Suchergebnisse

Iam pleased to know that Vilnius University is publishing a volume containing papers presented at the 2nd Indology conference for the Central and Eastern European region held at Vilnius University on the 24–26 August 2006. There is no doubt that the Indology Department at Vilnius University acted as a wonderful host for the conference and contributed immensely to strengthening the academic and scholarly ties of departments of Indology all over Central and Eastern Europe. The Indology Department in Vilnius can proudly claim to have strengthened the long-lasting relationship between India and Lithuania.The departments of Indology in Central and Eastern Europe have not only facilitated the spread of Indian studies in their respective countries but also reinvigorated and strengthened ties between India and Central and Eastern Europe. They have helped in the widespread dissemination of knowledge about India and expanded scholarly and academic interactions between departments of Indology throughout this region. Today these departments boast of several eminent scholars whose knowledge of Indian subjects, including languages and literature and history and culture, is of a high standard.The study of Indology directly contributes to the importance of India—its history, civilisation and culture—in today's globalised world. India, and therefore Indology, is also important in the study of the economy, science and technology and for technological exchanges in today's context. India remains the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. The Indian economy is currently growing at the rate of nearly 9 per cent per annum, making it one of the fastest growing economies in the world. India's foreign trade in 2006–7 is expected to surpass US $200 billion, as compared US $30 billion in the early 1990s. The country's foreign exchange reserves reached a healthy US$196 billion in March 2007. India is one of the most favoured destinations for foreign direct investment—close to US $12 billion a year. For knowledge processing industries, as well as back office processing, India has emerged as a major hub of global research and development analysis and scientific inventions. The strengths of India in the new economy—which consists of information technology, bio-technology, nanotechnology and material sciences—are now known all over the world. Indian manufacturing strength is now coming to fruition and these strengths are visible also in the Central and East European market. Several important investments from India have taken place in the steel, electronics, automobile, pharmaceutical, packaging and information technology sectors, to namea few. It is quite evident that this trend will strengthen in the future. Similarly, trade between India and Central and Eastern Europe is increasing between 20–30 per cent a year and is expected to flourish in the near future as more countries from Central and Eastern Europe join the European Union. India has warmly welcomed the recent accession of Bulgaria and Romania to the European Union.All this makes India not only a viable subject of study for its history and culture but also fascinating for its growing economic, scientific and technological strength. These new developments require added attention. It is essential for the course curriculum of Indology studies to be standardised across Central and Eastern Europe as far as is feasible on the basis of cooperation between the universities of the region. I am glad that a website and a network for this purpose have been set up and are functional, with funding from the Embassy of India in Warsaw. The course curriculum for Indology needs to be updated. The knowledge imparted at the Indology centres needs to be well-rounded and contemporary; this will provide the necessary additional tools to the students to understand not only India's past glories but also its present strengths and future prospects. The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR ) and the government of India are convinced that this is the course that centres for Indology studies should follow in Central and Eastern Europe, as well as in other regions of the world. India is no longer a country known only for its ancient literature, drama and complex society. It is a nation on the move. Studies on ancient India and modern India should be complementary. I certainly hope that those who impart the knowledge of Indology will themselves catch up with modern developments to be able to contribute to the betterment of the students, who, in all fairness, deserve up-to-date information and knowledge of India.The papers published in the volume cover diverse areas and they are well researched and documented and could become a useful source of reference material for various institutions who offer courses on India. The organisation of the conference in Vilnius has already given exposure to the strength of Indian studies in Lithuania and Central and Eastern Europe. It is remarkable that during this conference a Central and Eastern European Network of Indian Studies (CEENIS) was founded with the participation of institutions at universities from 10 countries in this region.I would sincerely like to thank the faculty and staff, particularly Prof. Audrius Beinorius, the head of the department, for organising the conference and for publishing this volume. I also wish to place on record sincere appreciation to contributions made by a number of other scholars and professors at the Indology Department in Vilnius, as well as to the scholars from other countries, some of whom participated in the conference, for spreading Indian studies in Central and Eastern Europe over the pastfew decades. I am certain that the tradition of Indian studies in Central and Eastern Europe will become stronger over the years to come and prove beneficial for Indian and Central and Eastern European relations as well as for the teachers and students engaged in Indian studies in the region. My best wishes are with the faculty, staff, and students of Indian studies all over Central and Eastern Europe. HE Anil WADHWA, Ambassador of India to the Republics of Poland and Lithuania31 March 2007

The article deals with the development of legal grounds of the European Union common defence policy in a draft Constitution for Europe. In order to identify trends in the legal regulation of the EU common defence policy, the author compares respective provisions of the draft European Constitution and the Treaty on European Union. The key Art. I-40 of the draft Constitution establishing specific provisions for implementing the common security and defence policy provides for significant changes, in comparison with the respective Art. 17 of the Treaty on European Union. Apart from that, the specific provisions of Art. I-40 of the European Constitution are developed by the more detailed provisions on the common security and defence policy which are contained in Section 2, Chapter II, Title V of Part III of the Constitution (from Art. III-210 to Art. III-214 thereof). Most of these provisions are new. However, they are based on the same principles, as stated in Art. 17(1) of the Treaty on European Union and Art. I-11(4), I-15(1) and I-40(1, 2) of the draft Constitution. Namely, under the Constitution, the common defence policy will remain an integral part of the common foreign and security policy and will continue to provide operational capabilities for the Union's external actions in a specific situation when diplomatic and economic actions will be insufficient in order to achieve the common foreign and security policy goals. As previously, the main aim of the common defence policy will be to increase civilian and military capabilities assigned for the implementation of the so-called Petersberg tasks (humanitarian and rescue, peacekeeping, crisis management and peacemaking operations). The draft Constitution also preserves sufficient legal guarantees to ensure compatibility with the activities of the NATO and corresponding legal obligations of a number of Member States. On the other hand, some new provisions of the Constitution can be assessed as the reflection of efforts of some EU countries to make the common defence policy more autonomous with respect to the NATO and the USA. Some of them may even raise a danger of duplication of the NATO's activities. With regard to implementation of the Petersberg tasks, the provisions of the Constitution remains generally unchanged in comparison with those of the Treaty on European Union, except a few provisions updating the Petersberg tasks and strengthening the institutional framework of the common defence policy. The new missions, such as joint disarmament operations, military advice and assistance tasks, conflict prevention and post-conflict stabilisation, were added to the range of Petersberg missions, in order to respond properly to the emerging new threats to the European security. In line with that, the solidarity clause is added by Art. I-42 which obliges the Member States to mobilise all instruments at their disposal in order to prevent terrorist threats and assist each other in case of disasters. The next novelty is that, in addition to the existent institutions of the common defence policy, the draft Constitution provides for the establishment of the European Armaments, Research and Military Capabilities Agency that will be subordinate to the Council of Ministers. Apart from the cooperation in the field of armaments, the Agency will also be responsible for supervision of the implementation by the Member States of their military capability commitments. On