El topillo campesino (Microtus arvalis Pallas, 1778) es un pequeño roedor herbívoro, que tiene preferencia por la vegetación herbácea verde, pudiendo ocupar una gran variedad de hábitats con este tipo de vegetación, desde prados montanos hasta llanuras cerealistas (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007; Amori et al., 2008; Jacob et al., 2013). El topillo campesino es una especie semifosorial que vive en galerías subterráneas, pero se alimenta principalmente en superficie. Es una especie con una gran capacidad reproductiva, ya que en condiciones favorables puede reproducirse durante todo el año y las hembras paren entre 2 y 11 crías, tras una gestación de entre 21 y 22 días, adquiriendo las hembras la madurez sexual durante el primer mes de vida y los machos en el segundo (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007). En consecuencia, en menos de dos meses puede haber una nueva generación. La especie es territorial en condiciones de baja abundancia, pero esa territorialidad se relaja en condiciones de alta densidad creándose colonias de individuos emparentados, lo que facilita la generación de poblaciones con altísima densidad (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007; Jacob et al., 2013). Este roedor presenta una amplia distribución, que abarca desde la mitad norte de Península Ibérica hasta oriente medio y el centro de Rusia, aunque está ausente de la mayor parte del sur de Europa, así como de Fenoscandia y el norte de Rusia. En gran parte de su área de distribución el topillo campesino presenta poblaciones con ciclos multianuales, siendo capaz de superar los 2000 topillos/ha en hábitats favorables durante años de máximo demográfico (Jacob et al., 2013). En las poblaciones con ciclos multianuales los máximos demográficos aparecen normalmente cada 3-5 años, aunque la periodicidad puede variar entre 2 y 10 años o incluso hay casos de máximos poblacionales todos los años en medios particularmente favorables (Mackin-Rogalska and Nabaglo, 1990; Delattre et al., 1999; Tkadlec and Stenseth, 2001). La amplia distribución, la dieta herbívora y las altas densidades que puede alcanzar en años de pico hacen que el topillo campesino pueda causar importantes daños en los cultivos que habita, por lo que está considerado el vertebrado más perjudicial para la agricultura de Europa (Jacob and Tkadlec, 2010). Las elevadas densidades que puede alcanzar, unido a sus hábitos de alimentación en superficie (Jacob et al., 2013), convierten al topillo campesino en una especie presa muy común en aquellas áreas donde está presente, tanto para depredadores aéreos (cernícalos, ratoneros, milanos, elanios o lechuzas, entre otros), en los que puede llegar a representar la mayor parte de su dieta (Paz et al., 2013), como para numerosos depredadores terrestres (comadrejas, turones, zorros o gatos entre otros) (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007). En España la especie se se encontraba restringida a las zonas montañosas de la mitad norte de la Península Ibérica hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XX, siendo los conflictos con agricultores y ganaderos prácticamente inexistentes (Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1), aunque hay referencias a problemas locales causados por otras especies de topillos desde hace siglos (D.L.M., 1806; Lafuente y Poyanos, 1807; Diaz, 1879; Avellán, 1899). Pero al final de la década de los 70 la especie aumentó su área de distribución, pasando a colonizar la mayor parte de las llanuras agrícolas de Castilla y León, unos 50000 km2, en menos de 30 años (Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1). Desde su llegada a las llanuras agrícolas castellanoleonesas la especie pasó a ser considerada una plaga, pues las explosiones demográficas que empezó a producir en áreas agrícolas causaron importantes daños en agricultura a nivel regional (Jacob and Tkadlec, 2010; Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1). Para reducir los daños causados en agricultura por las plagas de topillo, desde el inicio de la década de 1980, se han empleado principalmente campañas de control químico (Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1), basadas en el uso de rodenticidas anticoagulantes, aunque también se han empleado otras medidas como retirar la vegetación en reservorios potenciales de topillos (p.ej. lindes, arroyos,¿), mecánicamente o mediante quemas, o labrar las parcelas en otoño. Desgraciadamente estas medidas de control han tenido un impacto negativo en el medio ambiente (envenenamiento de especies no diana y de depredadores, efectos potenciales de las quemas o limpiezas de lindes sobre otras especies,¿) (Vidal et al., 2009; ASAJA, 2012; Sánchez-Barbudo et al., 2012; Luque-Larena et al., 2013, Capítulo 1). A los problemas agrícolas y medioambientales causados por las plagas de topillo campesino y su control hay que sumar el papel que pueden tener en la transmisión de distintas enfermedades (Gonzalez-Esteban and Villate, 2007), en particular la tularemia (Vidal et al., 2009; García San Miguel et al., 2013). Como ejemplo durante la última gran plaga de topillo campesino en 2007 el uso generalizado de rodenticidas, incluyendo la distribución en superficie, en las grandes extensiones de terreno afectadas por la plaga, causo importantes daños ambientales e incluso pudo contribuir a la difusión de la tularemia, por lo que fue objeto de críticas desde el ámbito científico (Olea et al., 2009; Delibes-Mateos et al., 2011; Jubete, 2011; Ferreira and Delibes-Mateos, 2012). Esta situación estimuló el desarrollo de varios proyectos de investigación encaminados a aportar información para ayudar a resolver este conflicto, mejorando la gestión de plagas de topillos, en cuyo seno se ha desarrollado esta tesis doctoral. Contenido de la investigación: En la Península Ibérica el topillo campesino se encontraba restringido originalmente a las áreas montañosas de la mitad norte, pero a finales de los 1970s la especie empezó un proceso de expansión que le llevaría a colonizar totalmente Castilla y León en poco más de 20 años (Capítulo 1). Está rápida expansión no parece estar ligada a las tendencias climáticas observadas durante el periodo de estudio (1962-2002). Algunas tendencias podrían haber favorecido la expansión (incremento de temperatura invernal; Capítulo 2), mientras que otras no (reducción en precipitación invernal y estival, incremento de temperatura estival; Capítulo 2). Por otra parte los cambios en usos del suelo durante el mismo periodo fueron profundos y probablemente favorecieron la expansión del topillo, especialmente el incremento en la superficie de cultivos irrigados y alfalfas, y posiblemente también la reducción de ganado criado en extensivo y la homogeneización del medio agrario (Capítulo 2). Con su llegada a las llanuras agrícolas de Castilla y León la especie empezó a exhibir explosiones demográficas de gran amplitud, con una periodicidad aparente de 5 años (Capítulo 1). Estas explosiones demográficas han causado importantes daños en agricultura y problemas sanitarios, llevándose a cabo campañas para su control basadas en el uso de veneno. Debido a los daños que la especie produce en la agricultura, así como por los costes que las campañas de control generan, poder predecir cuándo y dónde se va a producir una plaga de topillo campesino permitiría una actuación temprana con los beneficios que esto conlleva. En la Península Ibérica las plagas de topillo ocurren en años con mayor crecimiento vegetativo del normal en verano (medido mediante el índice NDVI), y dado que el crecimiento vegetativo está muy relacionado con la climatología se evaluó si sería posible predecir plagas de topillo campesino mediante variables climáticas. El modelo más simple para la predicción de plagas de topillos (a nivel regional) está basado en la precipitación primaveral superior a la media (esta variable está también incluida en los modelos más complejos). La capacidad de predecir una plaga de topillo campesino es muy positiva, pero el conseguir esa predicción al final de la primavera podría limitar la efectividad de las medidas a tomar (Capítulo 3). Conseguir una predicción más temprana sería probablemente más útil, pero para ello se necesita más investigación. Un conocimiento más preciso de las fluctuaciones demográficas del topillo campesino también podría ayudar a la prevención temprana de las plagas producidas por la especie a nivel más local, así como a una aplicación de medidas de control con menos efectos negativos sobre el entorno. Para monitorizar poblaciones de roedores a gran escala lo eficiente es emplear índices indirectos de abundancia. Al inicio de esta tesis no existía ningún índice que se hubiera validado científicamente en España, por lo que se decidió realizar esta validación para ratificar su utilización para medir la abundancia de topillo campesino en medios agrarios castellanoleoneses. El resultado fue el índice PSpS (Presence of Signs per Square), que mediante la medida de presencia/ausencia de distintos indicios de actividad del topillo campesino (pastoreo y excrementos), permite medir de forma fiable la abundancia de topillo campesino a densidades medias-bajas (hasta los 70-100 topillos/ha, Capítulo 4a). Estas densidades se encuentran dentro del rango en el que se ha considerado en ciertos trabajos técnicos que se debería iniciar tratamiento (50 topillos/ha en invierno; Arenaz, 2006). Durante la elaboración de la tesis, el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente publicó un índice indirecto (índice MI), recomendado para evaluar la abundancia del topillo campesino. Realizamos un estudio específico para compararlo con el índice PSpS desarrollado en esta tesis, comprobando que ambos estaban muy relacionados entre sí, pero que las estimas de densidad producidas a bajas abundancias de topillo campesino eran mucho mayores (unas 14 veces más) con el índice MI que con PSpS (Capítulo 4.2). Esto indica que el índice MI, tal y como se ha planteado, no sería adecuado para monitorizar al topillo campesino en condiciones de baja densidad, pudiendo su uso llevar a realizar campañas de control de las poblaciones de topillo campesino innecesarias por sobreestimación de densidad. Las campañas de control químico, habitualmente utilizadas para controlar al topillo campesino, tienen un alto coste y pueden causar importantes daños al medio ambiente. Debido a los daños colaterales que pueden causar hay una tendencia global a disminuir la dependencia del control químico en la gestión de plagas de roedores, especialmente en Europa, donde el número de sustancias aprobadas para protección de cultivos tiende a reducirse (European Parliament and of the Council, 2006). Teniendo esto en cuenta, es recomendable estudiar la viabilidad de otras medidas de control del topillo campesino, como por ejemplo maneras de aumentarla densidad local de depredadores aéreos (Haim et al., 2007; Paz et al., 2013). En el último capítulo de esta tesis estudiamos la eficacia de incrementar las poblaciones de depredadores aéreos mediante la instalación de cajas nido para disminuir las abundancias de topillos, midiendo la abundancia de topillo campesino alrededor de dichas cajas nido usando índices indirectos basados en PSpS. Pudimos observar que la abundancia de topillo campesino cerca de cajas nido ocupadas era menor que lejos de las mismas (Capítulo 5), apoyando que suplementar cajas nido en áreas con escasez de lugares de nidificación puede actuar como control biológico de las poblaciones de topillo campesino a nivel local , siendo por lo tanto una pieza valiosa en cualquier estrategia de control integrado de plagas de topillo campesino en medios agrícolas que permitiría reducir el uso de rodenticidas. Conclusiones: 1. A finales de la década de los 70 el topillo campesino aumentó su área de distribución en la Península Ibérica, colonizando las planicies agrarias de Castilla y León (cerca de 50000 km2) en menos de 30 años. Desde su llegada a los paisajes agrarios, las nuevas poblaciones de la especie empezaron a producir explosiones demográficas periódicas, plagas a nivel regional, aproximadamente cada 5 años, ajustándose de forma estadísticamente significativa a un patrón cíclico. 2. Las plagas de topillo campesino en Castilla y León están asociadas de forma crónica con el uso de veneno (en especial rodenticidas anticoagulantes) para combatirlas y con la aparición de brotes de tularemia en humanos (esto último desde 1997 en adelante). 3. Los cambios observados en la evolución del clima entre 1962 y 2002 (antes y durante la expansión geográfica del topillo campesino) parecen insuficientes para explicar la expansión del área de distribución. En general, las variaciones climáticas estuvieron poco correlacionadas con la expansión, aunque no se descarta una influencia sinérgica con otros factores. 4. Los cambios en el uso del suelo a nivel agrario en Castilla y León entre 1962-2002 fueron profundos y algunos estuvieron fuertemente correlacionados con la expansión del topillo campesino, especialmente el incremento en la superficie ocupada por cultivos de regadío y cultivos forrajeros (cultivos verdes), en particular la alfalfa, un hábitat agrícola óptimo para la especie, así como con la reducción o estabulación de la cabaña ganadera en el área de distribución original. Esta asociación temporal entre expansión de poblaciones de topillo e incremento de cultivos verdes fue consistente a varias escales espaciales (regional, provincial y comarcal). 5. A nivel regional (Castilla y León) las plagas de topillo campesino coinciden con años que presentan una precipitación primaveral superior a la media y por tanto un mayor crecimiento vegetativo estival (evaluado mediante NDVI). La probabilidad de aparición de una plaga a escala regional aumenta en años con primaveras más lluviosas de lo habitual, veranos con temperaturas relativamente bajas y tras inviernos con temperaturas relativamente altas. En cambio, el otoño previo a un año de plaga estaba caracterizado por una producción vegetal relativamente baja. 6. Se ha evaluado la utilidad potencial de un índice indirecto sencillo, barato y fiable para mejorar la monitorización del topillo campesino en grandes extensiones de terreno. El índice PSpS (Presence of Signs per Square) presentado en esta tesis reúne esas condiciones, siendo muy adecuado para monitorizar la abundancia de topillos en densidades medias y bajas (hasta unos 70-100 topillos/ha). Este índice está bien correlacionado con el índice propuesto por el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Rural y Marino, pero demuestra ser más preciso ya que no sobreestima la abundancia en situaciones de baja densidad. 7. Utilizando un índice basado en PSpS como herramienta para estimar la abundancia de topillo campesino en áreas experimentales donde se han instalado cajas-nido para cernícalos vulgares y lechuzas comunes, hemos comprobado que la abundancia de topillos cerca de cajas nido ocupadas por estas rapaces (<180 m) era menor que lejos de ellas (¿ 180<540 m, ¿540 m) , lo que índica que colocar cajas nido para depredadores aéreos en áreas con pocos lugares naturales de nidificación puede ser una herramienta adecuada para el control biológico del topillo campesino a escala local. 8. Los profundos cambios en la agricultura que experimentó España durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX, mejoraron el rendimiento de las cosechas y redujeron al mismo tiempo la necesidad de mano de obra. Sin embargo también produjeron una serie de cambios ecológicos que facilitaron la colonización de las llanuras agrícolas de Castilla y León por parte del topillo campesino, creando la paradoja de que un sistema diseñado para maximizar el beneficio del agricultor al mismo tiempo favorece a una plaga que ocasionalmente puede perjudicarle de forma importante. El topillo campesino continuará siendo parte de los hábitats agrícolas de Castilla y León mientras las condiciones que le favorecen persistan, por lo tanto el impacto del topillo campesino debería ser tenido en cuenta en la planificación del manejo de los hábitats y paisajes agrícolas de Castilla y León.
