentar el desarrollo de esta investigación.

Periodización
Esta investigación recorre desde el año de 1988 hasta el 2015, periodo en que Buenos Aires se convirtió en una ciudad interesada por la formación de diseñadores con iniciativa e ideas de innovación en la industria del textil y de indumentaria, además de que se funda la primera carrera de Diseño de Indumentaria y Textil, permitiendo profesionalizar el oficio de la costura, una profesión que presenta variedad de conceptos socioculturales y en términos de género para los estudiantes que cursan esta carrera, la cual ha tenido gran éxito, al celebrar anualmente el FashionWeek, evento de gran importancia para los diseñadores locales quienes se benefician con el reconocimiento de su trabajo a nivel nacional e internacional.

Línea temática
El problema planteado en esta investigación se ubica principalmente en la Línea Temática Nuevos Profesionales, debido a que el enfoque del proyecto es el estudio de la influencia cultural sobre la decisión de las estudiantes en la carrera de Diseño Textil y de indumentaria, así mismo sobre la proyección laboral y la metodología de aprendizaje empleada en una carrera de grado. Los resultados de esta investigación aportarán conocimientos desde la cultura y el estudio del género, explicando cómo las concepciones culturales en la labor de la mujer se convierten en un factor que influencia la elección de los estudiantes en el diseño y la moda; en lo académico propone una reflexión sobre el cómo lograr una inclusión equitativa por parte de los estudiantes dentro de la carrera.

Estado del arte
Dentro de los estudios consultados para esta investigación, y detalladas a continuación, se evidencia que el rol de la mujer ha estado opacado por la desigualdad de género en ciertas labores, incluso en el campo del diseño. A través del tiempo, la participación de la mujer en el campo educativo y laboral ha sido cada vez más equitativa, por lo que resulta interesante observar que en la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria se presente una mayoría de estudiantes de un género más que de otro, en una carrera que es de libre inscripción. En consecuencia, la percepción que tiene la sociedad sobre la costura y labores del hogar asociadas a la mujer, mantiene los prejuicios sobre la participación equitativa de los gé- neros, y como resultado se generan estereotipos respecto a las labores en la industria de la moda, sin tener en cuenta que la realidad es diferente, y que en el Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria la participación de las mujeres y los varones es igualmente válida, de hecho en el ámbito laboral existe una participación mayor a la supuesta por parte de los hombres en las marcas de alta costura a nivel mundial.
Según Marina Garone (2003), esta situación no necesariamente debe generar competencia entre géneros, sino plantear el justo reconocimiento de las mujeres y los varones a través del trabajo que ha n realizado en las diferentes disciplinas del Diseño. En lo que respecta al enfoque histórico de la mujer, sostiene que en los años 1960 varios factores como la desigualdad estuvieron presentes en el terreno social, económico, político y legal, con lo cual se produjeron estereotipos en relación a las habilidades y capacidades del género femenino. Luego, en la década 1980 con influencia de movimientos feministas, se impulsaron políticas de todo tipo para equilibrar estos desbalances incluyendo la equidad de acceso e incorporación de la mujer en ámbitos laborales y educativos. Asimismo, el estudio explica que la participación académica de las mujeres en las universidades, presenta un aumento significativo en las carreras de Diseño, siendo el más alto para el Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria sobre el Gráfico y el Industrial (Garone, 2003).
Sin embargo, las egresadas del área de diseño presentan una situación no muy diferente, respecto a las egresadas de otras carreras en el aspecto laboral; los cambios en las organizaciones de trabajo, la flexibilización laboral y la fragmentación de los procesos productivos, han impactado en la división sexual del trabajo, en consecuencia las condiciones laborales de las mujeres trabajadoras quedan en desventaja frente a las de los varones. En este contexto, las políticas laborales fortalecen la idea de que el trabajo que realizan las mujeres es secundario y de que su salario es complementario al ingreso familiar (Garone, 2003).
En este contexto se toma como referencia tres estudios realizados en países hispanohablantes. El primero, desarrollado por el Instituto de la Mujer en Madrid (2001), este estudio compara las áreas en las que la mujer y el varón se destacan a nivel educativo, desde los estudios primarios hasta los universitarios, destacando que el 61,11% del alumnado inscrito en las artes aplicadas y los oficios artísticos en el grado superior entre 1998 y 1999 son mujeres.