the one hand, that could significantly improve the fulfilment of the Union's defence policy objectives. On the other hand, there is a danger that the Agency can serve as one of the means for domination of certain Member States and, as a consequence, it can become a catalyst of different-speed and divided Europe in the field of defence policy. The subsequent novelty provided for in the draft Constitution is the possibility of the structured defence and military cooperation between certain Member States, which might be treated as a specific kind of enhanced cooperation. Despite of possible advantages of increase of the Union's military capability, this kind of cooperation could also result in a deeper division of Member States rather than a desired unity on the defence policy matters. ; Straipsnyje analizuojamos Sutarties dėl Konstitucijos Europai nuostatos, skirtos Europos Sąjungos bendrajai gynybos politikai. Šios nuostatos lyginamos su bendrąją gynybos politiką reglamentuojančiomis galiojančios Europos Sąjungos steigimo sutarties nuostatomis, įtvirtintomis Nicos sutartimi. Išryškinamos pagrindinės Europos Sąjungos bendrosios gynybos politikos teisinio reglamentavimo tendencijos Europos Konstitucijos projekte. Savo išvadoms pagrįsti, be lyginamojo, autorius taip pat taiko sisteminį, istorinį, teleologinį, loginį ir kitus tyrimo metodus. Pagrindinė autoriaus daroma išvada yra ta, kad Europos Konstitucijos projektas numato toliau stiprinti Europos Sąjungos bendrąją gynybos politiką jos autonomiškumo santykiuose su NATO didinimo linkme, nors ir iš esmės nekeičia šios politikos principų. Tokią išvadą lemia naujos, lyginant su galiojančia Europos Sąjungos steigimo sutartimi, Europos Konstitucijos projekto nuostatos, atspindinčios Europos Sąjungos bendrosios gynybos politikos institucijų stiprinimo bei struktūrinio karinio bendradarbiavimo plėtros tendencijas ir nustatančios galimybę valstybėms narėms prisiimti bendros gynybos įsipareigojimus. Pagal Europos Konstitucijos projektą taip pat sudaromos sąlygos Europos Sąjungai perimti visas Vakarų Europos Sąjungos funkcijas ir formaliai likviduoti šią organizaciją. Vis dėlto Europos Konstitucijos projekte išlieka pakankamos teisinės garantijos, kad Europos Sąjungos bendroji gynybos politika nepakeis NATO veiklos ir nepažeis valstybių, NATO narių, įsipareigojimų pagal Šiaurės Atlanto sutartį. Be to, dauguma naujų Europos Sąjungos bendrosios gynybos politikos nuostatų buvo suformuluotos siekiant veiksmingai reaguoti į naujus iššūkius tarptautinei taikai ir saugumui. Straipsnyje trumpai apžvelgiami ir Lietuvos dalyvavimo Europos Sąjungos bendrojoje gynybos politikoje pagrindai pagal nacionalinę teisę. Daroma išvada, kad Lietuvos nacionalinės teisės normos numato pakankamas sąlygas šaliai dalyvauti visose Europos Sąjungos ben-drosios gynybos politikos formose. Kita vertus, Lietuvai politiniu požiūriu gali būti netikslinga palaikyti visas galimas šios politikos raidos tendencijas.

The idea of harmonizing economic growth with the laws of development of society and the environment is expressed in the concept of sustainable development. In the frame of sustainable development an exceptional importance is attached to studying material flows, therefore management of waste flows must not contradict the principles of sustainable development. In agreement with M. Jacobs, it is possible to affirm that waste management in the context of sustainable development means using materials in closed cycles. Investigating socio-economic efficiency of municipal waste management means studying the organizational waste management process and factors disclosing characteristic features of this process, making deep comparative socio-economic analysis of waste management options and studying waste managements acts both on national and local level in order to reveal the ways of increasing socio-economic efficiency in municipal waste management. This study is induced by the necessity of changing the traditional waste management of depositing it in landfills, by recycling using not only national and international funds, but by mobilizing resources of local waste management systems as well. It is natural, that the policy of waste management, in which neither the scale of economic damage nor future waste management expenditure were evaluated, was orientated towards disposal of waste in refuse dumps. This means transferring problems to future generations, and this cardinally contradicts the concept of sustainable development. Therefore the question arises, what waste management systems should be considered to be efficient from the socio-economic viewpoint. Researches made in EU countries show that these are systems resources of which are directed to waste recycling and continuous its development. In Lithuania, the importance of waste management is emphasized in national strategy of environmental protection and waste recycling promotion has become the most significant waste management task in recent years, therefore attention is given to socio-economic waste management results. For establishing regional waste management systems, to cover the expenses of collecting, sorting out and transporting secondary materials, two main sources of funds are foreseen, that is, general tariff (or local levy) and funds from "Program of product and packaging waste management". Fixing general tariff depending on treatment expenses for separate waste flows or setting two-tariff charge on sorted and mixed waste is assigned to most urgent means, not only stimulating collection of secondary material but supporting financially the development of this process as well. However, when increasing general tariff all variables should be evaluated, i. e., tendencies in changes of amount and composition of the waste, distribution of wasteholders, number of waste operators on the market, their internal resources available and efficiency of their usage, etc. Otherwise, increase of tariff may be based neither in a social nor in an economic aspect. In the research, waste management priorities in the context of a sustainable development are revealed (based on socio-economic aspects) and internal reserves of municipal waste management systems due to which socio-economical waste management efficiency can be increased are identified. Research problem. Socio-economic and environmental aspects of waste management as well as the role of waste materials in the system of sustainable development have been more or less investigated in works of foreign scientists, the problems of municipal waste management have been analyzed in publications of international organizations as well as in works by foreign authors. In these studies, most attention is concentrated on the process "exploitation of natural resources – economic growth – waste formation" analysis and feasibility studies for modifying it in order to achieve sustainable development aims. Publications of international organizations contain abundant technical and statistical information on waste formation and management, nevertheless, economic studies are scarce, superficial and usually based on the experience of a separate country. They are important from a practical point of view and are of rather educational than scientific character. Among Lithuanian scientists theoretical aspects of sustainable development most widely have been investigated by R. Čiegis, feasibility researches of sustainable development are being carried out in separate sectors of economy – issues of sustainable transport development are being investigated by G. Paliulis, G. Ignatavičius, V. Oškinis, issues of sustainable development in energetics are studies by V. Jankauskas, D. Štreimikienė, I. Konstantavičiūtė, feasibility studies in sustainable development of industry are researched by J. Staniškis, V. Arbačiauskas, V. Pivoras, sustainable development of tourism is investigated by A. Rondomanskaitė, R. Hopenienė, A. Kamičaitė. And other scientists. Scientists give more and more consideration to studies of relationship between sustainable development and public interests, issues of regional and local sustainability and problems of evaluating sustainable development. Scientific studies on socio-economical aspects of municipal waste management are scanty. Works by A. Spruogis and B. Jaskelevičius, J. Čepinskis, A. Jankauskas, M. Ubartas, A. Lebedis, J. Danys, B. Zigmontienė, S. Vasarevičius and sociological researches carried out by the scientists of Kaunas University and the author of this thesis in cooperation with the scientists of Šiauliai University should be mentioned. So far, little attention has been given to research in efficiency of municipal waste management systems and analysis of the problems of managing and financing these systems. Scientific works on assessment of government policy in the field of waste management are scarce and there are few expert analysis about the effectiveness of regulations and economic instruments applied and their influence on the development of waste treatment methods. Not much research has been carried out in the works by Lithuanian authors on the issue of municipal waste management in the context of sustainable development. The review of research and studies in socio-economic problems of municipal waste management in the context of a sustainable development shows their fragmentariness. Modeling an efficient in socio-economic aspect municipal waste management system in the context of sustainable development requires purposeful theoretical studies and empiric research. The subject of the scientific research is socio-economic aspects of municipal waste management system.