W roku 1882 pojawia się w literaturze archeologicznej pierwsza wzmianka na temat grodziska w Nowińcu (Jentsch 1882a, s. 122; 1882b, s. 355). Niestety, niemalże cały następny wiek nie przyniósł nowych informacji. Stanowisko to dopiero jest wymieniane w opracowaniu Zofii Kurnatowskiej i Aliny Łosińskiej na temat terenów osadniczych u schyłku starożytności i we wczesnym średniowieczu (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, s. 111). Autorki umieszczają stanowisko na pograniczu terytoriów plemiennych Nice i Zara (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, s. 89). Nieco więcej uwag grodzisku w Nowińcu poświęca Grzegorz Domański w studium na temat osadnictwa wczesnośredniowiecznego nad dolną Nysą Łużycką, w którym grodzisko przypisuje plemieniu Zara (Domański 1983, ryc. 8). Inną koncepcję przynależności plemiennej grodu w Nowińcu miał Adam Wędzki, który twierdził, że należało ono do plemienia Nice (Wędzki 1970, s. 7-9). Jeszcze inaczej przynależność obszaru środkowej Lubszy widzieli Jerzy Lodowski i Jerzy Szydłowski (1991, ryc. 1), którzy twierdzli, że obszar ten był pustką osadniczą pomiędzy plemionami Słupian i Zara. Problem ten trudno rozwiązać bez szerszego rozpoznania zaplecza osadniczego najważniejszych grodów. Niestety, stan badań nad osadnictwem wczesnośredniowiecznym terytorium plemiennego Zara jest bardzo słaby, na co zwracały już uwagę Zofia Kurnatowska i Alina Łosińska (1970, s. 89). Dopiero w ostatnich latach dokonano niewielkiego postępu w tym zakresie. W latach 80. i na początku lat 90. zlokalizowano drugi ośrodek plemienny Zara, a mianowicie grodzisko w Żarach (Nowiński 2005). Dzięki pracom archeologicznym podjętym w latach 1986 i 1987 oraz 2004 na "Winnym Wzgórzu" ustalono dokładną lokalizację grodziska, chociaż nie ustalono precyzyjnego przebiegu i chronologii umocnień. W trakcie pierwszych dwóch sezonów badań (w części południowej grodziska) odsłonięto pozostałości wału zbudowanego ze skrzyń drewnianych wypełnionych ziemią, gliną i kamieniami. Najnowsze prace przeprowadzone po przeciwnej stronie przyniosły także odkrycie wału wzmocnionego od strony wewnętrznej licem kamiennym, a od zewnętrznej tłustą gliną (Nowiński 2005, s. 10, 11). Niewykluczone, że w 2008 r. natrafiono na pozostałości osady przygrodowej (Gruszka, Wolanin 2008). W latach 2002 i 2003 przeprowadzono badania ratunkowe na domniemanym grodzisku w Nowińcu (Dziedzic, Gruszka 2004), położonym przy północnej granicy plemienia Zara. Stanowisko było badane przez Stowarzyszenie Naukowe Archeologów Polskich Oddział Lubuski, a następnie przez Muzeum Archeologiczne Środkowego Nadodrza w Świdnicy k. Zielonej Góry. Oba sezony badawcze finansowane były ze środków Lubuskiego Wojewódzkiego Konserwatora Zabytków w Zielonej Górze. Celem badań było zabezpieczenie stanowiska przed dewastacją spowodowaną wybieraniem piachu. Kierownikiem prowadzonych wówczas badań był mgr Piotr Dziedzic, a uczestnikami byli mgr mgr Sławomir Kałagate, Bartłomiej Gruszka i Paweł Stachowiak. W trakcie badań rozpoznano obszar 4 arów, najbardziej narażonych na zniszczenie, na którym odkryto 29 obiektów i ponad 6000 fragmentów naczyń, niemalże 1500 kości zwierzęcych oraz liczny i bogaty zespół innych zabytków ruchomych, w tym elementy uzbrojenia i rzędu końskiego (ostroga, grot strzały czy pobocznicę wędzidła). Rzadko spotykanym znaleziskiem jest odkrycie pracowni brązowniczej wraz z grupą zabytków służących do obróbki i wytopu najprawdopodobniej brązu. W skład zespołu wchodziły narzędzia jubilerskie, półsurowiec brązowy, tygielek odlewniczy odważnik oraz fragment dyszy. Tego rodzaju znaleziska są dużą rzadkością, zwłaszcza na stanowiskach leżących poza głównymi szlakami handlowymi. Nieczęstym znaleziskiem jest także odkrycie kompletnej prażnicy zainstalowanej w jednym z obiektów. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych i opublikowanych w niniejszym opracowaniu badań specjalistycznych możliwa jest rekonstrukcja środowiska przyrodniczego okolic grodziska, jego zaplecza gospodarczego, podstawowych gałęzi gospodarki mieszkańców grodu oraz miejsca, jakie gród zajmował w systemie osadniczym IX–X wiecznego pogranicza śląsko-łużyckiego. Wykonanie licznych analiz naczyń pozwoliło na uzyskanie materiału porównawczego, co w przyszłości pomoże w poznaniu dróg napływu i rozprzestrzeniania się nowych idei stylistycznych i formalnych ceramiki. Interdyscyplinarne opracowanie wyników badań grodziska w Nowińcu wnosi istotną, nową wiedzę na temat okresu plemiennego tej części Łużyc. Dotychczas bowiem nie udostępniono kompleksowych wyników badań żadnego stanowiska z tej części Polski z analogicznego okresu. Opracowanie wyników badań oraz druk niniejszej publikacji został dofinansowany ze środków Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. ; The stronghold in Nowiniec was firstly mentioned in the archeological literature in 1882 (Jentsch 1882a, s. 122; 1882b, s. 355). Unfortunately, almost whole, next century didn't bring any further information. Eventually, the site was mentioned in the work by Zofia Kurnatowska and Alina Łosińska, which was concerned of settlement area in the late antiquity and in the beginning of the Early Middle Ages in the southern part of Lubuskie Voivodship (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, p. 111). These scholars located this site in the borderland of tribal territory of tribes Nice and Zara (Hilczerówna, Urbańska-Łosińska 1970, p. 89). A bit more about stronghold in Nowiniec devoted Grzegorz Domański in his work about Early Medieval settlement at the lower Lusatian Neisse, in which he assigned this fortress to the Nice tribe (Domański 1983, fig. 8). Other idea of this stronghold tribal affiliation was given by Adam Wędzki, who thought that it belonged to the Nice tribe (Wędzki 1970, pp. 7-9). According to Jerzy Lodowski and Jerzy Szydłowski (1991, fig. 1) the territory of the middle Lubsza River was a settlement hiatus between tribes Selpoli and Zara. This riddle is very hard to solve without a proper recognition of the hinterland of main strongholds. Unfortunately, the state of research of Early Medieval settlement of the Nice tribe is very poor, what has been already pointed out by Zofia Kurnatowska and Alina Łosińska (1970, s. 89). Only in the recent years some development in this issue has been made (Nowiński 2005; Gruszka, Wolanin 2008). Stronghold in Nowiniec, site no. 2 is located in Lubuskie Voivodship, Żary Province. This site is situated in the eastern ridge of Lubsza River valley, on the right shore, in the Holocene meadow terrace, which is c. 0,5-1,5 m above river level. According to the physiography, the stronghold is located in the area of Great Poland-Silesian lowlands, in the macroregion of Milicko–Głogowskie Decrease, in the territory of one of distinguished mezoregions, videlicet Nowosolska Decrease. The nearest hinterland of stronghold in Nowiniec is recognized only on surface survey level, conducted during AZP survey. In 2002 and 2003 rescue archeological fieldworks was taken on the area of stronghold in Nowiniec (Dziedzic, Gruszka 2004). The excavation was led by Scientific Association of Polish Archeologists, Department in Lubuskie Province, and later by the Archeological Museum of the Odra River Territory in Świdnica, near Zielona Góra. Both seasons of excavations was funded by Voivodship Conservator of Monuments in Zielona Góra. Their aim was to preserve the site from devastation caused by the illegal digging of the sand. The head of the crew (Sławomir Kałagate MA, Bartłomiej Gruszka MA, Paweł Stachowiak MA) was Piotr Dziedzic MA. During the research the area of 4 are, mostly exposed to damage, was excavated. 29 archaeological features and over 6000 of ceramics fragments, almost 1500 animal bones and very rich collection of other artefacts, including weapon and horse ridding equipment, was discovered there. Thanks to the taken and published in this volume specialist examinations we were able to reconstruct natural environment of the surroundings of the stronghold. Geological-geomorphological research has shown the kind of soil the inhabitants were using and potential places of farming exploitation. Palynological examinations revealed the moment of appearing (9/10th-10th c.) and domination of plants (mainly rye, unidentified grains and accompanying weeds). The analysis of plant macro-remains completed the information about using specific plant species in the farming of past inhabitants of the fortress. On the prints visible on the walls of the large vessel used to roast (so called prażnica) some remains of linen, rye, barley as well as weed were noticed. Zooarcheological analysis have given us some answers to the questions of the structure of animal breeding as well as the meaning of hunting in the life of inhabitants of the stronghold. The cattle was the most important and dominating species, next was a pig bones and the last sheep/goat remains. Some amount of wild animals bones, including deer, boar, roe deer, moose as well as brown bear, was also noticed. Many specialist analysis which were taken for this publication, were really innovatory, and for the area of South-western Poland were carried out for the first time (petrography and chemical analysis of ceramics, thermoluminescence dating of ceramics, metallographic analysis of Early Medieval militaries and also traceological analysis flint stone artefacts from that period). Thanks to the analysis of ceramics we were able to establish the routes of influx and spreading of new tendencies in style and forms of pottery. The basic stages of production of pottery were reconstructed, including pointing out the places from where the stock was taken (clay and temper), and also establishing the main ways of building the vessels as well as temperature and atmosphere in which they were fired in kiln. Very rare find seems to be fragments of clay beaker, which appeared in the features no 3 and 7. In the feature 15 totally broken, but complete large vessel used to roast or drying (so called prażnica) was found. It could have been probably connected with a metalworking workshop (feature no 18). Establishing of its function was possible due to the find of artefacts connected with iron and non-ferrous metals fabrication (nozzle fragment, crucible, bronze raw material, jewelry tools, bowl-shaped slags) Those kind of finds are characteristic for big centers with essential economic and political meaning, e.g. Kruszwica (Hensel-Moszczyńska 1981/82, pp. 129–219), Czersk (Rauhutowa 1976), Stradów (Dąbrowska 1965), Szczecin Wzgórze Zamkowe (Szczecin, 1983, s. 121), Wiślica (Rajewski 1954, p. 10), Wrocław Ostrowów Tumski (Kaźmierczyk et all 1976, pp. 178–181) or Wolin Srebrne Wzgórze (Wojtasik 1978). The discovering of a metalworking workshop in the Nowiniec stronghold let us to put this stronghold in the place of one of the most important centre of the Zara tribe, and proves its big meaning in the 9-10th-century settlement and economic system this part of Silesian-Lusatian borderland. This assumption is also proved by other finds which are connected with presence of temporary or constant presence of economic and social elites representants, maybe some local leader with his military troops (so called drużyna). Beside some animal remains who can be assigned to the group of Animalia Superiora (including the bear paw, which was regarded in the Early Middle Ages as a dainty of elites), above mentioned sherds of ceramic bowls (intended for drinking honey or wine, considered as a luxury tableware), was also discovered. The presence of well equipped military troops is also proved by findings of militaries, including hook-like spur, arrowhead or curb bit. Far-reach trade is displayed by discovering of lead weight, but also occurrence of stone artefacts, made of a stock from the Sudetes or beyond Sudetes area. The chronology of stronghold in Nowiniec, was established according to the environmental and classical archeological analysis. Thanks to the morphological-stylistic-typological analysis of pottery, we were able to realize that there were two visible pottery mainstreams – traditional, connected still with the tribe period, and also progressive – typical for early Piast state period. The most dominating seems to be the part of the vessels which were made in the hand molding and partially coating on the potter's wheel technique. Two coned vessels of more or less marked belly break, ornamented with a plastic roller (Tornov type) as well as different kind of several, crossing rite lines motives, vertical or herringbone patterns (Menkendorf type). In the stronghold in Nowiniec the share of plastic roller vessels was almost 40% of every ornamented taxons. Almost the same data was established for the eponymic site in Tornow, where the sherds with a plastic roller (Tornow A and B type altogether) in the 1st phase of the stronghold (A phase) appeared in circa 37% of whole ceramic material, and in the phase two (B phase) circa 50% of all. In the sites of similar chronology, e.g. Zawada, site no 1 and Sulechów, site no 28, the amount of ornamented with plastic roller vessels was circa 57% and less than 17% of all decorated ceramics sherds. Almost identical percentage of vessels ornamented with a plastic roller (almost 39%) was reordered in the in settlement complex of Klenica stronghold, site no 4 (Gruszka 2010, p. 129). Basing on the numerous parallels (see Gruszka, in this volume, pp. 48–49, 52; 2010; Dymaczewska, Dymaczewski 1967, pp. 208–218) and also dendrochronological datings (Biermann 1999, pp. 97-123; Kara, Krąpiec 2000, p. 317 and next., 320; Biermann, Kieseler, Nowakowski 2008, p. 87) we were able to assume that both sets which include the pottery of Tornow-Klenica complex can be dated to the 1st half of the 9th-10th c or even to the beginning of the 11th c. (Brzostowicz 2002, p. 34). Almost half smaller (beyond 22%) is the amount of Menkendorf type vessels. It is considered that the biggest portion of these forms are in the 9th-10th c., and they're contemporary with the Tornow type, even though they're are appearing in the younger chronological phases (Łosiński 1996, p. 438). During the research we were able to discover also, some amount of wholly coated vessels, which are characteristic for early Piast pottery from the 11th c. Contribution of this kind of pottery appeared mainly in the ceiling of feature no 7 and also in occupational layer. Occurrence of wholly coated vessels was observed in highly damaged layers of Klenica, site no 4 (Gruszka 2010, p. 132) and also in Zawada, site no 1, where they are distinguishing the 2nd phase of functioning of these sites (11th c.). Chronological range based on the ceramics analysis was confirmed by dating of metal artefacts, including hook-like spur, curb bit or lead weight, discovered in the stronghold (8th-9th c.). The chronology of this site was also based on some environmental studies. When we are using them we need to have in mind large margin of error of results. This especially concerns radiocarbon dating (Walanus, Goslar 2004) as well as thermoluminescence dating. The most numerous group of samples (shreds) was given to the thermoluminescence dating. Thanks to this method we're able to establish that the chronology of analyzed vessels contains in a 100 years time period (without including the error of this method), between 849 and 960 (2nd half of the 9th–2nd half of the 10th c.). The results of thermoluminescence analysis don't exclude the possibility of dating the younger pottery records even to the 1st half of the 9th c. Charred wood relics, which was found in the feature no 17, come from the beginning of 11th c. If we include some additional thermoluminescence dating of some shreds even to 1st half of the 11th c., we must consider a possibility of break of settlement on the stronghold in Nowiniec deep into the 11th c. According to these data, we can assume, that the beginning of functioning of this fortress occurs in the 2nd half of the 9th c. The oldest pottery records, which can be dated according to parallels and thermoluminescence analysis, come exactly from this time period. The stronghold biggest development occurs in the 10th c., however its fall happened most likely in the 1st half of the 11th c. ; Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego ; Bartłomiej Gruszka