En relación a lo anterior, el estudio describe que la mayor participación por parte de las mujeres se encuentra en oficios como los tejidos, murales, grabado, encuadernación, cerámica, diseño o bordado y encajes, a diferencia de los varones los cuales estudian en su mayoría la forja artística, ebanistería y diseño industrial. En otras áreas como la talla de madera, diseño gráfico, dibujo publicitario o delineación artística la participación es equitativa. Sin embargo, el incremento de las mujeres inscritas en ciertas ramas se debe a que estos oficios han sido desempeñados tradicionalmente por mujeres como es el caso del Diseño de Indumentaria, Bordados y Encajes, Esmaltes Artísticos y Diseño de Interiores (Grañeras et al, 2001).
En otro sentido, la investigación realizada por Juan Antonio Chamorro (2004), determina que la formación de un profesional en Diseño está influenciada además por la percepción y el análisis del entorno que habita, convirtiéndose en un fuerte referente de imágenes mentales que contribuirán en el futuro al desarrollo de nuevos Diseños. Por ello es importante que los diseñadores no sólo se encuentren en su entorno regular sino que exploren otras posibilidades. Parte de la función de los educadores es incentivar a la exploración de nuevos entornos y con ello a desarrollar nuevas actividades para incrementar el conocimiento en cada futuro profesional.
Por otro lado, la investigación realizada en México por Abel Pérez Ruiz (2006) estudia un grupo de mujeres diseñadoras de indumentaria. Para ello toma dos enfoques de la carrera: el Diseño Artesanal y el Diseño Técnico, analizando la labor de trabajadoras que oscilan entre los 32 y los 38 años. El interés de este estudio se centra en presentar la actividad productiva de estas mujeres en función de sus significados y prácticas, para demostrar que a través de sus conocimientos, habilidades, destrezas experiencias y comportamientos estas profesiones son más que sólo el ejercicio rutinario de hacer cortes y trazos. En relación a lo anterior, la investigación de Pérez (2006) discute que las diseñadoras luchan por el reconocimiento de su profesión más allá de ser parte de su rol como mujeres, una idea construida desde un ámbito doméstico tradicional y que no resulta fácil de modificar cuando se lleva al mercado laboral, debido a que se compara con el trabajo realizado por las costureras. En consecuencia, las diseñadoras tratan de mostrar la práctica del Diseño como lo que en realidad es, una frontera de identidad y un proceso creativo para la concepción de una prenda, dando así otra perspectiva al mundo de la moda.
Es por esto que los resultados de la investigación de los enfoques del Diseño Artesanal y Técnico, permitieron ver la manera en que las diseñadoras despliegan una serie de prácticas con contenidos simbólicos específicos en función a sus espacios de interacción; en ambos procesos existe una absorción de referentes exteriores, imágenes arquetípicas que sirven de guía para el desarrollo de los modelos. Sin embargo la creatividad no se reduce al qué hacen y cómo lo hacen, sino que implica un cómo lo sienten y cómo lo viven, convirtiéndolo en una introspección especial e íntima, para descubrir cómo se ve a sí misma y a los demás, esta forma de creatividad sirve como elemento para justificar el desenvolvimiento dentro de la confección de ropa (Pérez, 2006).
Es por esto que en el área académica, el desarrollo de los proyectos estudiantiles es evaluado principalmente por la capacidad de desarrollo de conceptos expuestos en las aulas de clase, teniendo en cuenta que la producción de las mujeres y los hombres es diferente. De esta forma Céspedes (2009) complementa al exponer que indiferentemente de la disciplina del Diseño y sus particularidades, se deben tener en cuenta los criterios de evaluación como conocimientos adquiridos a través de la práctica. A este concepto en acción lo llama competencia. Esta es una combinación dinámica de atributos en relación a conocimientos, habilidades, actitudes y responsabilidades que describen los resultados del aprendizaje de un programa educativo o a lo que los alumnos son capaces de demostrar al final del proceso. Por otra parte, la investigación desarrollada por Martha Zarza (2001) expone que las habilidades de cada género en relación al campo del Diseño Industrial están determinadas por estereotipos, tanto para la mujer como para el varón, por lo que se considera que las mujeres tienen un mejor desempeño en labores relacionadas con el cuerpo y lo decorativo, siendo importante esta habilidad en el diseño de interiores, joyas, bordados y tejidos. De esta forma considera el hecho de que según el género se asignan habilidades específicas que determinan las capacidades dentro del diseño.
El factor que considera Zarza (2001) importante dentro de su investigación es la formación de los diseñadores en una sociedad patriarcal aparentemente natural e inalterable, lo que en consecuencia ha demostrado históricamente que se destaca en mayor medida el trabajo de los varones sobre el de las mujeres en el diseño.