The idea of harmonizing economic growth with the laws of development of society and the environment is expressed in the concept of sustainable development. In the frame of sustainable development an exceptional importance is attached to studying material flows, therefore management of waste flows must not contradict the principles of sustainable development. In agreement with M. Jacobs, it is possible to affirm that waste management in the context of sustainable development means using materials in closed cycles. Investigating socio-economic efficiency of municipal waste management means studying the organizational waste management process and factors disclosing characteristic features of this process, making deep comparative socio-economic analysis of waste management options and studying waste managements acts both on national and local level in order to reveal the ways of increasing socio-economic efficiency in municipal waste management. This study is induced by the necessity of changing the traditional waste management of depositing it in landfills, by recycling using not only national and international funds, but by mobilizing resources of local waste management systems as well. It is natural, that the policy of waste management, in which neither the scale of economic damage nor future waste management expenditure were evaluated, was orientated towards disposal of waste in refuse dumps. This means transferring problems to future generations, and this cardinally contradicts the concept of sustainable development. Therefore the question arises, what waste management systems should be considered to be efficient from the socio-economic viewpoint. Researches made in EU countries show that these are systems resources of which are directed to waste recycling and continuous its development. In Lithuania, the importance of waste management is emphasized in national strategy of environmental protection and waste recycling promotion has become the most significant waste management task in recent years, therefore attention is given to socio-economic waste management results. For establishing regional waste management systems, to cover the expenses of collecting, sorting out and transporting secondary materials, two main sources of funds are foreseen, that is, general tariff (or local levy) and funds from "Program of product and packaging waste management". Fixing general tariff depending on treatment expenses for separate waste flows or setting two-tariff charge on sorted and mixed waste is assigned to most urgent means, not only stimulating collection of secondary material but supporting financially the development of this process as well. However, when increasing general tariff all variables should be evaluated, i. e., tendencies in changes of amount and composition of the waste, distribution of wasteholders, number of waste operators on the market, their internal resources available and efficiency of their usage, etc. Otherwise, increase of tariff may be based neither in a social nor in an economic aspect. In the research, waste management priorities in the context of a sustainable development are revealed (based on socio-economic aspects) and internal reserves of municipal waste management systems due to which socio-economical waste management efficiency can be increased are identified. Research problem. Socio-economic and environmental aspects of waste management as well as the role of waste materials in the system of sustainable development have been more or less investigated in works of foreign scientists, the problems of municipal waste management have been analyzed in publications of international organizations as well as in works by foreign authors. In these studies, most attention is concentrated on the process "exploitation of natural resources – economic growth – waste formation" analysis and feasibility studies for modifying it in order to achieve sustainable development aims. Publications of international organizations contain abundant technical and statistical information on waste formation and management, nevertheless, economic studies are scarce, superficial and usually based on the experience of a separate country. They are important from a practical point of view and are of rather educational than scientific character. Among Lithuanian scientists theoretical aspects of sustainable development most widely have been investigated by R. Čiegis, feasibility researches of sustainable development are being carried out in separate sectors of economy – issues of sustainable transport development are being investigated by G. Paliulis, G. Ignatavičius, V. Oškinis, issues of sustainable development in energetics are studies by V. Jankauskas, D. Štreimikienė, I. Konstantavičiūtė, feasibility studies in sustainable development of industry are researched by J. Staniškis, V. Arbačiauskas, V. Pivoras, sustainable development of tourism is investigated by A. Rondomanskaitė, R. Hopenienė, A. Kamičaitė. And other scientists. Scientists give more and more consideration to studies of relationship between sustainable development and public interests, issues of regional and local sustainability and problems of evaluating sustainable development. Scientific studies on socio-economical aspects of municipal waste management are scanty. Works by A. Spruogis and B. Jaskelevičius, J. Čepinskis, A. Jankauskas, M. Ubartas, A. Lebedis, J. Danys, B. Zigmontienė, S. Vasarevičius and sociological researches carried out by the scientists of Kaunas University and the author of this thesis in cooperation with the scientists of Šiauliai University should be mentioned. So far, little attention has been given to research in efficiency of municipal waste management systems and analysis of the problems of managing and financing these systems. Scientific works on assessment of government policy in the field of waste management are scarce and there are few expert analysis about the effectiveness of regulations and economic instruments applied and their influence on the development of waste treatment methods. Not much research has been carried out in the works by Lithuanian authors on the issue of municipal waste management in the context of sustainable development. The review of research and studies in socio-economic problems of municipal waste management in the context of a sustainable development shows their fragmentariness. Modeling an efficient in socio-economic aspect municipal waste management system in the context of sustainable development requires purposeful theoretical studies and empiric research. The subject of the scientific research is socio-economic aspects of municipal waste management system.

The object of this research is the Zaberezinskis family among the political elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the association of the family's history (its genealogy, economic, political, foundational activity) with the rest of the environment of the GDL rulers of the Jagiellonian Dynasty. The general backdrop of the political life of the GDL makes it possible to see and evaluate the weight of the Zaberezininkis family among the country's ruling elite. From the late 15th to the middle of the 16th century, the aristocratic authority with its ages-old roots acquired institutional form. Foreseeing the possibility of rulers residing outside the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (as during Kazimierz Jagiellonian's rule), Alexander Jagiellonian's privilege of 6 August 1492 authorized broader prerogatives for the Council of Lords. At the same time, on the eve of the proclamation of the Grand Duke, the summoned parliament initiated the tradition of representation of the nobility. Institutional changes were accompanied by the reception of humanistic ideas, legal culture and political theory, linked to the custom, increasing at the time, of nobility sending their offspring to universities to pursue higher education. The story of the Zaberezinskis family, descendants of Rimvydas, is presented In the context of the formation of the GDL Republic (Respublica Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae), a political nation of descendants of the Romans (as the Lithuanian nobility portrayed themselves). The earliest data on the kin are associated with the times of Sigismund Kęstutaitis, and the latest with those of Sigismund Augustus. Members of the family played a particularly significant role in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the times of Kazimierz Jagiellonian and his two sons Alexander and Sigismund the Old, from the 1480s until 1544. Responding to the postulates of the modern science of genealogy, the story of the family is presented according to its different branches. Against the background of key events in Lithuanian history, beginning from Jurgis Rimvydaitis and Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis, the careers of the latter's children and their descendants, their interrelationships, and factors influencing their careers are analysed. Due to the different status of different members of the family and the different amounts of data available in the sources, the questionnaire applied to different members of the family differs. Jonas Jurgaitis and his son Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis, who reached the highest posts, are the most significant, and the most extensive treatment is given to their biographies. The composition of the landholding and the development of the network of towns are discussed in a separate part of the study. The available data (including property holdings) do not directly confirm a family relationship between the Zaberezinskis and the Manvydas families. No sources have been found in which the Zaberezinskis in any way mention Manvydas or his brother, or a family relationship with them. In the view of the author of this work, the success of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinsky's career can be attributed to his holding the strategic post of Vicar of Polotsk at a key moment, the favour of Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander and strong personal abilities. In consequence, Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinsky proved one of the most prominent personalities on the Council of Lords, achieving the particularly high offices of Voivode of Trakai and Grand Marshall, and personally taking part in the most important events in the interstate relations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For a variety of reasons (often due to early death), the only descendent of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis who achieved a significant political career was his son Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis (~1473-1538), who ultimately, like his father, assumed the posts of Voivode of Trakai and Grand Marshall of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. His relations with the other most influential high-ranking noblemen of the period are considered, especially the meaning of marriages contracted by him and arranged by him for his descendants and relatives. The gathered data regarding the formation and distribution of the family's latifundium show that the most important stage in the formation of the estate was the time of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis, although