La procedura dell'adlectio ― intesa nella particolare accezione di iscrizione di un nuovo senatore, per lo più proveniente dall'ordine equestre, nei ranghi dell'amplissimus ordo attraverso l'inserimento in un determinato rango al di sopra della magistratura d'entrata dalla quale si trova così dispensato ― non esisteva precedentemente all'imperatore Claudio, di cui è, in un certo senso, una creazione, e non comparve, secondo le fonti a nostra disposizione, prima della lectio senatus del 48 d.C. quando l'imperatore la introdusse mentre era investito dei poteri censorii insieme al collega e tre volte console L. Vitellio. Fu dunque il primo imperatore a immettere nei ranghi del Senato individui che non appartenevano ancora all'ordo senatorius, senza che essi avessero rivestito precedentemente alcuna delle magistrature repubblicane: allo stato attuale delle conoscenze, Claudio fece un uso piuttosto moderato della adlectio introduttiva in Senato, senza dubbio perché il numero dei membri dell'assemblea non doveva discostarsi troppo da quello prescritto di seicento, e comunque la sua scelta dovette essere effettuata esclusivamente tra gli italici e i provinciali che disponevano del ius honorum; non si conoscono, secondo la documentazione disponibile, che quattro adlecti di questo imperatore. Fu Vespasiano che, a partire dal 69 d.C., utilizzò questa procedura di accesso al Senato nel modo più esteso; va considerato a questo proposito che il numero dei senatori, in seguito alle persecuzioni e ai processi de maiestate di Nerone e, successivamente, alla guerra civile del 68 – 69 d.C., si era vistosamente ridotto lasciando un vuoto che doveva essere colmato nel più breve tempo possibile. Vespasiano quindi procedette immediatamente, subito dopo la sua acclamazione da parte delle truppe il 1 Luglio del 69, secondo quanto testimonia Tacito ( Hist. II, 82, 2 ), a delle nomine, effettuate quando non deteneva ufficialmente la censoria potestas, mentre si trovava ancora in Oriente, per ricompensare un certo numero di suoi partigiani. J. Devrecker ne conta sette, forse otto, cui dovrebbe essere aggiunto secondo A. Chastagnol anche M. Annius Messala: personalmente ritengo che, sicuramente, si possa parlare solo di due nomine antecedenti la censura del 73/74, in quanto testimoniate direttamente dalle fonti, e cioè di Plotius Grypus, adlectus inter tribunicios, e Sex. Lucilius Bassus, adlectus inter praetorios. In ogni caso in numero più consistente di adlectiones venne attuato durante la censura del 73/74 d.C., anche se non siamo in grado di stabilire con precisione quanto vasto sia stato il fenomeno finalizzato al riempimento delle depauperate file del Senato: noi verosimilmente conosciamo soltanto una frazione del numero reale di nuovi senatori che vennero ammessi tra gli ex questori, tribuni, edili e pretori ( i più dotti studi in materia ne enumerano 21/22, cfr. le opere fondamentali di W. Eck, G. W. Houston, J. Devreker, A. Chastagnol ), ma è necessario presupporre che vi fu un gruppo piuttosto vasto di adlecti che fecero il loro ingresso nella Curia. Durante la censura congiunta con Tito nell' Apr. – Mag. 73 / Apr. – Mag. 74 d.C. Vespasiano accordò inoltre anche un certo numero di adlectiones "interne"; si tratta di un significato aggiuntivo che il termine adlectio viene ad assumere almeno a partire dal principato di Vespasiano: esso può indicare anche il passaggio ad una classe di rango superiore di un personaggio già appartenente alla Curia, ad esempio un senatore di rango questorio che attraverso una adlectio inter tribunicios può essere messo in grado di ricoprire la pretura, oppure attraverso una adlectio inter praetorios può immediatamente ricoprire incarichi di rango pretorio e concorrere per il consolato ( si veda ad esempio il caso di L. Flavius Silva Nonius Bassus ). Va comunque tenuto presente che l'adlectio, intesa nel senso di promozione di individui di origine non senatoria direttamente in una classe di ex magistrati ( i quaestorii, i tribunicii, gli aedilicii e i praetorii ) che consentiva l'accesso diretto alla Curia, per quanto abbia rappresentato una delle cause più rilevanti nei mutamenti della composizione del Senato a partire dal principato di Vespasiano in poi, non costituiva la procedura tradizionale di rinnovamento dei ranghi della massima assemblea in periodi di stabilità politica: molto più praticata era la collazione del laticlavio, vale a dire l'adlectio in amplissimum ordinem, grazie alla quale giovani membri dell'ordine equestre venivano ammessi nel massimo ordine, non ottenendo però l'ingresso vero e proprio in Senato. Il rinnovamento nella composizione del Senato ebbe come portato fondamentale anche la modificazione e diversificazione della base regionale di origine dei suoi membri. Già durante il principato di Nerone, anche se la Curia era prevalentemente costituita da elementi romano – italici, alcuni homines novi provinciali, tra cui spiccano gli originari della Spagna e della Gallia Narbonensis ( in misura minore possiamo citare anche gli Orientali che beneficiarono del filellenismo di Nerone ) fecero il loro ingresso in Senato. Fu sotto il principato di Vespasiano, comunque, che il numero dei provinciali presenti in Senato aumentò drasticamente, tanto che si è giunti a quantificarli in circa un terzo dei membri dell'amplissimus ordo; l'apporto più significativo venne proprio dalle aree altamente romanizzate della Spagna meridionale e della Gallia meridionale, non che dalle province orientali di lingua greca. La particolarità che emerge dall'analisi della provenienza geografica dei tre adlecti che vennero immessi nei ranghi del Senato durante il principato di Domiziano, e dei tre incerti collocabili tra Domiziano e Traiano, è che cinque di essi provengono dalle province orientali. Si tratta di M. Arruntius Claudianus ( Xanthos, Lycia ), Ti. Claudius Sacerdos Iulianus ( Asia Minore ) – adlecti di Domiziano - C. Iulius Alexander ( figlio del re Tigrane V di Armenia ), C. Caristanius Iulianus ( Antiochia, Pisidia ), C. Claudius Severus ( Pompeiopolis, Paphlagonia ) - incerti - . Il terzo cooptato in Senato da Domiziano, L. Iulius Ursus, mi ha portato a presupporre che la sua l'adlectio sarebbe potuta avvenire, anzi, è piuttosto probabile che sia avvenuta, già nell'83, quando Domiziano non disponeva ancora dei poteri censorii: come già era avvenuto con le adlectiones di Vespasiano del 69 e del 70 d.C., non era strettamente necessario che l'imperatore detenesse la censoria potestas per immettere nuovi membri in una classe di ex magistrati, anche se ufficialmente la nomina di nuovi membri dell'ordo, l'elevazione di un certo numero di famiglie al patriziato e la revisione dell'albo rimanevano formalmente connessi con l'esercizio della censura. Quando poi Domiziano assunse il titolo di censor perpetuus, la censura si trasformò in una sorta di diritto permanente dell'imperatore, e dopo il regno di Domiziano perse anche le caratteristiche specifiche del potere censorio: da quel momento in poi gli imperatori ebbero la prerogativa di elevare homines novi nei ranghi dell'amplissimus ordo in qualunque momento e per qualsiasi motivo sembrasse loro opportuno. L'unico adlectus sicuramente attribuibile a Nerva è T. Mustius Hostilius Fabricius Medulla Augurinus, cooptato tra gli ex tribuni, mentre sicuramente attribuibili a Traiano sono quattro nuovi senatori, tra cui vale la pena di segnalare Lusius Quietus, il princeps Maurorum comandante dello squadrone di cavalieri Mauri symmacharii che partecipò alle Guerre Daciche e alla Guerra Partica di Traiano; in seguito al successo riportato nel sedare l'insurrezione giudaica in Mesopotamia, che alcune fonti descrivono come una vera e propria strage ( EUS., Chr.,II, 196 e; OROS., Hist. adv. pag. VII, 12, 7 ) Quietus nel 116 o nel 117 d.C. venne adlectus inter praetorios. Durante il principato di Adriano, per quanto consentono di determinare le fonti di cui disponiamo, il numero di homines novi immessi in Senato attraverso la procedura dell'adlectio più che limitato, come sotto il suo successore Antonino Pio, è prevalentemente orientato alla cooptazione in classi di rango inferiori, vale a dire tra i tribunicii o gli aedilicii ( 6 casi ), volta all'immissione nella Curia di nuovi e più giovani senatori ad uno stadio meno avanzato della carriera. Sia le cooptazioni nell'amplissimus ordo in classi di rango più precoci da un lato, sia il numero limitato di adlectiones dall'altro stanno a significare, sostanzialmente, che non vi era necessità immediata di praetorii per colmare, ad esempio, i vuoti creatisi tra i legati legionis dovuti al protrarsi di conflitti bellici come accadrà sotto Marco Aurelio, e, dall'altro, che il numero dei senatori rimase stabile e non subì delle variazioni significative tali da dover colmare velocemente i ranghi dell'ordo, come era accaduto all'inizio del principato di Vespasiano. Tutto ciò viene a confermare l'impressione che l'adlectio vera e propria, e soprattutto quella inter praetorios, mantenga la sua caratteristica di provvedimento "straordinario" da parte dell'imperatore, rimanendo connessa a momenti di instabilità politico – militare che causano perdite nel numero dei senatori non colmabili attraverso i canali regolari. Nel corso del regno di Antonino Pio ( 138 – 161 d.C. ) l'esiguo numero di adlectiones di cui abbiamo testimonianza ( secondo le fonti disponibili soltanto due casi ) potrebbe essere indicativo della stabilità politico – militare lo caratterizzò, tale da non richiedere interventi straordinari da parte dell'imperatore per integrare lacune nella Curia. Un cambiamento significativo nella tipologia degli adlecti e nelle motivazioni alla base della loro cooptazione si verifica a partire dal regno di Marco Aurelio. Quello che è possibile constatare ad una prima analisi è che, a partire dal regno di questo imperatore, si assiste ad un utilizzo della adlectio inter praetorios funzionale all'acquisizione in tempi rapidi di militari fidati e di provata esperienza provenienti dall'ordine equestre, da impiegare in funzioni tradizionalmente riservate ai senatori, sui vari teatri di scontri militari per fare fronte alle perdite che erano state causate dalla peste e dai conflitti sia a oriente che sul fronte danubiano. Antecedentemente, come abbiamo osservato, gli imperatori elevano homines novi alla dignità senatoria tra gli ex magistrati come ricompensa per incarichi svolti o nell'amministrazione civile o nell'esercito ( in alcuni casi l'adlectio riguarda personaggi già membri dell'amplissimus ordo e rappresenta un avanzamento di classe di rango ), oppure come premio per i propri sostenitori al momento di un avvicendamento al trono, o ancora come mezzo per soddisfare le ambizioni di ascesa sociale delle élites municipali e per espandere la base di reclutamento dell'ordo. E' solo a partire da Marco Aurelio che assistiamo a delle cooptazioni tra gli ex pretori di esperti e leali viri militares che in tal modo divenivano immediatamente utilizzabili negli scenari militari ove si erano avute delle perdite di comandanti, come ad esempio P. Helvius Pertinax e M. Macrinus Avitus Catonius Vindex. Una seconda tipologia di adlecti caratteristica del regno di Marco Aurelio è rappresentata da personaggi che svolsero carriere equestri pressoché complete, giungendone quasi all'apice, e vennero poi cooptati in Senato tardivamente, come ricompensa dopo un lungo servizio nell'entourage imperiale ( L. Volusius Maecianus, T. Varius Clemens etc. ). Durante il regno di Commodo vale la pena di segnalare il primo caso di adlectio inter consulares: ne fu oggetto P. Taruttienus Paternus, che venne attraverso questa cooptazione tra gli ex consoli allontanato dalla prefettura del pretorio. Un considerevole segno di rottura con il passato e con le pratiche in uso presso gli imperatori precedenti fu rappresentato dal trattamento che Settimio Severo riservò al suo prefetto del pretorio C. Fulvius Plautianus: probabilmente già nel 197 d.C. venne insignito degli ornamenta consularia e, rimasto in carica dal 200 circa unico prefetto del pretorio, nel 203 d.C. ricoprì il secondo consolato ordinario ( forse antecedentemente a questo evento si potrebbe presupporre una sua adlectio inter praetorios ). Il consolato di Plautianus si pone come un infrangimento delle convenzioni dal momento che egli, dopo aver ottenuto la dignità senatoria, rimase in carica come prefetto del pretorio. Inoltre il suo secondo consolato, prestigiosamente ordinario e non semplicemente suffecto, presuppone una equiparazione degli ornamenta consularia all'aver ricoperto effettivamente la magistratura. Che l'equiparazione degli ornamenta al consolato effettivamente ricoperto fosse una notevole deviazione dalla prassi può essere dimostrato anche dalla successiva condotta di Macrino, come ci viene narrata da Cassio Dione ( LXXVIII, 13, 1 -2 ): infatti quest'ultimo avrebbe rifiutato di farsi chiamare console per la seconda volta quando ottenne il consolato per l'anno successivo ( 218 d.C. ), per far sì che gli ornamenta da lui precedentemente ottenuti non venissero conteggiati come un consolato effettivo. La pratica dell'iterazione del consolato successiva al solo ottenimento degli ornamenta consularia dopo la tragica fine e la damnatio memoriae di Plauziano non cadde in disuso, anzi, venne ulteriormente praticata dal dal successore di Settimio, suo figlio Caracalla. Egli infatti, pur evitando di ripetere l'errore del padre, e cioè di conferire la dignità senatoria ad un prefetto del pretorio ancora in carica, promosse due ex appartenenti all'ordine equestre insigniti degli ornamenta consularia ( o adlecti inter consulares ) al secondo consolato ordinario: Q. Maecius Laetus e T. Messius Extricatus. Dopo la caduta di Macrino nel 218 d.C., Cassio Dione ( LXXIX, 4, 1 – 2 ) ci narra anche che Elagabalo ricolmò di onori il suo ex prefetto del pretorio e praefectus urbi in carica P. Valerius Comazon, conferendogli gli ornamenta consularia e facendolo due volte console ( sulla base dei precedenti ornamenta ); l'ascesa sensazionale di Comazon, fino alla concessione del secondo consolato ordinario del 220, può essere intesa soltanto se collocata nell'ambito delle vicissitudini politiche dell'usurpazione e della guerra civile. Tuttavia la rapida la carriera di Comazon non rappresenta una frattura nell'usuale protocollo come quella di Plautianus. Né Caracalla né Elagabalo nominarono ufficiali equestri in carica a posizioni senatorie: Laetus ed Extricatus si erano già ritirati dal servizio equestre prima dei loro secondi consolati ordinari del 215 e del 217 d.C. Quindi non ci sarebbero molte prove documentarie a supportare la dubbiosa testimonienza della Historia Augusta riguardo al regno di Elagabalo, che avrebbe cooptato in Senato chiunque senza distinzione di età, status o genere: HA, Heliog., VI, 2 in senatum legit sine discrimine aetatis, census, generis pecuniae merito. L' Historia Augusta, Alex., XXI, 3 – 5, riferisce anche riguardo alla politica adottata da Severo Alessandro in merito alla concessione della dignità senatoria ai suoi prefetti del pretorio, descrivendo da una prospettiva senatoria di tardo IV secolo il quadro del comportamento di un imperatore modello. Il passo riferisce che Alessandro Praefectis praetorii suis senatoriam addidit dignitatem, cioè conferì la dignità senatoria ai suoi prefetti del pretorio così che entrambi potessero di fatto essere ed essere dichiarati viri clarissimi, il che in precedenza era stato fatto di rado o non fatto del tutto, tanto che se un imperatore aveva in animo di nominare un successore del prefetto del pretorio, inviava a quest'ultimo una tunica laticlavia attraverso un suo liberto, fatto più volte sottolineato in molte biografie da Marius Maximus. Il biografo di Severo Alessandro, in modo confuso e contraddittorio, presuppone erroneamente, come risulta dal resoconto, che in precedenza i prefetti del pretorio fossero stati solo raramente clarissimi, implicando una infondata equivalenza tra gli ornamenta e l'appartenenza al Senato a pieno titolo: la presunta "riforma"di Severo Alessandro sarebbe quindi una creazione dell'immaginazione del biografo, come concorda la maggioranza degli studiosi. Un'altra categoria di personaggi che vennero adlecti inter consulares ( sempre nel periodo compreso tra Settimio Severo ed Elagabalo ) è rappresentata da coloro che vennero insigniti di tali onorificenze dopo incarichi civili nell'amministrazione - Aelius Antipater, ab epistulis graecis, Marcius Claudius Agrippa, a cognitionibus/ab epistulis – o dopo incarichi militari – Aelius Triccianus, praefectus della legio II Parthica, Claudius Aelius Pollio, ex centurione -.