En este sentido, la separación de labores por género ha desencadenado una relación estereotípica de la mujer con las habilidades en ciertos campos del diseño, principalmente en materias relacionadas con la moda y el área textil, sin embargo, generar consciencia respecto a esta situación expone Zarza (2001) podría disminuir las creencias sociales y fomentar la participación equitativa por parte de ambos géneros en todas las áreas de diseño.
Sin embargo, la presencia mayoritaria de mujeres en unas pocas áreas es señal de que los estereotipos de género aún están presentes en el campo laboral, no solo del diseño, por lo que en otros campos se segmenta de igual forma el trabajo tanto para las mujeres, en oficios relacionados con la docencia y la enfermería, como para los varones, en la ingeniería, medicina y el sector automotriz entre otros (Zarza, 2001). Por lo que respecta al Diseño Industrial, los espacios laborales se encuentran dominados por varones lo que limita el ascenso de las diseñadoras mujeres al mismo nivel de los varones, siendo la causa principal que la creencia que las mujeres son más sensibles y emotivas, respecto a los varones los cuales son más racionales y, en consecuencia, se le asignan proyectos a fines a estas características, clasificando a las mujeres en proyectos para el hogar, la cocina y los niños. Por otra parte, la comunicación vista desde la teoría de género y entendida como una cadena de transmisión de valores, creencias, formas de sentir y actuar, permite la creación de símbolos que representan la identidad de cada individuo en la sociedad. Como es el caso en Argentina, Andrea De Felice (2009) expone como la representación social de la mujer en los medios de comunicación reproducen, refuerzan o cuestionan posiciones sexistas, lo cual al estar en el entono diario de las personas se establece como una temática legítima y aparentemente natural.
En consecuencia se desarrolla una gran influencia a través de los medios en la imagen de la mujer sobre la sociedad. De Felice (2009) describe que la publicidad es su principal canal, en dónde se muestra a la mujer en diferentes roles, desde madres obsesionadas por la limpieza, siempre dulces y responsables del bienestar de sus hijos; mujeres jóvenes, trabajadoras en actitud seductora y con una apariencia femenina; o mujeres mayores con el ideal de encontrar en productos de belleza la juventud eterna. En comparación, los varones son resaltados con atributos de fortaleza, poder y determinación, mostrándolos seguros y exitosos, hábiles en las finanzas, en la tecnología o automovilismo, entre otros.
De esta forma, el contenido de la publicidad genera estereotipos, tanto para la mujer como para el varón, los cuales son empleados como referentes socioculturales, dando paso al cambio en el campo semántico y en categorías que redefinen la representación de los géneros. Sin embargo, estos estereotipos al no tener un sustento biológico obtienen la característica de ser socialmente modificables, por lo que a través del tiempo pueden ir cambiando y adaptarse a nuevos conceptos de diferentes grupos sociales (De Felice, 2009). La comunicación en las revistas, específicamente para mujeres, muestra que independientemente de la temática la construcción discursiva es similar, de esta forma según De Felice (2009) este contenido afecta directamente a las mujeres inseguras, las que necesitan ser aconsejadas en temas personales, familiares o del hogar, e incluso para integrarse al mundo laboral. En consecuencia, sólo muestra una imagen positiva e idealista de la mujer, a través del consumo de productos de belleza y del hogar que facilitan las tareas domésticas, por lo que al final distraen la atención de las situaciones reales de desigualdad o discriminación en contra de la mujer.
Es por esto que definir el estereotipo como una imagen o idea aceptada sobre un grupo y que según De Felice (2009) se convierte en "una concepción simplificada que somete a un patrón de símbolos y valores que anula la individualidad de todo grupo social" (p. 72). De esta manera, los estereotipos se convierten en creencias y juicios de valor sobre las personas, o los roles de género, siendo la publicidad quien refuerza de manera natural la diferenciación de género construida a través de la historia.
Esta situación genera la necesidad de sensibilizar a los nuevos profesionales en el área con el objetivo de fomentar la producción de publicidad no sexista. A la vez que en el público se fomenta una demanda por un contenido, en donde la audiencia reconozca sus derechos. De este modo, De Felice (2001) propone una reflexión en cuanto al uso de la lingüística y la educación de los nuevos profesionales, los cuales serán capaces de pensar y reinterpretar nuevas formas de ver el mundo. Es por esto que los estereotipos de género son más comunes de lo que se piensa. La investigación desarrollada por Pilar López Díez (2005) basada en tres estudios sobre la representación de los niños y niñas en los programas de televisión, en la publicidad y los comics, determina que la imagen proyectada de las figuras femeninas está en un segundo plano respecto a la de los hombres. Según los resultados, a los hombres se los identificaba por ser en la mayoría de los casos la figura central, al mismo tiempo que se generaba una relación dicotómica entre el personaje masculino y el femenino, ya que sin éste no se pueden demostrar todas las capacidades y características asignadas al hombre, en el cual se estarían dando atributos al personaje femenino relacionadas con la belleza y la feminidad.