later the family also acquired significant properties through marriage and purchases. A major step in this process was the marriage of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis to the daughter, Ona, of Jonas Nasuta, who held large properties in Palenkė (Podlasie). Other ways land was acquired were purchases and gifts of the rulers (Casimir and Alexander). One such event that stands out is Alexander's gift in 1506 of the regions of Alytus and Simnas. Many of the surviving papers written by Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis in the final period of his life, when he resided in Alytus as Keeper of the City and the Region, testify to intense internal colonization of the area of Alytus and Simnas by the Nemunas River. Alytus and Simnas also include the most noteworthy church foundations made by Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis and his family, a clear witness to the founders' piety. As he gave the decisive impulse for Alytus and Simnas to become city-like settlements, he can properly be considered the founder of those cities. The political self-awareness of the Lithuanian aristocracy is best captured by the term from that period "the Republic of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania" (Respublica Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae), as D. Kuolis has accurately observed. The theory of the Roman origins of the Lithuanian nobility, with all its consequences (such as e.g. the rule of law), can be considered the highest peak of the political culture of the ruling elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1525 (well before the Union of Lublin, which is often associated with Lithuanian republican traditions) Albertas Goštautas's memorial to the Grand Duchess Bona associated the notion of nobility with loyalty to the ruler and responsibility for the commonwealth (the republic). Although it can be said that certain Republican ideals drawn from antiquity thrived among the Lithuanian aristocracy, their dominant trait was conservatism (unwillingness to admit lesser nobility to the structures of power). The high-rank nobility clearly recognized the ruler as the head of the political body of the Grand Duchy, and sought for him a crown. The programme for a Kingdom of Lithuania should be linked to the need, fostered by aristocracy, for the GDL to have its own distinct identity, though having a separate ruler was important also for practical reasons: the unquestioned centralized government accelerated the defence mechanisms of the state. A contemporary observer testifies that, when the ruler was absent, the Lithuanian lords "did not know what to do, remained undecided and did nothing." The ruling elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, both in their actions and in what they wrote (in the Lithuanian chronicles and elsewhere), unequivocally showed that no agreements with the Polish Crown bound them. The role of the aristocracy in the political emancipation of the lesser nobility and the importance of the latter for the maturing of the Lithuanian-Polish Union are issues that still require further research. Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis gave some of his nobles personal freedom and economic autonomy, which can be regarded as a precondition for political emancipation.

The object of this research is the Zaberezinskis family among the political elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the association of the family's history (its genealogy, economic, political, foundational activity) with the rest of the environment of the GDL rulers of the Jagiellonian Dynasty. The general backdrop of the political life of the GDL makes it possible to see and evaluate the weight of the Zaberezininkis family among the country's ruling elite. From the late 15th to the middle of the 16th century, the aristocratic authority with its ages-old roots acquired institutional form. Foreseeing the possibility of rulers residing outside the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (as during Kazimierz Jagiellonian's rule), Alexander Jagiellonian's privilege of 6 August 1492 authorized broader prerogatives for the Council of Lords. At the same time, on the eve of the proclamation of the Grand Duke, the summoned parliament initiated the tradition of representation of the nobility. Institutional changes were accompanied by the reception of humanistic ideas, legal culture and political theory, linked to the custom, increasing at the time, of nobility sending their offspring to universities to pursue higher education. The story of the Zaberezinskis family, descendants of Rimvydas, is presented In the context of the formation of the GDL Republic (Respublica Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae), a political nation of descendants of the Romans (as the Lithuanian nobility portrayed themselves). The earliest data on the kin are associated with the times of Sigismund Kęstutaitis, and the latest with those of Sigismund Augustus. Members of the family played a particularly significant role in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the times of Kazimierz Jagiellonian and his two sons Alexander and Sigismund the Old, from the 1480s until 1544. Responding to the postulates of the modern science of genealogy, the story of the family is presented according to its different branches. Against the background of key events in Lithuanian history, beginning from Jurgis Rimvydaitis and Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis, the careers of the latter's children and their descendants, their interrelationships, and factors influencing their careers are analysed. Due to the different status of different members of the family and the different amounts of data available in the sources, the questionnaire applied to different members of the family differs. Jonas Jurgaitis and his son Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis, who reached the highest posts, are the most significant, and the most extensive treatment is given to their biographies. The composition of the landholding and the development of the network of towns are discussed in a separate part of the study. The available data (including property holdings) do not directly confirm a family relationship between the Zaberezinskis and the Manvydas families. No sources have been found in which the Zaberezinskis in any way mention Manvydas or his brother, or a family relationship with them. In the view of the author of this work, the success of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinsky's career can be attributed to his holding the strategic post of Vicar of Polotsk at a key moment, the favour of Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander and strong personal abilities. In consequence, Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinsky proved one of the most prominent personalities on the Council of Lords, achieving the particularly high offices of Voivode of Trakai and Grand Marshall, and personally taking part in the most important events in the interstate relations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For a variety of reasons (often due to early death), the only descendent of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis who achieved a significant political career was his son Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis (~1473-1538), who ultimately, like his father, assumed the posts of Voivode of Trakai and Grand Marshall of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. His relations with the other most influential high-ranking noblemen of the period are considered, especially the meaning of marriages contracted by him and arranged by him for his descendants and relatives. The gathered data regarding the formation and distribution of the family's latifundium show that the most important stage in the formation of the estate was the time of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis, although later the family also acquired significant properties through marriage and purchases. A major step in this process was the marriage of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis to the daughter, Ona, of Jonas Nasuta, who held large properties in Palenkė (Podlasie). Other ways land was acquired were purchases and gifts of the rulers (Casimir and Alexander). One such event that stands out is Alexander's gift in 1506 of the regions of Alytus and Simnas. Many of the surviving papers written by Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis in the final period of his life, when he resided in Alytus as Keeper of the City and the Region, testify to intense internal colonization of the area of Alytus and Simnas by the Nemunas River. Alytus and Simnas also include the most noteworthy church foundations made by Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis and his family, a clear witness to the founders' piety. As he gave the decisive impulse for Alytus and Simnas to become city-like settlements, he can properly be considered the founder of those cities. The political self-awareness of the Lithuanian aristocracy is best captured by the term from that period "the Republic of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania" (Respublica Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae), as D. Kuolis has accurately observed. The theory of the Roman origins of the Lithuanian nobility, with all its consequences (such as e.g. the rule of law), can be considered the highest peak of the political culture of the ruling elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1525 (well before the Union of Lublin, which is often associated with Lithuanian republican traditions) Albertas Goštautas's memorial to the Grand Duchess Bona associated the notion of nobility with loyalty to the ruler and responsibility for the commonwealth (the republic). Although it can be said that certain Republican ideals drawn from antiquity thrived among the Lithuanian aristocracy, their dominant trait was conservatism (unwillingness to admit lesser nobility to the structures of power). The high-rank nobility clearly recognized the ruler as the head of the political body of the Grand Duchy, and sought for him a crown. The programme for a Kingdom of Lithuania should be linked to the need, fostered by aristocracy, for the GDL to have its own distinct identity, though having a separate ruler was important also for practical reasons: the unquestioned centralized government accelerated the defence mechanisms of the state. A contemporary observer testifies that, when the ruler was absent, the Lithuanian lords "did not know what to do, remained undecided and did nothing." The ruling elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, both in their actions and in what they wrote (in the Lithuanian chronicles and elsewhere), unequivocally showed that no agreements with the Polish Crown bound them. The role of the aristocracy in the political emancipation of the lesser nobility and the importance of the latter for the maturing of the Lithuanian-Polish Union are issues that still require further research. Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis gave some of his nobles personal freedom and economic autonomy, which can be regarded as a precondition for political emancipation.