[1] Extracto de la ponencia "Unidad y Debate Nacional en el Uruguay", Seminario Internacional Educación, Comunicación y Democracia, Universidad Nacional de Entre Ríos, Maestría en Educación, Ushuaia, 1-2 de septiembre 2006. El candombe educativo Se ha desarrollado, a partir de la Convocatoria lanzada desde el Ministerio de Educación y Cultura en abril de 2006, el Debate Educativo en calidad de debate nacional. En el ámbito del Ministerio se ha conformado una Comisión Organizadora del Debate Educativo (CODE), con el propósito de proponer, impulsar y desarrollar las medidas organizativas al respecto. Este Debate Educativo no tiene significación nacional tan sólo porque presente proporciones gubernamentales, sino también porque se propone propiciar la instrucción política, por parte de la ciudadanía, de una Ley de Educación "LLAMAMOS, pues, a todos los colectivos interesados en la educación, tales como asociaciones culturales, profesionales y civiles, sindicatos, productores, organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales, medios de comunicación, a todos los integrantes de la comunidad educativa (docentes, estudiantes, ex alumnos, padres de familia, funcionarios), a todas las personas sin distinción de género, edad, etnia o convicciones filosóficas, incluyendo a quienes habitan en las áreas rurales y suburbanas o quienes se encuentran privados de libertad, a que participen activamente en el Debate Educativo, particularmente asistiendo a las asambleas que serán convocadas, haciendo suyo el objetivo de construir solidariamente un Sistema Nacional de Educación que responda a los grandes desafíos de hoy y a los que se presentarán al país en las próximas décadas [1]." Esa concepción de la transformación cultural en tanto efecto de una movilización popular coordinada desde el Estado, supone un desplazamiento de la tradición nacional de la reforma educativa en el mismo país. La tradición de una transformación de la educación pública concebida desde el ámbito gubernamental, puesta en una perspectiva sociológica del quehacer educativo y proyectada estratégicamente en el desarrollo democrático del país, termina por un retorno sobre el inicio del proceso, en cuanto genera efectos beneficiosos sobre el propio Estado que la propicia. Cierta contradicción entre la significación democrática de la reforma educativa y su iniciativa desde un ámbito político estatal que debiera ser su corolario, que encierra esta perspectiva, adquirió en el caso de la reforma vareliana un sesgo paradójico, en cuanto la trascendencia democrática de la reforma fue propiciada desde una dictadura militar caracterizada por la represión implacable de la disidencia. Esa colaboración indeseada e indirecta con la gestión dictatorial, que al cumplirse cien años de la dictadura de Latorre, celebrara como modelo centenario otro estado de excepción aún más sangriento, fue el reproche más mordiente que se dirigiera a José Pedro Varela, figura tutelar de la reforma educativa uruguaya. Sin embargo, Varela se identificó como educador y no cómo político[2], desde una perspectiva sociológica que cundió tanto en el plano cultural como en el partidario, generando opinión pública y consenso ideológico favorable por encima de fronteras colectivas. Esta transformación social por lo bajo de un tesoro que se tutela desde lo alto del Estado, es el planteo que revierte el Debate Educativo que desarrolla el actual gobierno de izquierda frenteamplista en el Uruguay. A tal punto llega la neutralización institucional de la política partidaria, que la Comisión Organizadora del Debate Educativo, reclama incluso del conjunto de los partidos políticos la más plena intervención, pero no para la presentación de propuestas programáticas sobre la reforma, sino en calidad de colectivos animadores de una participación generalizada. La CODE envió la semana anterior un pedido a todos los partidos políticos para que estos participen en el debate educativo. Brovetto habló con LA REPUBLICA como presidente del Frente Amplio (FA), y dijo que su partido planteará el pedido de la CODE en la mesa política, la cual "lo analizará en las próximas semanas". Brovetto explicó que la idea del FA es que "se integren al debate las bases en Montevideo e interior". El secretario de Estado explicó que "no se debe entender el pedido de la CODE, como el pedido de participación de los políticos, sino de los militantes de las fuerzas políticas para incrementar la discusión en el debate"[3]. La incorporación microfísica del debate educativo, incluso puesto en perspectiva mundialista, supone una integridad sociológica entre sí de la participación y la pertenencia, ajuste característico de la regulación institucional de los desequilibrios estratégicos. Esa perspectiva latente se manifestó en la alarma que ganó a la misma Comisión Organizadora del Debate Educativo (CODE), ante la escasa participación ciudadana en sus iniciativas, que desde entonces incorporan a la convocatoria incluso la fibra carnavalera de los ciudadanos para difundir un debate tan desfalleciente como prestigioso. "Ayer la comparsa "La Jacinta" se colgó los tambores y salió a todo repique, chico, y piano apoyando el debate educativo por el barrio Jacinto Vera. Partieron desde el Liceo 26 hasta el club Victoria. Ayer se apostó a la difusión del debate educativo hacia la población, después de los bajos índices de participación en Montevideo[4]. " El Estado uruguayo devuelve en el filón de la comunidad el metal precioso del saber educativo, para que el cuerpo social dilucide en qué ley de moneda legislativa acuñar el saber infuso en la sociedad. El descubrimiento de este tesoro que ignora el propio organismo que lo detenta exige un ejercicio de auto-transparencia, que constituye uno de los propósitos de emancipación moderna más característicos de la tradición de la Aufklärung, tal como lo ha consignado Vattimo con relación a la "sociedad transparente"[5]. Más allá del planteo cognitivo y la metodología del debate educativo que se instala como su consecuencia, el radicalismo sociológico de la actual reforma educativa uruguaya obedece a condiciones particulares de reproducción ideológica, por una vía que supone un precepto de reciprocidad orgánica. Este arcano que provee la tradición se encuentra sin embargo en un problemático estado de suspensión, en cuanto el designio de organicidad social puede no encontrarse reflejado en el desestabilizado proceso interno de la sociedad y menos aún en un índice mundialista ajeno ante todo a cualquier organicidad social interna. "La république est l'idée d'un système d'institutions, de lois et des moeurs qui supprime l'excès démocratique en homogénéisant État et société. L'École, par laquelle l'État fait distribuer en même temps les éléments de la formation des hommes et des citoyens, s'offre tout naturellement comme l'institution propre à réaliser cette idée. Mais il n'y a pas de raisons particulières pour que la distribution des savoirs –mathématiques ou latin, sciences naturelles ou philosophie- forme des citoyens pour la république plus que des conseillers pour les princes ou des clercs au service de Dieu. La distribution des savoirs n'a d'efficacité sociale que dans la mesure où elle est aussi une (re)distribution des positions"[6]. "La república es la idea de un sistema de instituciones, de leyes y de costumbres que suprime el exceso democrático en cuanto homogeneiza el Estado y la sociedad. La Escuela, por cuyo intermedio el Estado distribuye por igual los elementos de la formación de los hombres y de los ciudadanos, se presenta de por sí como la institución apropiada para concretar esa idea. Pero no existen razones intrínsecas para que la difusión de los conocimientos –matemáticas o latín, ciencias naturales o filosofía- forme ciudadanos para la república antes que consejeros de los príncipes o clérigos al servicio de Dios. La difusión de los conocimientos no adquiere eficacia social sino en la medida en corresponde asimismo a una (re)distribución de posiciones" (traducción R.V.). Puesta en la perspectiva de la redistribución de poderes que supone la transformación educativa democrática, la integridad republicana encierra asimismo un desafío a las condiciones de desarrollo del país (que sea) en su conjunto, en cuanto a los márgenes de reproducción social y de acumulación económica, como asimismo ante los condicionamientos que la globalización instala en el mismo proceso. Estas determinaciones suponen a su vez un ajuste que difícilmente pueda ser dirimido a través de un debate nacional, si éste no se sostiene asimismo en medidas que lo vinculen a una redistribución del propio poder social. Una memoria cultural vinculada al ascenso social por la vía educativa constituye, en el caso del Uruguay, un acerbo que subraya la significación estratégica del esfuerzo emprendido por el gobierno de izquierda, en aras de la elaboración democrática de una ley de educación. Pero la centralidad educativa del desarrollo social uruguayo pasado y posible, supone asimismo un cotejo difícil con las actuales condiciones de desarrollo económico y de inserción internacional del país, incluso por las alternativas en que se encuentra tanto para su integración en el MERCOSUR como ante las presiones de EEUU para obtener condiciones bilaterales de influencia directriz en la región. Desde el punto de vista de los márgenes exigidos por un emprendimiento de tal magnitud, se requiere asimismo una paralela voluntad democrática en el plano de la estrategia económica y de la promoción estructural del saber, campos en los que las disonancias ganan, al día de hoy, en diversidad y por consiguiente en amplificación. Constituye una debilidad coyuntural significativa del planteo de reforma educativa, que al tiempo que la misma pretende implantarse por la vía de la participación popular, se encuentre enfrentada con los reclamos de los gremios de la enseñanza pública. Estos últimos se han movilizado de forma ingente contra la actual política económica, incluso a través de varios paros de distinto gremios de docentes y funcionarios. La última de estas medidas gremiales se cumplió el pasado 23 de agosto, con paralización de actividades de funcionarios y docentes de la Universidad de la República por toda la jornada. El informe elaborado por la Comisión Ejecutiva Provisoria de la Asociación de Docentes de la Universidad de la República reitera la pauta dominante entre los gremios universitarios desde fines de 2005: el gobierno decepciona con relación a la expectativa instalada. "La propuesta del Poder Ejecutivo no contempla mínimamente la solicitud elevada por la UdelaR y no existe voluntad política de modificar esta situación[7]." En cuanto a las reformas propicias en el campo institucional del saber, las mismas están lejos de configurar una perspectiva prometedora. El Sistema Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, pergeñado con el consenso de todos los partidos políticos en la búsqueda de una integración entre le mundo empresarial, el sistema internacional tecno-científico y las instituciones vernáculas, ha sido rechazado por la Asamblea General del Claustro de la Universidad de la República en tanto se considera que encierra disposiciones contrarias a la autonomía universitaria[8]. El rector que acaba de ser electo tras un arduo y prolongado cotejo universitario, no ha contado con la mayoría en el orden docente que es el núcleo decisivo para la radicación universitaria de la investigación. Esta oposición ha sido particularmente significativa en algunas de las facultades que cuentan con los cuerpos docentes de mayor dedicación total y que representan por consiguiente los núcleos estratégicos en una perspectiva de desarrollo investigativo. Ante condiciones de desarrollo contradictorio con esos dos ámbitos –la sustentación económica y la proyección estratégica en el desarrollo- que debieran propiciar la reforma educativa ante la memoria cultural del Uruguay, la dinámica reformista se encuentra contrapuesta a una ausencia manifiesta de voluntad política redistributiva por parte del propio gobierno, con la consiguiente desactivación de los impulsos que permitirían una incorporación de energía democrática. La reversión jerárquica de la iniciativa de propuesta, que se pone en manos del cuerpo social, no deja el dispositivo en el mismo estado, ya que más allá de una nostalgia russoniana que asoma en la condición democrática de la soberanía, el despliegue de la democracia a partir de una iniciativa gubernamental siempre supone una situación paradójica de la relación entre representante y representado. Se instala un pleonasmo en la significación democrática de la educación: mientras la reforma vareliana elaboró su propia legitimidad a través de la validación social de una iniciativa dictatorial, la reforma de la educación bajo gobierno izquierdista pretende fundarse en una asamblea que celebraría la propia ciudadanía[9]. La radicalidad democrática del planteo de la reforma educativa frenteamplista no es política, tal como se desarrollara a través de la dictadura de Latorre, sino sociológica, constituyendo un caso paradigmático de auto-transparencia moderna. La consigna ilustrada de la educación que apela a la emancipación en tanto que efecto sinérgico de distintas reciprocidades ciudadanas, se encuentra sin embargo en el caso del Uruguay ante una carencia de márgenes de viabilidad, incluso en razón de una perspectiva estratégica centrada en el mercado mundial, con la consiguiente puesta entre paréntesis de una clave anclada en el saber generado en el país. La tradición educativa nacional que se percibe a sí misma a través del desarrollo social, encuentra tanto en la implosión de la democracia representativa como en la explosión tecnológica de la comunicación los elementos de lucidez crítica y de la consiguiente capacidad de propuesta. [1] Comisión Organizadora del Debate Educativo "Llamado a la participación ciudadana: convocatoria al debate educativo", Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, 4 de abril de 2006, Montevideo. [2] "Yo no soy en mi tierra sino educacionista. Prescindo de la política porque la política compromete el progreso de las Escuelas en que está únicamente la salvación de la República" Discurso de Varela transmitido por Francisco Berra, en Zum Felde, A. (1978) Proceso histórico del Uruguay, Arca, Montevideo, p. 258. [3] "Creció la participación y se amplió la agenda de temas en debate educativo", La República, 21/08/06, Montevideo, p.14. [4] "El debate educativo a todo candombe", La República, 6/08/06, p.19. [5] Vattimo, G. (1990) La sociedad transparente, Paidós, Barcelona (ver particularmente el capítulo "Las ciencias humanas y la comunicación"). [6] Rancière, J. (2005) La haine de la démocratie, La Fabrique, Paris, pp. 76-77. [7] Secretaría Administrativa de ADUR CENTRAL, correo del 22/06/06. [8] Resoluciones adoptadas por la Asamblea General del Claustro con fecha del 23 de febrero y 16 marzo de 2005. [9] "Si tuviéramos que sintetizar el significado de esta gran operación de Política de Estado que es el Debate Educativo, diríamos que permite a todos quienes participan en él, el EMPODERAMIENTO CIUDADANO, la toma de conciencia de nuestro papel en esta sociedad que todos queremos ver "ilustrada y valiente"." Lockhart,E.http://www.debateducativo.edu.uy/documentos/ENCUENTRO20EDUCATIVO.htm (visitado el 12/08/06).
Catástrofe en Asia China: El fuerte sismo del Domingo pasado, que midió 7,8 grados en la escala de Richter, azotó el sudoeste del país y habría causado cientos de heridos en diferentes ciudades. El sitio más afectado, resultó el condado de Beichuan, donde según reveló la agencia oficial Xinhua se estima que el 80 por ciento de las construcciones se derrumbaron, al mismo tiempo que informó que esa localidad tiene una población de 160.000 personas. Hoy en día las autoridades chinas temen que la cifra de muertos alcance los 20.000. El último balance recoge 14.866 fallecidos.Myanmar: A más de una semana del paso del ciclón tropical "Nargis" por Myanmar, la cifra de fallecidos se situaría en 34.273 y habría 27.836 desaparecidos, aunque la ONU calcula que el número de víctimas mortales se elevará entre los 60.000 y los 100.000 y que los desaparecidos ascienden, en realidad, a unas 200.000 personas. A esta situación se le suman problemas de abastecimiento.Diferentes medios informan al respecto:"MSNBC" informa: "Massive quake kills nearly 10,000 in China.7.9 temblor topples buildings; untold numbers thought to be trapped":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24573168/"Los Angeles Times" informa: "At least 8,500 killed in China earthquake video":http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-chinaquake13-2008may13,0,6114570.story"Time" publica: "Toll Mounts in China Earthquake":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1739287,00.html "Le Monde": "Chine : après le séisme meurtrier dans le Sichuan, les secours tentent de s'organiser ":http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2008/05/12/chine-apres-le-seisme-meurtrier-dans-le-sichuan-les-secours-tentent-de-s-organiser_1044028_3216.html#ens_id=1043586"New York Times" publica: "Quake Kills Thousands in Western China":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/13/world/asia/13china.html?_r=1&hp&oref=slogin"CNN" informa: "Thousands killed by huge China quake":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/12/china.quake/index.htmlUn terremoto en China dejó 10 mil muertos.El sismo fue de 7,8 grados en la escala de Richter; estiman que se derrumbó el 80 por ciento de los edificios en la provincia de Sicuani, "La Nación" informa:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011813&origen=rss"China Daily" publica: "About 10,000 people dead in killer earthquake":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-05/13/content_6678227.htm"Time" informa: "Dams Reported Damaged as Soldiers Reach Quake's Center":http://www.time.com/time/worldLas autoridades chinas temen que la cifra de muertos alcance los 20.000, informa "El País" de Madrid:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/autoridades/chinas/temen/cifra/muertos/alcance/20000/elpepuint/20080514elpepuint_8/Tes"CNN" informa: "Girl pulled from quake rubble after 50 hours":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/14/quake.thursday/index.html"Time" publica: "China Races to Save Quake Victims":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1770925,00.htmlChina busca a miles de víctimas que siguen atrapadas bajo los escombros. El Gobierno ha enviado 50.000 policías y soldados a la zona del terremotohttp://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/China/busca/miles/victimas/siguen/atrapadas/escombros/elpepuint/20080514elpepiint_6/Tes"China Daily" informa: "National death toll rises to 14,866 two days after quake":http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-05/14/content_6682723.htm"People Daily" publica: "Sichuan quake death toll rises to nearly 10,000":http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6409236.html"CNN" informa: "China's earthquake victims 'eat bitterness'":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/14/china.vause/index.html"The Economist": "Responding to disaster":http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11359253 Myanmar: "No shelter from the storm", informa "The Economist": http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332728"Los Angeles Times" publica: "Myanmar's cyclone victims brace for new storm":http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-irrawaddy12-2008may12,0,156545.storyMyanmar persiste en impedir la entrada de ayuda internacional. La Junta Militar fija en 34.000 los fallecidos mientras la ONU eleva la cifra hasta 100.000.- La Cruz Roja alerta de la peligrosidad de nuevas lluvias en la zona, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Myanmar/persiste/impedir/entrada/ayuda/internacional/elpepuint/20080514elpepuint_14/Tes"MSNBC": "Monks back on front line to aid cyclone victims. But they say military is curbing their efforts, even as it fails to deliver aid":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24582349/"New York Times" informa: "Myanmar Votes as Rulers Keep Grip on Aid": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/11/world/asia/11myanmar.html?_r=1&ref=world&oref=slogin"El Tiempo" de Colombia publica: "La ONU acusa a la Junta Militar birmana de confiscar la ayuda humanitaria":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/otrasregiones/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4140403.html"CNN" informa: "Relief boat sinks, leaving aid in Myanmar river":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/11/myanmar.aid/index.htmlMyanmar: naufragó un barco de la Cruz Roja. Habría chocado contra un tronco sumergido en las aguas; era el primer envío de ayuda para los sobrevivientes del Nargis:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011613AMERICA LATINA"El País" de Madrid informa: "Los papeles de las FARC acusan a Chávez. El ordenador de Raúl Reyes revela la colaboración del presidente con la guerrilla":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/papeles/FARC/acusan/Chavez/elpepuint/20080510elpepiint_6/Tes"El Tiempo" de Colombia publica: "Chávez dice que Bush dejará cargo antes que él, pese a supuestos planes de E.U. para derrocarlo":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/latinoamerica/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4158488.html"El Tiempo" de Colombia informa: "E.U. cree en autenticidad de archivos de PC de 'Raúl Reyes' que vinculan a Hugo Chávez con las FARC": http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/euycanada/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4154081.html"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Líder estudiantil venezolano Yon Goicoechea: "Mi lucha no es contra Chávez, es a favor de la democracia"":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/3808EB70-8C21-48C3-AE05-9F01BC62C20A.htm?id={3808EB70-8C21-48C3-AE05-9F01BC62C20A"La Nación" informa: "Antes de su gira por América latina, Merkel criticó el populismo y afirmó que frena el desarrollo: La canciller alemana visitará cuatro países de la región, pero no la Argentina":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011478"EL Universal" de México publica: "Dice presidente de la CE que críticas de Chávez a Merkel no ayudan":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/506178.htmlEvo Morales someterá a referéndum su continuidad al frente de Bolivia. Los nueve gobernadores se jugarán también el puesto en la convocatoria, "El País" de Madrid informa: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Evo/Morales/sometera/referendum/continuidad/frente/Bolivia/elpepuint/20080510elpepiint_10/Tes "CNN" publica: "Bolivian president agrees to vote of confidence":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/05/08/bolivia.referendum/index.html"The Economist" informa: "Battle by referendum. A tactical victory for the opposition":http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332954El mandatario brasileño elogió también a Morales y a Lugo. Enérgica defensa de Lula a Chávez. Dijo que "es el mejor presidente que ha tenido Venezuela en los últimos cien años". "La Nación" informa: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011475"El Tiempo" de Colombia publica: "Grave daño ecológico por erupción del volcán Chaitén en el sur de Chile":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/latinoamerica/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4158472.html"El Universal" de México informa: "Presionan para evacuar animales de zona cercana a volcán chileno":http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/506196.html"El Tiempo" de Colombia informa: "Gobernadores argentinos abren diálogo con agricultores en medio de la huelga": http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/latinoamerica/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4158573.htmlCortes de tráfico y 'cacerolazos' en apoyo del campo argentino. El sector agropecuario advierte de que la huelga puede extenderse por el país en caso de no obtener una respuesta del Gobierno, "El País" de Madrid publica: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Cortes/trafico/cacerolazos/apoyo/campo/argentino/elpepuint/20080512elpepuint_9/Tes"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Crisis política en Argentina: El campo amenaza con extender su paro y gobernadores recibirán a dirigentes ruralistas":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/12/internacional/_portada/noticias/E0D2FC51-C221-419C-92D8-96A811363514.htm?id={E0D2FC51-C221-419C-92D8-96A811363514"Time" publica: "Nicaragua's Great Leap Forward":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1738460,00.html"El Universal" publica: "Cuba descarta el acceso de los particulares a Internet a corto plazo": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/506148.htmlESTADOS UNIDOS/CANADÁ Deferentes medios informan sobre campaña electoral estadounidense:Obama supera