Otras características presentes en el estereotipo de las niñas en las publicidades se evidencia cuando se las muestra en forma sumisa, representando el papel de ama de casa rodeada de objetos para el hogar o de belleza, las voces que acompañan estas escenas suelen ser femeninas, mientras que las publicidades dirigidas a los niños están compuestas por juguetes de acción, automóviles, de construcción o de ciencia, y son narradas por voces masculinas y acompañadas por efectos visuales. Por otra parte, en año 2001, en Buenos Aires miles de estudiantes deciden inscribirse en carreras de diseño, sin embargo la crisis económica presentada desde los años de 1990 en la cuidad, hizo que la inserción de futuros egresados al mundo laboral se convirtiera en una labor compleja. Esta situación se expone en la investigación desarrollada por Paula Miguel (2009) cuyo principal objeto de estudio son los profesionales de la carrera de Dise- ño de Indumentaria y Textil de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, egresados entre el periodo del año 2000 y 2005 que decidieron trabajar de manera independiente. La inserción de nuevos estudiantes en esta carrera del Diseño se vio influenciada por eventos como la semana de la moda BAF Week y el surgimiento de espacios como los locales ubicados en el barrio Palermo fundados por los Diseñadores del Bajo, grupo de emprendedores independientes en las áreas de indumentaria, textil, industrial y mobiliaria, que por la crisis económica presentada en Buenos Aires, iniciaron una nueva oportunidad laboral influyendo en el enfoque de la ciudad hacia el Diseño.
El Anuario de Estadísticas Universitarias (2012) presentado por Departamento de Información Universitaria de la Secretaría de Políticas Universitarias (SPU), informa que en Buenos Aires en el 2012 se graduaron 1.401 estudiantes de la Universidad de Palermo, de los cuales el 63.3% eran mujeres y 32.7% hombres (p. 119). En cuanto a la cantidad de egresados de la rama de ciencias aplicadas, la cantidad de estudiantes en Arquitectura y Diseño fue de 579 entre hombres y mujeres (p. 129).
Por otro lado, el Informe Final realizado como Evaluación Externa sobre la Universidad de Palermo por la CONEAU (1999), explica la metodología que la Facultad de Diseño y Comunicación aplica en sus las diferentes carreras, siendo la característica principal que los estudiantes dispongan de la variedad en los horarios de clase, previamente establecidos por la facultad, y además, pueden elegir materias electivas pertenecientes a otras carreras dentro de la misma facultad.
De acuerdo a lo anterior, el estudiante, además tiene la posibilidad de inscribirse en una carrera y utilizarla como base, para posteriormente continuar con otra y así obtener un título de mayor grado a la carrera inicial, en un tiempo menor al regular si se cursa por separado estas dos carreras. Por ejemplo, en el caso del área de moda, el estudiante que inicia en Producción de Moda, carrera de dos años, puede continuar los estudios y convertirse en Diseñador Textil y de Indumentaria, cursando otros dos años y medio adicionales, siendo esta última carrera, un programa que por separado requiere cuatro años de estudio y solo obtiene un título (Anexo 22).
A modo de conclusión, este estado de la cuestión genera un panorama de la temática, apoyándose en temas de género, educación y percepción cultural. Estas investigaciones discuten la construcción y la influencia de los medios de comunicación respecto a la construcción cultural de la mujer. Por otra parte, el desempeño de la mujer en el diseño se ve limitado por estereotipos que clasifican sus habilidades en ciertas materias, relacionadas con la costura, la moda y lo textil, que se relacionan con los roles culturalmente asignados a cada género. Además, el entorno principalmente dominado por varones en distintas áreas, y una cultura de género normalizada por los medios de comunicación, ha generado una desigualdad en las condiciones laborales que favorecen en ciertos aspectos a los varones, como en el ingreso salarial o el ascenso laboral más rápido en comparación al de las mujeres. Por otro lado, a nivel educativo, se trabajan los temas sobre metodología para enseñar Diseño y de la manera en que la facultad de Diseño y Comunicación de la Universidad de Palermo se encuentra organizada para ofrecer la carrera de Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria. Pero en ninguno de estos estudios e investigaciones se refiere a los factores culturales que intervienen influencia sobre las mujeres y los varones que deciden cursar esta carrera en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, generando así una mayor participación por parte de las mujeres en el Diseño Textil y de Indumentaria más que en otras áreas del Diseño.