The object of this research is the Zaberezinskis family among the political elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the association of the family's history (its genealogy, economic, political, foundational activity) with the rest of the environment of the GDL rulers of the Jagiellonian Dynasty. The general backdrop of the political life of the GDL makes it possible to see and evaluate the weight of the Zaberezininkis family among the country's ruling elite. From the late 15th to the middle of the 16th century, the aristocratic authority with its ages-old roots acquired institutional form. Foreseeing the possibility of rulers residing outside the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (as during Kazimierz Jagiellonian's rule), Alexander Jagiellonian's privilege of 6 August 1492 authorized broader prerogatives for the Council of Lords. At the same time, on the eve of the proclamation of the Grand Duke, the summoned parliament initiated the tradition of representation of the nobility. Institutional changes were accompanied by the reception of humanistic ideas, legal culture and political theory, linked to the custom, increasing at the time, of nobility sending their offspring to universities to pursue higher education. The story of the Zaberezinskis family, descendants of Rimvydas, is presented In the context of the formation of the GDL Republic (Respublica Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae), a political nation of descendants of the Romans (as the Lithuanian nobility portrayed themselves). The earliest data on the kin are associated with the times of Sigismund Kęstutaitis, and the latest with those of Sigismund Augustus. Members of the family played a particularly significant role in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the times of Kazimierz Jagiellonian and his two sons Alexander and Sigismund the Old, from the 1480s until 1544. Responding to the postulates of the modern science of genealogy, the story of the family is presented according to its different branches. Against the background of key events in Lithuanian history, beginning from Jurgis Rimvydaitis and Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis, the careers of the latter's children and their descendants, their interrelationships, and factors influencing their careers are analysed. Due to the different status of different members of the family and the different amounts of data available in the sources, the questionnaire applied to different members of the family differs. Jonas Jurgaitis and his son Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis, who reached the highest posts, are the most significant, and the most extensive treatment is given to their biographies. The composition of the landholding and the development of the network of towns are discussed in a separate part of the study. The available data (including property holdings) do not directly confirm a family relationship between the Zaberezinskis and the Manvydas families. No sources have been found in which the Zaberezinskis in any way mention Manvydas or his brother, or a family relationship with them. In the view of the author of this work, the success of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinsky's career can be attributed to his holding the strategic post of Vicar of Polotsk at a key moment, the favour of Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander and strong personal abilities. In consequence, Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinsky proved one of the most prominent personalities on the Council of Lords, achieving the particularly high offices of Voivode of Trakai and Grand Marshall, and personally taking part in the most important events in the interstate relations of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. For a variety of reasons (often due to early death), the only descendent of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis who achieved a significant political career was his son Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis (~1473-1538), who ultimately, like his father, assumed the posts of Voivode of Trakai and Grand Marshall of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. His relations with the other most influential high-ranking noblemen of the period are considered, especially the meaning of marriages contracted by him and arranged by him for his descendants and relatives. The gathered data regarding the formation and distribution of the family's latifundium show that the most important stage in the formation of the estate was the time of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis, although later the family also acquired significant properties through marriage and purchases. A major step in this process was the marriage of Jonas Jurgaitis Zaberezinskis to the daughter, Ona, of Jonas Nasuta, who held large properties in Palenkė (Podlasie). Other ways land was acquired were purchases and gifts of the rulers (Casimir and Alexander). One such event that stands out is Alexander's gift in 1506 of the regions of Alytus and Simnas. Many of the surviving papers written by Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis in the final period of his life, when he resided in Alytus as Keeper of the City and the Region, testify to intense internal colonization of the area of Alytus and Simnas by the Nemunas River. Alytus and Simnas also include the most noteworthy church foundations made by Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis and his family, a clear witness to the founders' piety. As he gave the decisive impulse for Alytus and Simnas to become city-like settlements, he can properly be considered the founder of those cities. The political self-awareness of the Lithuanian aristocracy is best captured by the term from that period "the Republic of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania" (Respublica Magni Ducatus Lithuaniae), as D. Kuolis has accurately observed. The theory of the Roman origins of the Lithuanian nobility, with all its consequences (such as e.g. the rule of law), can be considered the highest peak of the political culture of the ruling elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1525 (well before the Union of Lublin, which is often associated with Lithuanian republican traditions) Albertas Goštautas's memorial to the Grand Duchess Bona associated the notion of nobility with loyalty to the ruler and responsibility for the commonwealth (the republic). Although it can be said that certain Republican ideals drawn from antiquity thrived among the Lithuanian aristocracy, their dominant trait was conservatism (unwillingness to admit lesser nobility to the structures of power). The high-rank nobility clearly recognized the ruler as the head of the political body of the Grand Duchy, and sought for him a crown. The programme for a Kingdom of Lithuania should be linked to the need, fostered by aristocracy, for the GDL to have its own distinct identity, though having a separate ruler was important also for practical reasons: the unquestioned centralized government accelerated the defence mechanisms of the state. A contemporary observer testifies that, when the ruler was absent, the Lithuanian lords "did not know what to do, remained undecided and did nothing." The ruling elite of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, both in their actions and in what they wrote (in the Lithuanian chronicles and elsewhere), unequivocally showed that no agreements with the Polish Crown bound them. The role of the aristocracy in the political emancipation of the lesser nobility and the importance of the latter for the maturing of the Lithuanian-Polish Union are issues that still require further research. Jonas Jonaitis Zaberezinskis gave some of his nobles personal freedom and economic autonomy, which can be regarded as a precondition for political emancipation.