a Clinton en número de superdelegados. Varios medios estadounidenses otorgan ventaja al senador por Illinois, que ayer obtuvo el apoyo de su ex rival John Edwards , "El País" de Madrid informa:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/supera/Clinton/numero/superdelegados/elpepuint/20080510elpepuint_4/Tes"The Economist" analiza: "The big remaining question: He is closer to the Democratic nomination. But how will Barack Obama's colour affect his chances in November?":http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332201"New York Times" infroma: "Mississippi Fallout":http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/14/mississippi-fallout/index.html?hp"CNN" analiza: "Clinton crushes Obama across the board":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/05/13/west.virginia.analysis/index.html"The Economist" publica: "Primary colour":http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332289EE.UU.: al menos 18 muertos tras varios tornados. Golpearon con fuerza en Oklahoma y Missouri; hay cuantiosos daños materiales e interrupción de los servicios; no se precisó el número de heridos, "La Nación" publica:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011606"El Mercurio" de Chile informa: "Fuertes tornados dejan al menos 22 muertos en el centro y sur de EE.UU.":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/6865AB89-CB95-4363-979F-D695E5A52388.htm?id={6865AB89-CB95-4363-979F-D695E5A52388EUROPA Los serbios eligen entre proeuropeos y ultranacionalistas: Tras su victoria en las legislativas el pasado domingo en Serbia, la coalición de fuerzas pro europeas, liderada por el Partido Democrático (DS), del presidente Boris Tadic, emprende ahora el diálogo con fuerzas minoritarias para formar Gobierno. La iniciativa corresponde a los ganadores, partidarios de acabar con el aislamiento serbio y acercar el país a la UE.Diferentes medios informan al respecto: "CNN" publica: "Divided Serbia begins key elections": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/05/11/serbia.election.ap/index.html"New York Times": "Serbia Braces for Electoral Showdown":http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/13/world/europe/13serbia.html?hp"El País" de Madrid informa: "Los partidos serbios buscan alianzas para formar Gobierno":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/partidos/serbios/buscan/alianzas/formar/Gobierno/elpepuint/20080512elpepuint_6/Tes"CNN" publica: "Shock election win sets Serbia on path to EU":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/05/12/serbia.election/index.html"Time" informa: "Serbian Voters Spurn Nationalists":http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1739295,00.html"The Economist" publica: "The European Union is doing its utmost to influence Serbia's voters": http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332870"El Mercurio" informa: "Nuevo Premier italiano: Economía y seguridad, los desafíos del cuarto mandato de Silvio Berlusconi": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/12/internacional/_portada/noticias/50C6E7F5-0250-4DB9-81D9-23D31248B00F.htm?id={50C6E7F5-0250-4DB9-81D9-23D31248B00F"La Nación"informa: "Italia buscará la expulsión de la inmigración ilegal. Será considerada un delito penal":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011473"El Tiempo" de Colombia informa: "El primer ministro italiano Silvio Berlusconi adopta la línea dura contra la inmigración clandestina":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/europa/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4157840.htmlKey posts unchanged in new Russia government. Putin's reshuffle underscores central importance of gas, oil to economy, "MSNBC" publica:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24577955/ETA quería "una matanza" con una bomba muy potente. Los investigadores atribuyen al 'comando Vizcaya' el atentado en Legutiano, que ha costado la vida a un guardia civil y ha dejado cuatro heridos.- Los terroristas programaron la explosión de más 100 kilos de explosivo con muy poco tiempo para huir, "El País" de Madrid informa:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/ETA/queria/matanza/bomba/potente/elpepuesp/20080514elpepunac_2/Tes"El País" de Madrid publica "El Reino Unido revisa los plazos para abortar":http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/Reino/Unido/revisa/plazos/abortar/elpepisoc/20080510elpepisoc_5/Tes "El Mercurio" informa: "Premier británico: Popularidad de Gordon Brown cae a niveles récord":http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/FCB2B2E9-A398-4D68-903B-B86E03AE5982.htm?id={FCB2B2E9-A398-4D68-903B-B86E03AE5982}ASIA – PACÍFICO Y MEDIO ORIENTEHezbolá retira a sus milicias de las calles de Beirut. Los opositores dejan en manos del Ejército las calles de la capital del Líbano, después de que los altos mandos rechazaran las decisiones del Gobierno. "El País" de Madrid informa:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Hezbola/retira/milicias/calles/Beirut/elpepuint/20080510elpepuint_6/TesHezbollah cede el control de Beirut. Lo hizo luego de que el ejército suspendió dos medidas del gobierno en su contra; ayer hubo 14 muertos en el norte del país, "La Nación" publica:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/edicionimpresa/exterior/nota.asp?nota_id=1011552 "El Tiempo" de Colombia informa: "Aumentan combates entre rebeldes y leales al gobierno en el Líbano": http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/orientemedio/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4158468.html"CNN": "Judge row puts Pakistan coalition in danger":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/11/pakistan.judges.ap/index.html"Atentado en vísperas de elecciones dejó al menos diez muertos en Sri Lanka"http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/otrasregiones/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4154321.html"El Mercurio" de Chile analiza: "A 60 años de la guerra árabe-israelí: Los palestinos necesitan ayudarse a sí mismos para lograr su Estado": http://diario.elmercurio.com/2008/05/12/internacional/internacional/noticias/C999854B-29DF-4989-BC4C-FF8A87B57BE8.htm?id={C999854B-29DF-4989-BC4C-FF8A87B57BE8 Declaraciones del presidente Iraní respecto al aniversario de independencia israelí: "Mahmud Ahmadinejad dice que Israel "está en vías de desaparición"":http://www.eltiempo.com/internacional/orientemedio/noticias/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-4151332.htmlBush visita Israel: "Gaza Rocket Rocks Bush's Israel Trip", "Time" informa:http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1779536,00.htmlÁFRICAEl líder opositor de Zimbabue acepta la segunda vuelta de las presidenciales. Tsvangirai pide observadores internacionales para que el presidente Robert Mugabe no repita el fraude de la primera ronda.- El Gobierno descarta las condiciones y dice que los comicios se realizarán bajo las leyes vigentes, informa "El País" de Madrid: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/lider/opositor/Zimbabue/acepta/segunda/vuelta/presidenciales/elpepuint/20080510elpepuint_7/Tes "CNN" publica: "Official: Zimbabwe runoff must be delayed":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/11/zimbabwe.runoff.ap/index.html"CNN" informa "U.N. aid worker shot dead in Kenya":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/09/kenya.shooting/index.html"MSNBC" informa: "Sudan closes border with Chad and halts trade. The move comes a day after Sudan severed diplomatic relations with Chad":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24556085/Economist calls on world to aid African farmers, "CNN" informa:http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/05/08/africa.farming.ap/index.html ECONOMIA "The Economist" en su resumen semanal: "Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11333281&CFID=5407672&CFTOKEN=71878483La mayor aseguradora del mundo entra en 'números rojos'.Los malos resultados de AIG y Citigroup, que ultima una nueva depreciación de activos, ponen de relieve que Wall Street sigue bajo los efectos de la crisis, informa "El País" de Madrid:http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/mayor/aseguradora/mundo/entra/numeros/rojos/elpepueco/20080509elpepueco_5/Tes "Time" publica: "Citigroup To Shed Nearly $500B in Assets":http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1738840,00.html?iid=336x280_ad3OTRAS NOTICIAS "The Economist" infroma acerca de la crisis de alimentos: "Taking the strain. The political fallout from the rising cost of food has been manageable—so far":http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332931Fallece rescatadora de 2500 niños judíos en la Shoá (Holocausto), "Irena Sendler, who smuggled children out of Warsaw Ghetto, was 98" "MSNBC" informa:http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24574531/"The economist" publica: "Microsoft and Yahoo!, No deal":http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11332396
Until recently, child development was accepted as the perspective through which children were understood and socialization the primary way in which sociologists thought about children. An increasing number of scholars now view childhood as socially constructed and children as actors in their own social worlds rather than simply as incomplete persons who are in the process of becoming adults. Courses using this perspective explore social constructions of childhood held by adults and embodied in institutions through time and across places, and how biology, gender, social class, and social location affect the everyday lives of children in families, schools, and other social contexts.Author recommendsJohnson, Heather Beth 2001. 'From the Chicago School to the New Sociology of Children: The Sociology of Children and Childhood in the United States, 1900–1999.'Advances in Life Course Research (Children in the Millennium: Where Have We Come From, Where Are We Going?) 6: 53–93.This article reviews the place of children in sociological research during the 20th century. Children were of interest as objects of socialization and when they engaged in deviant behavior, although they were largely ignored as unworthy of serious sociological attention until the last two decades of the century. Debates among recent scholars about what stance should be taken toward children in the 'new' sociology of childhood are outlined.Waksler, Frances Chaput (Ed.) 1991. Studying the Social Worlds of Children: Sociological Readings New York, NY: Falmer Press.In this classic collection, including several chapters by the editor, Waksler pulled together articles that provides evidence that sociologists' underestimate the capacity of children to make sense of their worlds and to act on them. Both theoretical statements and empirical research are included, as is a chapter that is the precursor to Waksler's book, The Hard Times of Childhood and Children's Strategies for Dealing with Them (1996, New York, NY: Falmer Press).Small, Meredith F. 2001. Kids: How Biology and Culture Shape the Way We Raise Our Children. New York, NY: Doubleday.Small, an anthropologist intrigued with 'ethnopediatrics', brings together scientific research on the capacities of infants and children and evidence of the way childhood is organized in various societies.Zelizer, Viviana A. 1985. Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children. New York, NY: Basic Books.This classic work in economic sociology provides a wealth of detail about how children's lives in the USA were affected by their changing value/social construction, especially in the early 20th century. Many current institutions and beliefs, which are now taken for granted, were developed during this period, for better or worse.Lareau, Annette 2003. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Findings from Lareau's extensive, ethnographic research on differences between the everyday family lives of middle‐class and working‐class children are reported in this book. The results of her analysis make clear that adults' social constructions of children shape the experience of childhood and that even within one society there can be systematic variation in the social construction of children that results in marked differences in children's everyday lives.Corsaro, William A. 2005. The Sociology of Childhood, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Corsaro has been conducting ethnographic research with preschool children in various forms of care and reporting on it for more than 25 years. His textbook focuses primarily on preschool children and how they interact with one another to form their own peer cultures. The book includes many episodes of interaction among children that ground his arguments.Adler, Patricia and Peter Adler 1998. Peer Power: Preadolescent Culture and Identity. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.This book presents findings from the Adlers' study of peer culture among elementary school‐aged children in a Colorado community. The importance of friendship and popularity to the children is examined, particularly in school, as well as the significance for children of extracurricular activities.Mayall, Berry 2002. Towards a Sociology for Childhood: Thinking from Children's Lives. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.Mayall brings together data from the four research projects she conducted with colleagues in Great Britain in the 1990s to write an overview of what she learned about doing research with children and from listening to their points of view. The book includes children's assessments of their lives and relationships.Lee, Nick 2001. Childhood and Society: Growing up in an Age of Uncertainty. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.Lee focuses on childhood as an institution in the late 20th century and explores the ambiguity of contrasting the social construction of adults as 'human beings' with the social construction of children as 'human becomings'. His perspective is both macro and global and includes information about how decisions made by such institutions as the United Nations and the World Bank affect children in various countries.Online materials http://www.childtrends.org/ Child Trends is a nonprofit, nonpartisan research organization that collects and analyzes data; conducts, synthesizes, and disseminates research; designs and evaluates programs; and develops and tests promising approaches to research in the field. For researchers and educators, this Web site includes a link to research that provides the latest data and information for developing, evaluating, and guiding effective programs and research relevant to the overall health and well‐being of children and youth (http://www.childtrendsdatabank.org/) and includes key indicators of child well‐being. http://www.aecf.org/MajorInitiatives/KIDSCOUNT.aspx Kids Count is a national and state‐by‐state effort to track the status of children in the USA by providing policy‐makers and citizens with benchmarks of child well‐being. The Social Science Data Analysis Network (SSDAN) is working with professors to introduce Kids Count data into social science courses through course modules, exercises, and access to other data available on their Web site (http://www.ssdan.net/kidscount/). http://www.hull.ac.uk/children5to16programme/intro.htm The Economic and Social Research Council Research Programme on Children 5–16: Growing into the 21st century, under the direction of Alan Prout from 1995–2000, funded 22 different research projects that examined children's lives by treating children as social actors. The Web site includes a description of the programme, research findings, and an extensive bibliography. http://www.childstats.gov/ The Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics is a working group of federal agencies that collects, analyzes, and reports data on issues related to children and families. The forum's annual report, America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well‐Being, provides a summary of national indicators of child well‐being and monitors changes in these indicators over time. http://www.unicef.org/ The UNICEF Web site focuses on the well‐being of children in countries around the world, particularly on their health and their mothers' ability to provide for them.Sample syllabus Course Outline and Reading Assignments 1 Recognizing the capacities of newborn children Meredith F. Small, Chapter 1, Kids' World, and Chapter 2, The Evolution of Childhood, in Kids: How Biology and Culture Shape the Way We Raise Our Kids. 2 Social construction of childhood in different times and places a Children's place in the past Coldrey, Barry M. 1999. '"... a Place to Which Idle Vagrants May Be Sent": The First Phase of Child Migration during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.'Childhood and Society 13: 32–47.deMause, Lloyd 1974. 'Infanticide and the Death Wishes toward Children;''Abandonment, Nursing, and Swaddling.' Pp. 25–39 in The History of Childhood. New York, NY: Harper and Row. b Children's place in other societies Schildkrout, Enid 2002 [1978]. 'Age and Gender in Hausa Society: Socio‐Economic Roles of Children in Urban Kano.'Childhood 9 (3): 344–68. c Changing value of children in American society in the 20th century Zelizer, Viviana 1985. Selected chapters from Pricing the Priceless Child. d Children's place in American society in the 21st century Zelizer, Viviana 2002. 'Kids and Commerce.'Childhood 9 (4): 375–96.Cook, Daniel Thomas 2000. 'Childhood is Killing "Our" Children: Some Thoughts on the Columbine High School Shootings and the Agentive Child.'Childhood 7: 107–17. 3 The 'new' sociology of childhood: Agency and competence Waksler, Frances Chaput 1986. 'Studying Children: Phenomenological Insights.'Human Studies 9 (1): 71–82.Alanen, Leena 1988. 'Rethinking Childhood.'Acta Sociologica 31 (1): 53– 67.Matthews, Sarah H, 2007. 'A Window on the "New" Sociology of Childhood.' Sociology Compass: http://www.blackwell‐compass.com/subject/sociology/section_home?section=soco‐social‐psychology (doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00001.x) 4 Collecting data from and about children Christensen, Pia Haudrup 2004. 'Children's Participation in Ethnographic Research: Issues of Power and Representation.'Children and Society 18: 165–76.Davis, John M. 1998. 'Understanding the Meanings of Children: A Reflexive Process.'Childhood and Society 12: 325–35. 5 Inside the black box of early childhood socialization Clawson, Dan and Naomi Gerstel 2002. 'Caring for our Young: Child Care in Europe and the United States.'Contexts 1 (4): 28–35.Corsaro, William 1979. '"We're Friends, Right?" Children's Use of Access Rituals in a Nursery School.'Language in Society 8: 315–36.Corsaro, William and L. Molinari 1990. 'From seggiolini to discussione: The Generation and Extension of Peer Culture among Italian Preschool Children.'International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 3: 213–30. 6 Children's participation in everyday life a FamilyLareau, Annette 2002. 'Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black and White Families.'American Sociological Review 67: 747–76.Dodson, Lisa and Jillian Dickert 2004. 'Girls' Family Labor in Low‐Income Households: A Decade of Qualitative Research.'Journal of Marriage and Family 66: 318–32.Nettleton, Sarah 2001. 'Losing a Home through Mortgage Repossession: The Views of Children.'Children and Society 15: 82–94. b School Sherman, Ann 1997. 'Five‐year‐olds' Perceptions of Why We Go to School.'Childhood and Society 11: 117–27.Adler, Patricia A., Steven J. Kless, and Peter Adler 1992. 'Socialization to Gender Roles: Popularity among Elementary School Boys and Girls.'Sociology of Education 65: 169–87.Adler, Patricia A. and Peter Adler 1995. 'Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion in Preadolescent Cliques.'Social Psychology Quarterly 58 (3): 145–62. c 'Free' time Lareau, Annette 2000. 'Social Class and the Daily Lives of Children: A Study from the United States.'Childhood 7 (2): 155–71.Rasmussen, Kim 2004 'Places for Children – Children's Places.'Childhood 2004: 155–73. 7 Children's rights/parental rights Smith, Anne B. and Nicola J. Taylor 2003. 'Rethinking Children's Involvement in Decision‐Making After Parental Separation.'Childhood 10 (2): 201–16.Van Krieken, Robert 1999. 'The "Stolen Generations" and Cultural Genocide: The Forced Removal of Australian Indigenous Children form Their Families and Its Implications for the Sociology of Childhood.'Childhood 6 (3): 297–311. 8 Current global issues a UN rights of the child Jans, Marc 2004. 'Children as Citizens: Towards a Contemporary Notion of Child Participation.'Childhood 11 (1): 27–44.Roche, Jeremy 1999. 'Children: Rights, Participation and Citizenship.'Childhood 6 (4): 475–93. b Children's place in the 21st century Penn, Helen 2002. 'The World Bank's View of Early Childhood.'Childhood 9 (1): 118–32.Bey, Marguerite 2003. 'The Mexican Child: From Work with the Family to Paid Employment.'Childhood 10 (3): 287–99.Aptekar, Lewis and Behailu Abebe 1997. 'Conflict in the Neighborhood: Street and Working Children in the Public Space.'Childhood 4: 477–90.Films and videosA Baby's World A Whole New World (ages newborn to 1 year) The Language of Being (ages 1–2 years) Reason and Relationships (ages 2–3 years)This series of videos, each approximately 1‐hour in length, summarizes and illustrates evidence of the remarkable and often misinterpreted capacities of infants and toddlers.The Orphan TrainsThis video is a good companion to Viviana Zelizer's book Pricing the Priceless Child. In addition to depicting conditions for some urban children in US cities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, interviews in old age with the last children who were shipped West in the 1920s highlight the vulnerability of children in societies that are unprepared to take responsibility for them when their parents are unable to provide care.Michael Apted's 7 Up through 49 UpThis documentary film series, which began in 1964 with 14 7‐year‐olds whom Apted has since revisited every 7 years to produce a new film, raises questions about the relationship between childhood and adulthood.Project ideas1. This assignment is intended to make students aware of the presence (or absence) of children in their daily rounds – when, where and under what conditions they share space with children.Choose two days on which your daily schedule is different (e.g., a weekday and a weekend day) and record every instance in which you come in contact with children. Do not go out of your way to encounter children. Just go about your daily rounds. Record the time, place (including who is present if it is not obvious), age of children, your relationship to the children, and what you and the children are doing. Include children whom you know well, children with whom you are acquainted, and children who are strangers. Concentrate especially on the last category because it is the one that you probably attend to least in your daily rounds. Also be sure to indicate what your role in each setting is. Once you have collected these data, write a summary of your contact with children in your daily life. What children do you encounter, how often, under what conditions? What is your relationship to the children in your life?2. This assignment is intended to explore how children are constrained by adult rules and power.Observe children in an 'adult' setting and identify adults' rules for children in that setting. Justify the choice of setting as 'adult', e.g., children are not 'supposed' to be there (a bar/pub), children are a disturbance (an exclusive expensive restaurant). Consider both adults' rules for children's behavior in the setting and children's options and resources. Address the questions: Where do children fit in adult worlds? What roles are they expected to play?3. This assignment is used in conjunction with Annette Lareau's work on differences in the way working and middle class children are treated by adults.Students choose two school districts whose borders correspond to a community and that have widely different percentages of children who passed the fourth‐grade proficiency test in a specified year. In Ohio, this information is available on the website of the Department of Education. Students then retrieve demographic data from the Web site of the US Census about the two school districts/communities, including but not limited to:
Proportion of School Age Children = Percentage of population age 5–17 Community Stability = Percent of rental occupied housing units Community Education Level = Percentage of population aged 25 and over with Bachelor's Degree or higher Community Income Level = Median family income Poverty Level = Percent of families below poverty level
In a paper, students summarize and interpret the findings. In addition, put the data from all the districts/communities into one table with the percentages of students who passed the exam in the first column in descending order.