The problem under study. The problem of efficiency of alternative to imprisonment (non-custodial) sanctions is investigated in the present study. The fundamental advantage of this kind of punishment is the possibility to control offenders' behavior in the community. This idea is based on the personal ability to change, which depends on an offender's will and efforts to change himself and to start solving the problems, which have caused the offending behavior (motivation to change). Therefore, imposed alternative sanctions should affect the changes in offenders' behavior. The individual conditions (obligation and/or restrictions) of the sanction, imposed by a court, should direct an offender's efforts to change. The problem of efficiency of alternative sanctions is discovered, while studying, how the conditions of imposition and execution of these sanctions could affect the criminogenic factors and, therefore, could reduce recidives of crime. Analyzing these aspects we can observe the problem of individualization of punishment, or finding the appropriate sanction, and the problem of coherent application of the sanction. A court, imposing non-custodial sanction, should not only state a term of its application, but also should decide, if the imposed obligations (their amount and character) are sufficient to supervise the offender in the community. The imposition of non-custodial sanctions to a great extend determs the process of execution of it. Particularly, if the conditions of imposed sanction do not determine the offender to change and to solve the problems, related with offending behavior, then the control of their execution cannot affect the recidive of offending. The practical efficiency of these sanctions is determed by selection of the appropriate sanction; by sufficiency and practical useness of requirements, applied to offender in the process of execution; and by evaluation of the execution. The relevance of the study. The Commettee of Ministers of The Council of Europe, solving the problem of overcrowdedness of prisons, recommended to the member-states to deliver the plan to solve this problem, which would be based on the priorities of punishment, the public opinion, and the analysis of present practice of punishment. The program of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania of years 2000 – 2004 contains the intention to modify partially the system of punishment; to state the adequate punishment to the violations of law, to reduce the repressive effect of sanctions, to seek the social integration of the persons, having served the sentence. In this program there was presumed "the principle of economy of punishment" – the least sanction, which would be enough to affect the offender and stimulate him to change; confirmed the intention to apply community service, material sanctions and other non-custodial sanctions rather than penal measures. The legislative directions, contained in these documents, allowed to extend the application of alternative sanctions in the Penal Code, which came into effect on 1 May 2003. These measures were supposed to reduce the number of imprisoned and to become an efficient alternative to custodial sanctions. One of the conditions of efficiency of alternative sanctions is a systematic analysis and evaluation, if its application helps to reach the planned results. After more than five years since new Penal Code came into effect, we have some expirience of application of alternative sanctions, which would need a revision. Observing the functioning of the system of these sanction we can note, that the sanctions are being imposed and executed chaotically. This primary overview determs the relevance of theoretical and practical study of alternative sanctions. The law acts of the Republic of Lithuania forms the need to create an efficient model of probation. The program of the Government of the Respublic of Lithuania of the years 2004 – 2008 foresees to develop the model of probation (suspended sentence, early discharge from punishment), which would be conform to international legal acts and would stimulate offenders not to offend in the future. The activity program of the Government of the year 2009 foresees to extend the efficient probation (including suspended sentence) system, which is oriented towards management of the risk of repeated offending behavior, which would create the conditions for social security, for reducing the recidives of crime, and particularly for reducing the number of imprisoned people. The mentioned program contains the intention to direct the work of correctional inspections toward social aid to convicts, not only toward the control of their behavior. Development of the model for probation is also approved in the Conception of probation system in Lithuania. In order to achieve these aims, it is necessary to explore the problems of the existing system of alternative sanctions and to state practice-based criteria, which the efficiency of the sanctions depends on. The object of the study. In this dissertation study there is investigated theorical and practical aspects of conditions of imposition and execution of community service, limitation of freedom and suspended sentence, in the terms of rational usage of resources and reducing of recidives. The aim of the study. The aim of this dissertation study is to state the shortcomings of application of alternative sanctions and to formulate the criteria of efficiency, on the base of theoretical knowledge and collected practical data. The tasks of the study: 1) To present theorical analysis of the system of alternative sanctions (probation); 2) To analize the criteria, which efficiency of the system of alternative sanctions depends on; 3) To analize, if the existing reglamentation of sanction imposition allows to a court to select the appropriate alternative sanction; 4) To investigate the concept of offender's personality and his dangerness, formed in the Lithuanian penal law; 5) To state, if the structure of evaluation of personality and dangerness ensures elimination of the criminogenic factors; 6) To state the main practical problems of imposition of alternative sanctions; 7) To investigate the process of execution of alternative sanctions, to explore its main shortcomings and to state the criteria of its efficiency. The scientific recency of the study. The legal and social criteria of efficiency of non-custodial sanction have not been yet researched in Lithuania. This dissertation study presents the complex research of the presumptions of efficiency of these sanctions.The study contains analysis of the national system of alternative sanctions, in the context of reglamentation of this system by international legal acts and reglamentation of national systems in such countries, as the United Kingdom, Sweden and others. The area of present research also comprises the examination of scientific substantiation of the national system in the context of concepts of efficiency, approved in these countries. The author of the study argues the significant role of scientific approach, based on practical research, in the formation of the efficient system of alternative sanctions. The study contains the description of the scientific and practical researches, which allowed to comprehend the link between the structured evaluation of offender's personality and the selection of a proper sanction. In the study there are also argued the significant role of proper evaluation of the social factors in realization of alternative sanctions. The analysis comprises not only theoretical conception of efficiency, but also the evaluation of expirience of application of the sanctions in Lithuania. This study presents the new approach to the problems of the discretion of sanction imposition and the evaluation of offender's personality. The significance of the work. One of the significant aspect of the present research is the analysis of some years of the practice in application of alternative sanction in Lithuania. On the basis of complex research we have tried to state the criteria of efficiency of alternative sanctions. These criteria could be used improving the legal acts on the imposition and execution of alternative sanctions. The hypothesis of the study. The existing mechanism of imposition and execution of alternative sanctions is not efficient, since its affection to recidive of crime is not based on the measures, oriented towards elimination or correction of criminogenic factors. The maintained statements of the dissertation study: 1. The possibility to control (supervise) a convict in the community depends on his motivation, which is expressed by his consent (agreement) to fulfil the requirements of imposed obligation. 2. The rules of imposition of alternative sanctions should be oriented to the certain groups of offenders (for example, substances addicted persons). 3. Since a court has extensive discretion in selection of the type of alternative sanction, the main reason for the selection is evaluation of information about an offender. 4. Subjectivity in evaluation of personality of offender and his dangerness determs eclecticism in the practice of imposition of alternative sanctions. 5. Imposition and execution of alternative sanctions should be oriented to change offender's social behavior and to eliminate criminogenic factors (substance addictment, alcohol drinking, etc.), which have been resulted in offence. 6. If substance addictment was a significant factor in making an offence, imposed to the offender alternative sanction should also contain the obligation to undergo treatment course. 7. The present reglamentation of application of alternative sanctions doesn't contribute to offenders' social progress and to their rehabilitation. 8. The present reglamentation determs only nominal approach to execution of obligation by convicts and to assessment of that execution. 9. The obligation to undergo the treatment course should

The problem under study. The problem of efficiency of alternative to imprisonment (non-custodial) sanctions is investigated in the present study. The fundamental advantage of this kind of punishment is the possibility to control offenders' behavior in the community. This idea is based on the personal ability to change, which depends on an offender's will and efforts to change himself and to start solving the problems, which have caused the offending behavior (motivation to change). Therefore, imposed alternative sanctions should affect the changes in offenders' behavior. The individual conditions (obligation and/or restrictions) of the sanction, imposed by a court, should direct an offender's efforts to change. The problem of efficiency of alternative sanctions is discovered, while studying, how the conditions of imposition and execution of these sanctions could affect the criminogenic factors and, therefore, could reduce recidives of crime. Analyzing these aspects we can observe the problem of individualization of punishment, or finding the appropriate sanction, and the problem of coherent application of the sanction. A court, imposing non-custodial sanction, should not only state a term of its application, but also should decide, if the imposed obligations (their amount and character) are sufficient to supervise the offender in the community. The imposition of non-custodial sanctions to a great extend determs the process of execution of it. Particularly, if the conditions of imposed sanction do not determine the offender to change and to solve the problems, related with offending behavior, then the control of their execution cannot affect the recidive of offending. The practical efficiency of these sanctions is determed by selection of the appropriate sanction; by sufficiency and practical useness of requirements, applied to offender in the process of execution; and by evaluation of the execution. The relevance of the study. The Commettee of Ministers of The Council of Europe, solving the problem of overcrowdedness of prisons, recommended to the member-states to deliver the plan to solve this problem, which would be based on the priorities of punishment, the public opinion, and the analysis of present practice of punishment. The program of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania of years 2000 – 2004 contains the intention to modify partially the system of punishment; to state the adequate punishment to the violations of law, to reduce the repressive effect of sanctions, to seek the social integration of the persons, having served the sentence. In this program there was presumed "the principle of economy of punishment" – the least sanction, which would be enough to affect the offender and stimulate him to change; confirmed the intention to apply community service, material sanctions and other non-custodial sanctions rather than penal measures. The legislative directions, contained in these documents, allowed to extend the application of alternative sanctions in the Penal Code, which came into effect on 1 May 2003. These measures were supposed to reduce the number of imprisoned and to become an efficient alternative to custodial sanctions. One of the conditions of efficiency of alternative sanctions is a systematic analysis and evaluation, if its application helps to reach the planned results. After more than five years since new Penal Code came into effect, we have some expirience of application of alternative sanctions, which would need a revision. Observing the functioning of the system of these sanction we can note, that the sanctions are being imposed and executed chaotically. This primary overview determs the relevance of theoretical and practical study of alternative sanctions. The law acts of the Republic of Lithuania forms the need to create an efficient model of probation. The program of the Government of the Respublic of Lithuania of the years 2004 – 2008 foresees to develop the model of probation (suspended sentence, early discharge from punishment), which would be conform to international legal acts and would stimulate offenders not to offend in the future. The activity program of the Government of the year 2009 foresees to extend the efficient probation (including suspended sentence) system, which is oriented towards management of the risk of repeated offending behavior, which would create the conditions for social security, for reducing the recidives of crime, and particularly for reducing the number of imprisoned people. The mentioned program contains the intention to direct the work of correctional inspections toward social aid to convicts, not only toward the control of their behavior. Development of the model for probation is also approved in the Conception of probation system in Lithuania. In order to achieve these aims, it is necessary to explore the problems of the existing system of alternative sanctions and to state practice-based criteria, which the efficiency of the sanctions depends on. The object of the study. In this dissertation study there is investigated theorical and practical aspects of conditions of imposition and execution of community service, limitation of freedom and suspended sentence, in the terms of rational usage of resources and reducing of recidives. The aim of the study. The aim of this dissertation study is to state the shortcomings of application of alternative sanctions and to formulate the criteria of efficiency, on the base of theoretical knowledge and collected practical data. The tasks of the study: 1) To present theorical analysis of the system of alternative sanctions (probation); 2) To analize the criteria, which efficiency of the system of alternative sanctions depends on; 3) To analize, if the existing reglamentation of sanction imposition allows to a court to select the appropriate alternative sanction; 4) To investigate the concept of offender's personality and his dangerness, formed in the Lithuanian penal law; 5) To state, if the structure of evaluation of personality and dangerness ensures elimination of the criminogenic factors; 6) To state the main practical problems of imposition of alternative sanctions; 7) To investigate the process of execution of alternative sanctions, to explore its main shortcomings and to state the criteria of its efficiency. The scientific recency of the study. The legal and social criteria of efficiency of non-custodial sanction have not been yet researched in Lithuania. This dissertation study presents the complex research of the presumptions of efficiency of these sanctions.The study contains analysis of the national system of alternative sanctions, in the context of reglamentation of this system by international legal acts and reglamentation of national systems in such countries, as the United Kingdom, Sweden and others. The area of present research also comprises the examination of scientific substantiation of the national system in the context of concepts of efficiency, approved in these countries. The author of the study argues the significant role of scientific approach, based on practical research, in the formation of the efficient system of alternative sanctions. The study contains the description of the scientific and practical researches, which allowed to comprehend the link between the structured evaluation of offender's personality and the selection of a proper sanction. In the study there are also argued the significant role of proper evaluation of the social factors in realization of alternative sanctions. The analysis comprises not only theoretical conception of efficiency, but also the evaluation of expirience of application of the sanctions in Lithuania. This study presents the new approach to the problems of the discretion of sanction imposition and the evaluation of offender's personality. The significance of the work. One of the significant aspect of the present research is the analysis of some years of the practice in application of alternative sanction in Lithuania. On the basis of complex research we have tried to state the criteria of efficiency of alternative sanctions. These criteria could be used improving the legal acts on the imposition and execution of alternative sanctions. The hypothesis of the study. The existing mechanism of imposition and execution of alternative sanctions is not efficient, since its affection to recidive of crime is not based on the measures, oriented towards elimination or correction of criminogenic factors. The maintained statements of the dissertation study: 1. The possibility to control (supervise) a convict in the community depends on his motivation, which is expressed by his consent (agreement) to fulfil the requirements of imposed obligation. 2. The rules of imposition of alternative sanctions should be oriented to the certain groups of offenders (for example, substances addicted persons). 3. Since a court has extensive discretion in selection of the type of alternative sanction, the main reason for the selection is evaluation of information about an offender. 4. Subjectivity in evaluation of personality of offender and his dangerness determs eclecticism in the practice of imposition of alternative sanctions. 5. Imposition and execution of alternative sanctions should be oriented to change offender's social behavior and to eliminate criminogenic factors (substance addictment, alcohol drinking, etc.), which have been resulted in offence. 6. If substance addictment was a significant factor in making an offence, imposed to the offender alternative sanction should also contain the obligation to undergo treatment course. 7. The present reglamentation of application of alternative sanctions doesn't contribute to offenders' social progress and to their rehabilitation. 8. The present reglamentation determs only nominal approach to execution of obligation by convicts and to assessment of that execution. 9. The obligation to undergo the treatment course should

Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.