La evolución del trabajo y sus nuevas formas de organización han incidido profundamente en el poder de dirección. Los cambios en las organizaciones productivas, por la pérdida de centralidad del trabajo industrial de fábrica siguiendo al modelo taylorista, la aparición de nuevas formas de prestación subordinada de trabajo, deslocalizaciones empresariales, las externalizaciones y la tercerización, sumada al impacto de las nuevas tecnologías en la empresa, han transformando la idea de empresa con una unidad de mando, concentrada en su poder absoluto. Sumado a la abolición de la categoría profesional en el contexto flexibilizador en que se inserta el derecho laboral europeo y su antítesis la conservación de la categoría profesional en la legislación laboral latinoamericana, lleva al análisis y la búsqueda de nuevas limitaciones que centrarán el objeto de este estudio. Este contexto tiene estrecha relación con las prácticas flexibilizadoras que comenzaron en América Latina en la década de 1980 y que se encuentran hoy insertadas en el derecho laboral europeo. Sus consecuencias tuvieron gran repercusión en la Organización Internacional del Trabajo cuanto se intenta poner límites con la aprobación del Convenio 158 sobre terminación de la relación laboral, el cual tuvo como base restringir el arbitrio empresarial en este campo. La doctrina laboral fue conteste en estudiar cuatro categorías de límites a este impulso flexibilizador, a saber: límites sociales, sindicales, políticos y jurídicos. Con la finalidad de abordar un estudio comparativo donde se analicen los regímenes jurídicos laborales que refieren al poder de dirección y su relación con los derechos fundamentales de los trabajadores, el comportamiento de los operadores jurídicos en los dos modelos de relaciones laborales (español y uruguayo), es que se llega al estudio primero de los límites al poder de dirección para luego focalizar el análisis de la profesionalidad del trabajador como uno de los límites al poder de dirección del empleador. Se estudian dos regímenes distintos en su conformación, uno regulado con un estatuto de trabajadores (español) y otro con una discreta o liviana regulación de las relaciones laborales (el uruguayo). Este último conteste con sus orígenes de inmigración europea de principios del siglo XX y el sindicalismo anarquista de la época, pero contando actualmente con una activa participación del Estado en la conformación del diálogo social. Se estudia el ordenamiento jurídico laboral español que ve reforzado el poder de dirección del empleador, tanto en materia de derecho individual del trabajo como colectivo, por ejemplo dejando a la unilateralidad de la empresa la decisión del descuelgue de un convenio colectivo, y la antítesis a este sistema (uruguayo) que conforme a su contexto político social regional de América Latina, basado principalmente en la participación de las partes profesionales deja librado al diálogo social la conformación de los salarios, la descripción de las categorías, las condiciones laborales, y la actualización de los salarios. Sistema de relaciones laborales que se nutre del conflicto, pero se focaliza hacia la negociación y la apertura del diálogo entre las partes como fin para encaminar las relaciones laborales y reglamentar el trabajo. Las dificultades en la investigación se reflejan al describir las variaciones que tuvieron los regímenes jurídicos en los últimos años, uno con una tendencia flexibilizadora y otro con una significante estrategia protectora hacia el sector trabajador basada como se hizo referencia en el diálogo social. La dificultad es mayor al examinar el caso español al estar este ordenamiento en un permanente cambio normativo que ha hecho modificar las leyes más importantes prácticamente con frecuencia anual a partir de las reformas del 2010, 2011, la muy radical del 2012 y en fin sus posteriores desarrollos en 2013 y 2014. Además, el mandato legislativo de la Ley 20/2014 para la refundición en textos legislativos de las normas reformadas, ha culminado en la emanación de una serie de decretos legislativos de promulgación muy reciente y que por tanto no han podido ser recogidos en la presente tesis. En concreto, el Real decreto Legislativo 2/2015, de 23 de octubre, por el que se aprueba el texto refundido del Estatuto de los Trabajadores. El texto no cambia el contenido normativo, pero en el presente trabajo de investigación no se ha podido reformular el apartado de citas sobre la base de este nuevo texto legal. II. ASPECTOS QUE ENCUADRAN EL OBJETO DE INVESTIGACIÓN Y LOS DESARROLLAN. El trabajo se divide en cuatro capítulos más un último capítulo (quinto) el que comprende las conclusiones. El capítulo PRIMERO trata sobre el poder de dirección del empleador y la regulación colectiva del mismo. Primero se hace referencia al concepto, contenido y fundamentos del poder de dirección del empleador. Seguidamente se hace referencia al poder de dirección del empleador y la regulación colectiva. Paso seguido se estudia la procedimentalización del poder de dirección, los derechos de información y consulta analizando el derecho comunitario, español y el enfoque latinoamericano desde la perspectiva uruguaya. En cuanto al concepto contenido y fundamentos del poder de dirección del empleador se ha remarcado el reconocimiento de un poder privado ejercido por el titular de la organización productiva. La generalización del trabajo asalariado como fórmula universal de aprovechar la fuerza de trabajo y aplicarla a los procesos de producción de bienes y servicios en un contexto de economía de mercado o de libre empresa, ha permitido que los juristas de todas las culturas jurídicas actuales - una vez desaparecido el llamado "bloque socialista tras la caída del muro en 1989 - reconozcan como un elemento característico de las relaciones de trabajo la existencia de un poder privado sobre las personas que es ejercido por el titular de la organización productiva. Este "poder privado" es regulado y configurado por las respectivas normas laborales de los ordenamientos nacional-estatales de manera muy semejante, lo que lógicamente ha repercutido de forma clara en el tratamiento doctrinal del mismo. En el presente apartado se pretende utilizar de forma conjunta las aportaciones de la doctrina laboralista tanto española como uruguaya sobre la definición del concepto y significado del poder de dirección empresarial, para de esta manera, remarcando la consideración homogénea de este poder, se pueda sin embargo resaltar las diferentes formas de aproximación al mismo a través de la forma en la que se conciben jurídicamente las relaciones laborales, estrictamente contractuales en España, de forma relacionista en Uruguay. Sin embargo, el resultado, como se puede ver, puede ser plenamente convergente en cuanto a las consecuencias, extensión y, especialmente, límites al mismo. Con referencia al poder de dirección del empleador y la regulación colectiva El ordenamiento jurídico establece límites de naturaleza colectiva que se ubican en la libertad sindical, el derecho a la negociación colectiva y la presencia de órganos de representación de los trabajadores en las empresas y centros de trabajo. Determinadas decisiones del empresario como la movilidad geográfica o la modificación sustancial de las condiciones de trabajo requieren previas consultas o acuerdos con los representantes de los trabajadores. La negociación colectiva puede establecer acuerdos y preceptos que delimitan la competencia del empresario y particularmente regulan su organización dentro de la empresa. Este es un tema que se entronca con la llamada promoción de la flexibilidad interna en las empresas y que constituye un denominador común de las últimas reformas laborales españolas. Consecuentemente se afirma que las limitaciones al poder de dirección presentan un carácter variable en el sentido que no están enmarcadas en un contexto solo jurídico, sino que conviven con variables económicas y políticas que hacen que sean más estrictas o no en función de momento histórico político que atraviesa el país. Esta afirmación contextualizadora sobre el tema puede comprobarse acudiendo a la experiencia latinoamericana en general y a las situaciones de cambio político que se vivieron con la llegada del siglo XXI, tras la terrible década privatizadora y neoliberal de finales del siglo pasado. En especial en Uruguay se vieron reforzadas con la apertura del diálogo social y el fortalecimiento de la negociación colectiva por rama de actividad. En Uruguay, el punto de partida es diferente, el diálogo social encauza el desequilibrio en las relaciones laborales. El derecho a la libertad sindical, la existencia de sindicatos realmente autónomos de las empresas y del Estado aparece como requisito fundamental para la existencia del diálogo social. Ejemplos convenios del sector de la industria de la alimentación en cuanto límites a procesos de tercerizaciones prohibiéndolos para el sector de producción y límites a la sustitución de puestos de trabajos permanentes por encargados o supervisores. La situación uruguaya es por tanto la opuesto a una reforma como la española que se basa en la descentralización negocial a nivel de empresa y la preferencia por este ámbito de negociación reforzado por la ampliación de las decisiones unilaterales del empleador para modificar las condiciones de trabajo. La doctrina es consecuente en señalar la influencia de la crisis económica del sistema capitalista que lleva a teorizar e imponer mecanismos de flexiseguridad en la relación de trabajo, supuestamente en defensa de la competitividad y del empleo, que residencian la viabilidad de las empresas en un efectivo reforzamiento de los poderes empresariales desde la capacidad de imponer condiciones contractuales hasta facilitar la extinción pasando por la ausencia de cautelas públicas o representativas de los trabajadores en las diversas vicisitudes de la relación de trabajo, e incluso debilitando el papel sindical en la negociación colectiva, impulsando la micro negociación de empresa y permitiendo la inaplicación unilateral de lo pactado en determinadas circunstancias, quebrando incluso por mandato legal la fuerza vinculante de los convenios, garantizada en España en su texto constitucional (art.37.1 CE). Pero en las relaciones laborales no solo existen limitantes relacionadas con lo sustancial de los actos de organización y gestión sino que actúan también sobre la forma como estos se canalizan, es decir de "condicionamientos al modo en que se deben ejercer estos, el compromiso de respetar determinados institucionalizados en los que intervienen los destinatarios del acto final o sus representantes para garantizar que se tenga en cuenta cualquier interés contrapuesto individual o colectivo sobre los que va a incidir el ejercicio del poder empresarial." Esto es lo que se ha denominado como procedimentalización del poder de dirección del empleador donde la toma de decisiones no es compartida por los trabajadores, sino que se racionaliza mediante procedimientos de información y consulta en la toma de decisiones de la empresa. La procedimentalización se resuelve en el reconocimiento de los derechos de información y consulta consagrados a favor de los representantes de los trabajadores en la empresa que, pretenden que la situación de desigualdad en la relación laboral sea menos distante. Se trata de un conjunto de "contrapoderes" del ordenamiento comunitario, además de su recepción en los ordenamientos nacionales y en el sistema de negociación colectiva. Los deberes y poderes de información suponen un proceso de democratización del poder empresarial a través de una transparencia creciente de su ejercicio. Se analizó la normativa comunitaria, la normativa española pero resulta de interés destacar el caso uruguayo donde la ley de negociación colectiva para el sector privado (ley 18566 de 2009) en su artículo 4to hace mención al derecho de información estableciendo el mismo. Esto no tendría mayor significancia sino es que las organizaciones de empleadores han presentado recurso de queja ante la Comisión de Expertos en Aplicación de Convenios y Recomendaciones de OIT al entender que se está violando el CIT 98 sobre derecho de sindicalización y negociación colectiva, ratificado por Uruguay desde 1954. Según las organizaciones querellantes esta disposición no garantiza sanciones por eventuales excesos de los representantes sindicales y considera que todas las partes en la negociación, gocen o no de personería jurídica deber ser responsables ante eventuales violaciones del derecho de reserva de las informaciones que reciban en el marco de la negociación colectiva. El Comité de Libertad Sindical pidió al gobierno que vele por el respeto de este principio. Seguidamente en los capítulos SEGUNDO y TERCERO se estudian los límites al poder de dirección del empleador Para su mejor estudio siguiendo a la doctrina se ha clasificado los límites en internos y externos . Mientras que los límites externos hacen referencia fundamentalmente a obligaciones legales de carácter imperativo que restringen directamente la formas de ejercicio de las potestades empresariales, como clásicamente sucede con el necesario respeto por parte de los empleadores de los derechos fundamentales del trabajador y las libertades públicas, o de otras prescripciones legales de carácter imperativo, como en materia de salud laboral, o de otro tipo, los límites internos al poder de dirección del empleador son los que tienen que ver con el ámbito de la prestación debida y la forma de desarrollarla. Se trata de delimitar si frente a los frenos constitucionales, y legales, (además de los impuestos por los convenios colectivos), cabe también apelar a las instituciones civiles de la buena fe, abuso de derecho o fraude a la ley, así como a los criterios de razonabilidad y arbitrariedad como forma de ejercicio correcto del poder empresarial referido. En primer lugar, en vemos el capítulo segundo donde se estudian los límites internos al poder de dirección Se debe considerar la regularidad del poder en el sentido que las decisiones sobre el trabajo deben dictarse por quien tiene competencia para ello y que esta decisión debe estar enmarcada en las condiciones y circunstancias fijadas para el trabajo debido. Doctrinariamente se sostiene que "el poder de dirección tiene por base jurídica el contrato de trabajo; el compromiso contractual no solo lo legitima sino que también lo delimita, pues el trabajo debido condiciona la obediencia debida" , lo que implica que el contrato de trabajo limitaría la actuación del empleador, es decir plantea una renovación de instrumentos de tutela del trabajo desde la protección del contratante débil y el redescubrimiento del contrato como instrumento de limitación de los poderes empresariales. Este tipo de argumentos tendrían una difícil aceptación en el ordenamiento jurídico del Uruguay. En efecto, la doctrina uruguaya ha puesto un gran énfasis en señalar que el contrato de trabajo es considerado un contrato de adhesión, por tanto, inhábil para configurar un límite efectivo al poder empresarial, se señala que "corresponde poner acento en la circunstancia de que el contrato de trabajo es normalmente redactado por el empleador y que, por lo tanto, las ambigüedades o dudas deben entenderse en su contra Es decir que para la doctrina uruguaya podría afirmarse que son los límites externos los que debe exclusivamente tenerse en cuenta en forma a priori. Para proseguir con la línea argumental iniciada, me detuve, en el examen de la vertiente contractual de la relación de trabajo, analizando sus elementos más importantes LA PROTECCIÓN DEL TRABAJO A TRAVÉS DEL CONTRATO DE TRABAJO. Para su mejor estudio se subdivide en 1. Relación jurídico-bilateral entre dos sujetos: empleador y trabajador. 