Relevance of the research problem. Sport is a value of every nation, which includes the system of physical, spiritual and cultural education, sports achievements, scientific knowledge, international communication (Karoblis, 2005). High level sport is inseparable from competitive activities, the pursuit of sports results (Hargreaves & MacDonald, 2000; Karoblis, 2005). The special training of athletes in the chosen sports is a part of general education of personality, which has a close connection with social, educational, political, economic issues of humanity development (Johnson et al., 2007). The athlete training process is a multi-year educational process of a specific structure and organizational form, which develops physical characteristics of an athlete, determines his activity, behavior, independence and responsibility, promotes to achieve excellent results. However, optimization of athlete training technology, construction of training system and its filling with full content still have the greatest impact on the improvement of sports results (Bompa & Buzzichelli, 2018; Karoblis, 2005; Платонов, 2004). Management of high-performance athlete training is related to prognostication, individual model characteristics of sport fitness, general and special load ratio, search for new effective directions of workout methodology, modeling of competition activity indicators, workout process planning, competition program conclusion, sport training adjustment (Karoblis, Raslanas, Steponavičius, 2002). Track-and-field athletics is integral sports that combine cyclic and acyclic exercise competitions: running, throws, vertical and horizontal jumps (Armonavičius, 1995). Short distance running is one of the most prestigious track-and-field athletics competitions. An exceptional short distance motor feature is the maximum intense activity of the whole body, especially the nervous and muscular systems, lasting from 0.1 to 40–50 s (Stanislovaitis et al., 2008). The ever-improving sports results reveal new human mental and physical abilities, vast resources of the body that could not even be dreamed of before. The organization of exercise, methodology, their scope and intensity, their combination with the means of recovery according to the main laws of phenotypic adaptation form the basis for the training of high-performance athletes (Платонов, 2004; Stonkus, 2000; Issurin, 2008; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). The particularity of the sport is based on competition. The results recorded in sport receive global recognition and become a true human achievement standard. In the world, they are constantly progressing, promoting the development of the sport community, therefore the greatest human intellectual and material resources are directed to the training of high-performance athletes (Skernevičius, 2015; Krylovas, Kosareva, Dadelienė, & Dadelo, 2020). However, the results of a research conducted by scientists showed that over the past nearly 20 years, elite athletes, including Olympic, world champions and prizewinners, have achieved personal best results in key competitions of the season by only in 50 percent cases (Yakimovich & Ovchinnikov, 2016). This shows that the opinion that contemporary coaches are high-performance and knowledgeable in the training of elite athletes and immaculately control and manage the process of sport training of athletes is not sufficiently substantiated. It has been established that the development of high-performance sprinters depends on many factors, the most important of which is the directionality of the training process, its management, taking into account the individual characteristics of the athlete's body adaptation to workout and competition loads (Stanislovaitis, 2008; Бондаренко, 1999; Нбанекова, Филин, 1995). The training of sprinters and their competitive activities have been extensively studied not only by foreign (Smith, 2005; Doscher, 2009; Kale & Bayrak, 2009; Prins, Murata, Derenne, Morgan, & Solomon, 2010; Dickin, Reyes, & Dolny, 2009; Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008; Eikenberry, Mcauliffe, Welsh, Zerpa, Mcpherson, & Newhouse, 2008; Oзoлин, 1986), but also by Lithuanian sport scientists (Stanislovaitis, 2008, 2006, 2005; Grūnovas, 2006; Butkus, 2006, 1995; Skurvydas, 1999, 2003; Bradauskienė, 2006). Although the world record of female sprinters in a 100 m distance is quite high (10.49 s), the search for new training methods and their application in the process of female sprinter workouts continues. Scientists are not only analyzing and evaluating existing workout methodological tools, but also looking for new methods for an advanced sprinter training process. Thus, in search of new methods to increase running speed, through more research and the application of the latest training technologies, methods can be discovered to help athletes to become faster and to develop a running speed, which has never been achieved before. Recently, in a 100 m running, as in many track-and-field athletics competitions, the results of athletes are progressing rapidly. That progress depends heavily on the selection of talented athletes, scientifically and practically sound and effective workout methodologies, the selection and application of remedial measures, the material compensation of athletes, which greatly increases motivation of athletes, and etc. Therefore, in order to achieve good results and prizes in high rank competition in contemporary sport, it is necessary to know the peculiarities of the application of training methodology, to properly select the most important starts of the annual training cycle, taking into account all conditions at the place and time of competition. An athlete and a coach must not only follow the innovations of training methodology, science and medicine, but also look back, be able to analyze his own results and the results of athletes, who have shown significant results theretofore, the peculiarities of workout tools and methods applied by them, the reasons for successful and unsuccessful starts, and then all this to apply to the management of his own training process. Discovering, revealing and learning about new technologies through the theory and didactics of sport workout is the most important function of sport science (Mester, 2003), and it is important for a coach to be able to use scientific results and recommendations, be insightful and be able to successfully model the training of elite athletes (Karoblis, Raslanas, Poteliūnienė, Steponavičius, Petkus, & Žilinskienė, 2011). The purposeful training of female sprinters and the search for effective technologies in order to increase the maximum running speed become a scientific problem. The presented scientific problem is relevant for the following reasons: ● It is important to analyze the change in results in terms of age and to determine the age, at which the highest results are achieved; ● It is important to research and theoretically substantiate, which components determine the sports result in short distance running; ● To research the effectiveness of training measures in order to increase maximum running speed; ● The contribution of running at maximum speed to the sports result in a 100 m run has not been sufficiently researched; ● It is important to establish criteria that affect the progress of athletes' mastery and the change of sport performance. Hypothesis. It is likely that sports results of female sprinters are not improving due to the integrated and concentrated training models applied separately. A universal speed training model is more effective. Object of the research is the process of female sprinter training. Aim is to identify the peculiarities of optimizing the training of high-performance female sprinters. Objectives of the research: 1. On the basis of the data of the theoretical analysis of scientific sources, to reveal the change of the results of high-performance female sprinters in terms of age. 2. To perform a comparative analysis of the preparation of high-performance female spriners for the Athens, Beijing, London and Rio Olympic Games. 3. To review the technologies of sports training of female sprinters and to examine the factors influencing their results. 4. To determine the effectiveness of a universal method for training the speed of high-performance female sprinters. 5. To reveal/identify the opinion of high-performance female sprinters about the factors determining their training system. Theoretical and practical significance Researching the structure and content of sports training for female sprinters of different ages and sports mastery, analyzing the change of sports results in terms of age, evaluating workout methods, running speed components, the provisions for effective running speed increase were identified: ● Running speed is determined by the speed of muscle contraction, the length of leg support, the frequency of steps, and the sports result in a 100-meter run depends mainly on the maximum running speed. ● In order to improve the results of the maximum running speed of female sprinters, it is important to apply a universal, combined method in the workout process, running with weight and stretching with an elastic band. These provisions are relevant to the theory and practice of female sprinter training. The results of the study can be used in the development of training programs for sports schools and high-performance female sprinters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The age for achieving the best personal result in the women's 100 m running competition is 24.69 ± 3.27 year. The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė achieved her best result in this running competition at the age of 25 – 11.19 s. At the beginning of their athletic career, American sprinters had the highest running scores and dominated until the age of 17, however later is observed leadership of the Caribbean Region female sprinters up to the age of 35. The results of European sprinters were average in almost all age groups. 2. Analysis of the four Olympic Games revealed a significant improvement in the results of the 100 m running and starting reaction speed (p < 0.05). In order to get to in the 100 m running final, athletes should run an average of 10.96 ± 0.03 s, and to become the prizewinners of the competition – 10.86 ± 0.08 s. Sprinters become the prizewinners of the 100 m run at the age of 25.42 ± 3.18 year. 3. Lithuanian female sprinters lose to the best sprinters of Europe and the world in the competition requiring the maximum running speed – 40 m in acceleration (11.99 %). The best Lithuanian sprinter L. Grinčikaitė-Samuolė reduces this difference to 4.05 % in the 100 m running distance, the gap between Europe's and the world's best female sprinters is gradually declining due to improved European sprinters' maximum running speed results. 4. The resisted/assisted running method is the most effective way to increase the running speed and starting acceleration, as this speed training method significantly improves the values of step length and support duration than running normally. 5. High-performance female sprinters lack attention to an important component of training – psychological training – in the process of their sports training. It was found out that their sports training and improvement of results are more influenced by external (monetary prizes, premiums) than internal motives (desire to improve results, honor to represent their country). A coach's personality also has impact. The coach is valued not only as a specialist, but distinguishing his personal qualities, such as sincerity, friendliness, motivation, promotion is considered an integral part of the training process.