2. Relación entre autonomía y norma estatal y colectiva. En cuanto a la relación jurídica bilateral entre dos sujetos se dijo que: El contrato de trabajo es aquel por el cual una persona, se obliga a prestar una actividad en provecho y bajo la dirección de otra y ésta a retribuirla. Constituye una relación jurídico-bilateral entre dos sujetos que se obligan recíprocamente: por una parte a trabajar (desarrollar una actividad o prestación en forma subordinada o bajo la dirección de otra), y por la otra a remunerar el trabajo prestado en las condiciones pactadas. Esta relación tendrá consecuentemente tres efectos: un efecto socio económico (la cesión ab initio de los frutos del trabajo); un efecto estrictamente organizativo, compuesto por las obligaciones entre las partes nacidas con el contrato (obligación de trabajar y remunerar el trabajo); la conformación de un acuerdo de voluntades que no significan voluntades negociadas en virtud de ser caracterizado el contrato de trabajo dentro de la figura: contrato de adhesión. En cuanto a la Relación entre autonomía individual y norma estatal y colectiva decimos que: La ley y el convenio colectivo son los determinantes del contenido del contrato de trabajo, este acuerdo y la propia negociación entre las partes (como se ha hecho referencia), se encuentra condicionado por las disposiciones legales y reglamentarias del Estado y por el convenio colectivo. Es decir que el acuerdo individual de voluntades sobre el hecho de prestar un servicio remunerado se encuentra determinado "desde fuera" del mismo tanto por las disposiciones imperativas de la norma estatal como de las cláusulas de los convenios colectivos, que en el sistema español, constituyen el elemento regulativo central de las condiciones de trabajo y de empleo por ramas de actividad y por empresas, y a los que la ley otorga, si las partes firmantes reúnen determinados requisitos de representatividad, eficacia normativa y personal general, "erga omnes". Se establece la inderogabilidad por la autonomía individual de las condiciones -menos favorables o simplemente contrarias- de trabajo y empleo fijadas normativa o convencionalmente. El tema se ha suscitado en la práctica a través de la estipulación de acuerdos individuales entre empresario y trabajador modificativos de la regulación colectiva de las condiciones pactadas distintas de las reguladas en el convenio colectivo a cambio de una cierta mejora retributiva para los trabajadores que lo realizan. Es decir salvo que se den los supuestos o condicionamientos previstos en la normativa, no son admisibles "acuerdos derogatorios de convenios colectivos", y tales supuestos pueden comprender tres situaciones como sintetiza la doctrina: cuando así lo requiera la situación económica de la empresa en las llamadas cláusulas de descuelgue (Artículo 82.3 párrafo 3ro. ET). En su nueva redacción la modificación o inaplicación de las condiciones establecidas en los convenios estatutarios se rige por lo dispuesto en el art. 82.3 ET al que se remite el art. 41.6 ET. En principio cabe la modificación de cualquier tipo de convenio estatutario (sectorial de cualquier ámbito territorial o de empresa, grupo de empresas o pluralidad de empresas), incluso la admisión de la modificación del convenio de empresa permite pensar que este puede inaplicarse en parte de la empresa, por ejemplo, determinados centros de trabajo, si existen razones que lo justifiquen. En el mismo sentido la inaplicación, por ejemplo, del convenio de un grupo de empresas podría hacerse solo en alguna de las empresas del grupo. Serán las razones que justifiquen la medida las que determinarán el ámbito en el que deba producirse la inaplicación del convenio. El listado de materias lo proporciona el art. 41 , es aplicable a todos los convenios, no solamente a los sectoriales como en la regulación anterior. Conforme al procedimiento del art. 41 ET, las condiciones de trabajo establecidas en acuerdo o pacto de empresa o en convenios colectivos extra estatutarios podrán ser modificadas sin ningún tipo de restricción de manera unilateral por el empresario, siempre que dicha modificación posea carácter individual, es decir que dicha modificación no afecte un número de trabajadores superior al previsto en el art. 41.2 (diez trabajadores en las empresas que ocupen menos de cien trabajadores en la inmensa mayoría de las ocasiones, dados los datos del sistema productivo español), corresponderá al empresario unilateralmente la decisión de la modificación, de aspectos tan importantes como la jornada, la cuantía salarial o el régimen de trabajo a turnos. En el caso de que la modificación supere los anteriores límites, la decisión también será, en última instancia unilateral, pero con el requisito de llevar a cabo un período de consultas de quince días previo a la toma de decisión empresarial. En cuanto a la indeterminación de las razones justificativas de la modificación sustancial de las condiciones de trabajo podría estar encaminada a permitir la reducción unilateral del salario en aras de favorecer la competitividad de la empresa. Como afirma la doctrina en suma la reforma del 2012 parece dar cobertura normativa al dumping social, una interpretación del art. 41.1 ET en este sentido manifiesta una contradicción al espíritu del art. 151 TFUE que establece como objetivo de la UE y de los Estados miembros "la mejora de las condiciones de vida y de trabajo, a fin de conseguir su equiparación por la vía del progreso" hallándose subordinada a tal fin "la necesidad de mantener la competitividad de la economía del UE". Seguidamente se estudia EL PROYECTO CONTRACTUAL Y SU CUMPLIMIENTO EN LA FASE DE EJECUCIÓN DEL CONTRATO DE TRABAJO Una vez situado el papel del contrato en el sistema normativo laboral, conviene precisar el alcance de este instrumento en la determinación del contenido de la relación laboral. 1. El objeto del contrato de trabajo: obligaciones correlativas de trabajar y de remunerar el trabajo prestado. La obligación de trabajar se compone de dos grandes vertientes: una determinada cuantitativamente y otra determinada cualitativamente. Pero no podemos referirnos a estas vertientes sin antes hacer referencia al objeto del contrato en sí. Es decir, el objeto del contrato será válido si es lícito posible y determinado. A través de la determinación del objeto se facilita que las partes contratantes tengan sobre el mismo un cierto conocimiento, una noción inequívoca del contenido del acuerdo. En consecuencia, el consentimiento ha de ser dado sobre un elemento determinado, como poco, en cuanto a su especie. a. Determinación cuantitativa del objeto del contrato. Se compone por la cantidad de actividad a que se obligó el trabajador, es lo que se refiere al tiempo de trabajo. b. Determinación cualitativa del objeto del contrato: Precisiones sobre el sistema español y uruguayo El tipo de trabajo en concreto la categoría a desempeñar al que se compromete el trabajador, constituye lo que se denomina la determinación cualitativa del objeto contractual. Lo que se valora es el tipo de trabajo en concreto que el empleador requiere y al que se compromete el trabajador, tipo de trabajo que se delimita a partir de los rasgos profesionales objetivados en un oficio, en una profesión o en el conjunto de destrezas y habilidades que requiere la calificación profesional para un trabajo determinado para el que el contratante está capacitado por poseer la aptitud o titulación requerida. En la determinación cualitativa de la obligación de trabajar lo que se valora es la profesionalidad del trabajador a través del trabajo concreto que se obliga a prestar. Normalmente el "sistema de encuadramiento profesional vendrá dado por la negociación colectiva. El proyecto contractual individual "selecciona" la inserción de la capacitación profesional del trabajador en las competencias y destrezas clasificadas colectivamente. b. 1- El sistema de clasificación profesional en España Los sistemas de clasificación profesional se suelen agrupar en tipos comunes. Sin perjuicio de lo que luego se dirá, en España era común hablar de una clasificación por grupos profesionales o por categorías. La reforma del 2012 restringe la posibilidad hasta ahora en manos de la autonomía colectiva, de optar entre dos tipos de agrupaciones. Con la desaparición de las categorías profesionales se produce una determinación menos estricta de la prestación laboral, elemento que favorece la flexibilidad interna en las empresas e incrementa las facultades organizativas del empresario. Pasamos seguidamente a describir el nuevo funcionamiento a partir de la reforma del 2012. Los cambios en la movilidad funcional han tenido lugar sólo en la reforma del 2012 y se han articulado básicamente operando sobre el sistema de clasificación profesional. Los más destacados se encuentran en los arts. 22 y 39 del ET, la desaparición de la categoría profesional hace que el grupo profesional sea el elemento de referencia para la configuración del sistema de clasificación profesional. En la práctica el resultado será muy significativo posibilitando órdenes empresariales que lleven al límite la capacidad profesional de los trabajadores poniendo en cuestión peligrosamente la dignidad profesional. Esto es así no solo como consecuencia directa de los cambios normativos de los artículos 22 y 39 del ET sino también por los efectos derivados del conjunto de las modificaciones normativas impuestas. Implicará perseguir un aumento de la producción con menos puestos de trabajo. La cobertura de las lagunas funcionales justificará la exigencia de trabajadores más polivalentes en un nuevo espacio de flexibilidad interna funcional o mediante la aplicación del art. 39. 4 del ET que podría conducir a procesos de reclasificación. En el mismo sentido en la configuración legal del sistema de clasificación profesional desaparecen las referencias a las categorías profesionales (art. 22.1 ET), con el objetivo de sortear la rigidez de la noción de categoría profesional. En consecuencia, los grupos profesionales ya no podrán integrar tanto diversas categorías profesionales como distintas funciones o especialidades profesionales sino tareas, funciones, especialidades profesionales o responsabilidades. La abolición de la categoría profesional como elemento clasificatorio es una medida que se presenta para contribuir a la flexibilidad interna. Dado que el sistema de clasificación profesional está vinculado al contenido de la prestación laboral y por lo tanto a la movilidad funcional la desaparición de las categorías profesionales tiene como finalidad ampliar el objeto del contrato y al mismo tiempo los efectos prácticos de las órdenes empresariales relativas al cambio de funciones. En este sentido la reforma del artículo 22 del ET parece indicar que la categoría ya no podrá ser elemento clasificatorio que se utilice para acordar el objeto cierto que sea materia del contrato. Aunque la estructura de los sistemas de clasificación profesional suele ser bastante compleja necesariamente uno de sus elementos deberá ser un grupo profesional cuya utilización en el pacto contractual para el acto de clasificación determinará al mismo tiempo los límites del poder de dirección del empresario. Esto es lo que indica el art. 20 del ET al vincular, la dirección del empresario directamente al trabajo convenido. Por tanto, una ampliación del objeto del contrato conduce necesariamente hacia una extensión de las facultades empresariales elemento éste central de la flexibilidad interna referida a las funciones tal y como está concebida en esta reforma. El reforzamiento de los poderes empresariales se complementa con la modificación del art. 39 ET en lo relativo a los límites empresariales en la movilidad funcional. Ahora, el sistema de clasificación profesional tiene como único referente al grupo profesional ya no existe más la rigidez de la categoría profesional. La doctrina al respecto afirma que la expresión grupo profesional está teñida de una gran dosis de indeterminación, reveladora innegablemente de las propias dificultades de la clasificación profesional. Los grupos habituales son los de los operarios y de los subalternos, administrativos y técnicos que, a su vez, pueden dividirse en otros subgrupos, pero se revisa esa concepción y se tiende más a trabajar con fundamento en el grupo profesional como cuadro amplio de funciones que luego se acota en razón a valores como los de responsabilidad, iniciativa, mando, autonomía que vienen a representar una realidad polivalente del trabajo prestado. b. 2.- El sistema de clasificación profesional y el derecho uruguayo. Por su parte haciendo un comparativo el modelo latinoamericano en especial el uruguayo surge un total antagonismo siendo inviable de trasladar como consecuencia de su historia política sindical. Resultaría inviable su aplicación visto que es un modelo asentado en una negociación por rama de actividad con un marco jurídico y doctrinario arraigado en las categorías profesionales. Sería impensable instalar un sistema como el español, primero por su historia legislativa (ley de 1943), segundo porque la organización sindical tiene como bandera la defensa y respeto de las categorías profesionales, hoy es causa principal de conflictos colectivos y demandas judiciales. En especial contra empresas multinacionales y empresas de capital extranjero que organizan su forma de producción desde sus países. En cuanto a los LIMITES EXTERNOS al poder de dirección Un derecho fundamental es ante todo un derecho creado o reconocido por la Constitución y esto no significa otra cosa sino preexistencia del derecho mismo al momento de su configuración o delimitación legislativa, significa que la propia Constitución ha definido una determinada situación jurídica en términos que la hacen identificable o discernible para el intérprete y que, además la Constitución ha determinado también -o no ha excluido- la necesaria consideración de esa situación jurídica como derecho a partir de la entrada en vigor de la norma que lo enuncia. El reconocimiento de la eficacia de los derechos y libertades fundamentales en el marco del contrato de trabajo, se ha iniciado con una cronología variable en los países de régimen constitucional. El punto de arranque de la eficacia en las relaciones privadas de los derechos fundamentales también llamada eficacia horizontal se ha de situar en primer término en el principio de Estado Social de Derecho, cuya realización impone una concepción de las relaciones entre Estado y Sociedad, para la consecución de los intereses generales y de los principios y valores constitucionales. Los derechos fundamentales en general se caracterizan por ser derechos de aplicación inmediata, supone ante todo que el derecho preexiste a la ley, no podrá ser desfigurado por esta sin incurrir en constitucionalidad, desfiguración a la que la Constitución española llama quiebra o conculcación de un contenido esencial (artículo 53.1) que viene a declarar así que el derecho es anterior al momento de la intervención legislativa. Importa señalar que son derechos de aplicación inmediata también conforme al régimen jurídico uruguayo. El trabajador es poseedor de derechos fundamentales en razón de su persona, llamados derechos fundamentales inespecíficos, es decir son derechos que anteceden a la relación laboral y que forman parte de su personalidad por tanto no son suspendidos durante la ejecución del contrato de trabajo. Es decir, son derechos reivindicables ante el empleador en tanto se expresan en el marco de una relación laboral. Es también una constante en espacios supranacionales como la Unión Europea, aunque la carencia en el ordenamiento jurídico comunitario de un texto escrito con eficacia jurídica vinculante ha hecho que el Tribunal de Justicia de la CE tuviera una numerosa jurisprudencia al respecto, "habiendo configurado un régimen específico enfocado al reconocimiento y protección de los derechos humanos dentro del ámbito del derecho europeo". El Tribunal ha incorporado al ordenamiento jurídico comunitario los derechos fundamentales a través de tres fundamentos. En primer lugar mediante la utilización de concepto jurídico de principios generales de derecho, afirmando que tales derechos están comprendidos dentro de estos principios, significando que en el ordenamiento jurídico comunitario existen principios que exigen el respeto de los derechos fundamentales, en segundo lugar el TJ se va a dirigir hacia los ordenamientos nacionales, invocando como fuente de inspiración las tradiciones constitucionales comunes, y en tercer lugar el TJ ha utilizado en progresión cuantitativa y cualitativa los instrumentos jurídicos internacionales relativos a la protección de los derechos fundamentales, entre ellos el CEDH y la Carta Social Europea. . En el derecho latinoamericano se ha señalado la existencia de un bloque de constitucionalidad, los derechos fundamentales del trabajador en tanto persona forman parte de este bloque el cual se encuentra integrado por los derechos humanos y garantías expresamente reconocidos en la Constitución y por los derechos humanos implícitamente reconocidos por ser inherentes a la persona humana o a la forma republicana de gobierno y los reconocidos de fuente internacional. No obstante, se ha expuesto por parte de la doctrina laboral que el proceso de continuo crecimiento del bloque de constitucionalidad, por la suma de las disposiciones de fuente interna, internacional, regional y comunitaria, puede generar diversos problemas interpretativos. La doctrina laboral entre otros ha defendido la autoejecución y autoaplicabilidad de los derechos humanos laborales, en cuanto tales integran el bloque de constitucionalidad de cada Estado, tienen por tanto vocación de plenamente autoejecutables y además de crear obligaciones a los Estados, pueden producir efectos y ser invocados en los conflictos entre particulares. solución ajustada a derecho, es no considerar aplicable la norma que vulnera los derechos anteriormente reconocidos. La Constitución española también reconoce al trabajador determinados derechos como ciudadano lo cual son de aplicación inmediata no necesitando de ningún otro instrumento jurídico para incorporarlos a la legislación laboral. No obstante, lo expuesto se ha observado un cambio de paradigma en la jurisprudencia laboral del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea. De este modo y en un análisis pormenorizado moderna doctrina contemporánea ha podido comprobar este cambio en la labor garante de determinados Derechos Sociales, muy vinculada antes de 1986 a la independencia temática de la Política Social respecto de las políticas económicas, que ha dado lugar a un nuevo modo de reinterpretación de los Derechos Laborales a la luz de las exigencias económicas y mercantiles. El filtro económico con el que ahora el Tribunal de Justicia comienza a leer aquellos fallos de Derechos laborales indiscutibles y autónomos con los que se construyó el modelo social europeo, se ha convertido en un modus operandi natural que ha puesto en entredicho la solidez misma del entramado jurídico de este modelo. Así se puede ver en los fallos recaídos en la STJCE de 11.12.2007, Viking, STJCE de 18.12.2007 Laval, STJCE de 3.4.2008 Ruffert, vienen a cuestionar la dinámica separada del mercado de Derechos básicos para el funcionamiento del propio sistema de relaciones laborales en Europa. El capítulo cuarto estudia LA TUTELA DE LA PROFESIONALIDAD COMO LÍMITE DE LOS PODERES EMPRESARIALES. LA PROFESIONALIDAD COMO LÍMITE JURÍDICO AL PODER DE DIRECCIÓN DEL EMPLEADOR. Tras la exposición de los límites del poder de dirección -internos y externos- nos centramos en el análisis concreto de la relación entre la profesionalidad del trabajador estudiado no sólo como un resultado del intercambio contractual sino como un dato previo al mismo ligado a la persona del trabajador y que como tal es manifestación de la dignidad de éste. Analicemos con más detalle: Si bien el estudio de la profesionalidad posee varias aristas, este trabajo se centra en el estudio de la profesionalidad dentro de la relación de trabajo, y como bien que posee el trabajador ligado a los derechos de la personalidad. Desde nuestro ángulo de estudio, la profesionalidad aparece como una cualidad inherente al sujeto, es decir constituye "un cúmulo de conocimientos, habilidad, experiencia, práctica o esfuerzo físico específico, que en la relación de trabajo resultan necesarios para realizar un tipo de actividad determinada". Siendo la profesionalidad como ha señalado la doctrina laboral española un patrimonio profesional , el cual forma parte de la persona, es este patrimonio que lo distingue de otros sujetos que puedan poseer la misma profesión u oficio. Es decir, la profesionalidad desde su aspecto objetivo se encuentra constituida por los conocimientos y habilidades que discierne una profesión de otra, pero en su aspecto subjetivo está compuesta por las cualidades personales del trabajador, sus expectativas de promoción y ascenso, sus habilidades y destrezas adquiridas en su vida laboral. Este patrimonio profesional que posee el trabajador no se ciñe a las aptitudes requeridas para un puesto de trabajo, o las adquiridas a través del propio trabajo. En él se contemplan todas las que el trabajador posee sean o no contratadas, en cada acto clasificatorio concreto. Estos derechos profesionales están ligados a la dignidad humana y contribuyen al desarrollo de la personalidad del individuo. Es así que la profesionalidad dice la doctrina laboral constituye "un bien del trabajador" y como tal deberá ser protegido, y es a través de los valores ligados a la dignidad de la persona (constitucionalmente establecidos), que se logra imponer esa protección, limitando así los poderes empresariales. La doctrina laboral española ha distinguido entre la profesionalidad estática y dinámica. En su aspecto estático se señala que cada trabajador posee una capacitación o formación adecuada para el puesto de trabajo que pretende desempeñar, esta cualificación requerida es la que el deudor (trabajador) se compromete a realizar al inicio de la relación contractual. En su aspecto dinámico conforma lo que se ha entendido como ese patrimonio profesional adquirido por el trabajador "lo que se traduce en el término de promoción profesional". Desde esta noción de la profesionalidad, se construye una dimensión político-ciudadana a través del engarce de ésta en el reconocimiento de un derecho cívico en la constitución española cuyo artículo 35 reconoce y tutela, dentro del derecho al trabajo. Desde esta perspectiva, pues son reconocidos constitucionalmente como derechos fundamentales: el derecho al trabajo, a la libre elección de profesión u oficio y a la promoción profesional, derechos preexistentes a la norma, reconocidos en el texto constitucional y que deben encontrar su espacio y garantía en el ordenamiento jurídico todo. Este punto, el de la tutela de la profesionalidad derivada de esa vertiente político-ciudadana señalada, es el objeto de análisis. Como se ha dicho la profesionalidad ha recibido especial tutela en el ordenamiento constitucional español, consagrando el artículo 35 explícitamente el derecho fundamental "al trabajo", a "la libre elección de profesión u oficio" y a la "promoción a través del trabajo". Por tanto, el legislador no puede limitar este derecho a través de normas que afecten la efectividad del mismo, sino que toda normativa debe tener presente que estos derechos revisten la categoría de derechos fundamentales. Es decir, la acción tutelar del legislador tiene como efecto la reducción del ámbito obligacional del deudor de actividad. Supone que ciertas prestaciones exigibles al trabajador, cualquiera que sea su origen, y realizables por el mismo en base a su aptitud, devienen dispensadas de su cumplimiento cuando perjudiquen su profesionalidad. El objetivo es la tutela de un bien de carácter personal no valorable patrimonialmente. Esta perspectiva se explica adecuadamente si se integra en el análisis del alcance del reconocimiento del derecho al trabajo. En cuanto a su contenido existen varias posturas doctrinales relativas al contenido o alcance del derecho al trabajo, pero la más importante y de mayor adhesión la constituye aquella que considera que posee un alcance amplio. En un alcance amplio presentaría una pluralidad de manifestaciones e imbricaciones múltiples. Así la conexión con diversas materias es constante: tales como el ingreso al trabajo, ocupación efectiva, cláusulas de seguridad sindical, huelga, extinción del contrato, protección por desempleo. Cotejando la jurisprudencia y la doctrina científica española, el derecho al trabajo presentaría un contenido amplio, en primer lugar, porque estaría directamente ligado a los derechos de la personalidad, dado que el contenido de los derechos profesionales se encuentra directamente unido a la dignidad del trabajador (artículo 10.1 CE), en segundo lugar, porque este derecho se encuentra conectado con otros derechos como el derecho a la ocupación efectiva, consagrado en el artículo 4.2 a del ET. De modo que el derecho constitucional al trabajo proyecta su eficacia hacia un doble destinatario: 1. Los poderes públicos como garantes de una legislación orientada a su pleno desarrollo y fiscalizador de los posibles incumplimientos y 2. El empresario que, si bien no puede ser compelido a la asignación directa de un puesto de trabajo en la fase precontractual, una vez perfeccionado el contrato ha de abstenerse de cualquier actuación contraria al derecho comentado. Pasando por tanto a convertirse la ocupación efectiva en el presupuesto nuclear y existencial del derecho al trabajo, cuya vulneración vaciaría de contenido y operatividad al mandato constitucional, formando parte de su contenido esencial. Continuando con el estudio de la protección dinámica de la profesionalidad se encuentra reconocida en la promoción profesional y la libertad de elección de profesión u oficio. Se trata de un derecho ciudadano que requiere su formulación desde el contrato de trabajo mismo, de manera que dentro de este marco se ha de garantizar la promoción profesional, la expectativa de ascenso, el derecho a la carrera profesional. El reconocimiento de la promoción profesional implica también reconocer un derecho a una carrera profesional, no obstaculizar el mejoramiento de las cualificaciones profesionales, además la protección de la profesionalidad se lleva a cabo en el reconocimiento de la libertad de elección de profesión u oficio, dado que se trata de la protección del desarrollo de los conocimientos y habilidades que puede adquirir el trabajador y la posibilidad de ejercerlos. Cabe precisar que el estudio de la formación profesional implica ámbitos diversos multidisciplinarios, y aún desde una perspectiva laboral ofrece dos campos de acción, uno enmarcado en las políticas de empleo y capacitación para la obtención de mejores puestos de trabajo y otra dentro de la relación laboral. Será ésta última y su conexión con la profesionalidad del trabajador la que ocupó nuestro objeto de estudio. La formación a la que aludimos es aquella que se encuentra íntimamente con la profesionalidad del trabajador es decir la que conlleva a formar al trabajador para su mejor desempeño en el puesto de trabajo y la que se adquiere como consecuencia directa del desarrollo de las habilidades propias del cargo. De ahí que como se alude este derecho a la formación tiene relación directa con la expectativa de promoción dentro de la empresa, con el derecho a una carrera profesional, y con el derecho a la ocupación efectiva y a la ocupación convenida en el proyecto contractual. Es decir, existe otro tipo de formación profesional, donde es la misma empresa que obliga al trabajador a formarse e incluso a reciclarse a los efectos de dotar de los conocimientos necesarios para afrontar las nuevas tecnologías en la empresa, y es aquí donde el derecho a la formación profesional aflora como derecho en sí cuando algunos trabajadores son relegados en cursos de formación y sus expectativas de promoción decrecen. Por tanto, la formación del trabajador entendida como el proceso de adquisición de aptitudes a través de la práctica o desempeño de su profesión, se verá perjudicada también en la medida que le sean asignadas funciones al trabajador que lejos de potenciar sus cualidades profesionales vienen a degradárselas. A continuación, se avoca el estudio a la tutela de la profesionalidad del trabajador en el régimen jurídico uruguayo La doctrina y jurisprudencia en Uruguay menciona dentro de los elementos del contrato de trabajo a la profesionalidad. No se ha desarrollado, por tanto, la vertiente constitucional que relaciona la libre elección de profesión y oficio con un derecho ciudadano que debe orientar la estructura y la dinámica del contrato laboral. Además, ha recibido un tratamiento no muy importante al calificarlo como elemento residual para determinar la relación laboral. Es decir que para la doctrina y jurisprudencia uruguaya la profesionalidad ha sido estudiada como un elemento no esencial del contrato de trabajo de tal forma que debería darse todos los demás para conformar un contrato de trabajo. Sin embargo, si bien no es considerada un elemento esencial del contrato de trabajo, desde una óptica diferente se comienza a hablar de profesionalidad y certificación de competencias. Así que diversos programas de formación profesional contribuyen a expandir esta visión enraizada con el derecho de formación profesional, el derecho a la promoción y ascenso y así también la recualificación de trabajadores que se encuentren al amparo de seguro por desempleo. La industria de la construcción sector sensible frente a cualquier cambio económico financiero que afecta la estabilidad de puestos laborales que ha hecho su primer avance en materia de certificación de competencias. En el entendido de la empresa como órgano de formación de trabajadores especializados y como escuela técnica en algunas profesiones. La certificación de competencias alude a la profesionalidad en el sentido de distinción de competencias adquiridas en el desarrollo de la profesión u oficio, alude a la formación profesional dentro del sector empresarial, considerando las cualidades desarrolladas y aptitudes adquiridas durante la relación laboral. No obstante, creemos que la profesionalidad ha ocupado y ocupa un lugar relevante, aunque no haya sido enfocada como tal, numerosos son los juicios hoy en día que se presentan ante los estrados uruguayos cuyo objeto procesal se encuentra relacionado con la profesionalidad del trabajador. A título de ejemplo lo podemos constatar en sentencias nacionales las que son incorporadas al presente estudio, en donde la profesionalidad no se sustancia en la relación laboral como un mero elemento secundario. Sino que por el contrario pasa a ser un elemento decisivo, el perjuicio a la carrera profesional, la existencia o no de un daño al derecho al ascenso son elementos sustanciales en la decisión. Cabe precisar por otra parte que el sistema jurídico uruguayo carece de normativa reguladora de la movilidad funcional y geográfica, con lo cual se ha delegado un margen amplio a la doctrina científica y a la jurisprudencia de los tribunales de trabajo. La defensa del trabajador debe centrarse en su dignidad, en la profesionalidad como valor añadido a su personalidad. Cómo se inserta este concepto de profesionalidad en Uruguay? La profesionalidad va más allá de la categorización profesional, contiene elementos subjetivos que hacen que un trabajador se pueda diferenciar de otro que ocupa el mismo puesto o desempeña igual categoría, por tanto, el daño que pueda ocurrir en los cambios de función, o que llevan a la privación de la misma, y que lesionen su dignidad, el derecho al trabajo, el derecho a la promoción, a la formación, verán su amparo a través de lo dispuesto por los artículos constitucionales 72 y 332. Por lo que ese grupo de derechos profesionales preexiste a la intervención legislativa y son resistentes ante una intervención legislativa o de cualquier operador jurídico. Por tanto, aquellas órdenes que vulneren un derecho fundamental como la igualdad y no discriminación, el derecho al trabajo, el derecho a la formación profesional, y atenten contra la dignidad del trabajador, podrían ser declaradas nulas al haberse afectado un derecho integrante del bloque de constitucionalidad. III. Se han arribado a las siguientes CONCLUSIONES que a modo de síntesis se exponen: 1. El respeto de los derechos fundamentales del trabajador opera como límite infranqueable al poder de dirección del empleador. 2. La profesionalidad como ha señalado la doctrina laboral conforma el patrimonio profesional que posee todo trabajador, el cual no se encuentra limitado a las aptitudes requeridas para un puesto de trabajo, o las adquiridas a través del propio trabajo. Es así que la profesionalidad constituye "un bien del trabajador" y como tal deberá ser protegido, y es a través de los valores ligados a la dignidad de la persona, que logra imponer esa protección, limitando así los poderes empresariales. 3. En el ordenamiento español la profesionalidad posee un reconocimiento constitucional en el art. 35 que consagra el derecho al trabajo, a la libre elección de profesión u oficio, y a la promoción a través del trabajo. Estos derechos profesionales no se encuentran consagrados en la constitución uruguaya con la misma técnica legislativa que empleó el constituyente español, pero si se encuentran consagrados a través del art. 72 de la Carta magna en el entendido que estamos ante derechos fundamentales. Por tanto, se encuentran reconocidos en la constitución y gozan de toda la protección constitucional. 4. Es necesaria la intervención en el sistema español de la negociación colectiva en la delimitación de la estructura de la profesionalidad por sectores o ramas de producción. Mientras que el sistema uruguayo puede decirse que tiene las bases para sustentarla a partir de la convocatoria de los Consejos de Salarios, lo que ha derivado en un fuerte desarrollo de la negociación colectiva por rama de actividad y una creciente sindicalización. Por tanto, sigue siendo el convenio colectivo el instrumento necesario para canalizar esta construcción como limitativa del poder del empresario y como orientadora de las relaciones laborales.
The United States holds dear our values of democracy, civil liberties, and the separation of the branches of our government. In fact, every member of our armed services has sworn an oath to defend the parchment that declares these institutions sacred, and it is the obligation of the United States Armed Forces to preserve and protect those democratic liberties which we hold dear. Given this, it is surprising to know that US Army doctrine idolizes a military dictator, who knowingly seized complete control of his home state following political unrest. Intriguingly, this same figure, who was revered by his soldiers and that same state he commandeered, struggled with marital and familial conflicts his entire life. These statements may be confusing, as there couldn't have possible been a military coup in the United States, let alone a leader of that coup who is still beloved by his statesmen today. Ironically, this individual is no other than Civil War hero Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain. While the aforementioned facts are not popularly discussed in history, many Americans know and recognize Chamberlain and his contribution to the United States. He is remembered for his actions in battle which earned him the Medal of Honor later in life. Joshua L. Chamberlain is undoubtedly one of the most popularly researched and written figures in the American Civil War era. Moreover, there are a multitude of sources that further my research, answering the question of how Chamberlain was remembered during and after the war compared to evidence of the life he lived. Upon examination of several key books and articles that discuss the memory of Chamberlain, from during the war to the modern day, a baseline literature review can be made regarding the question as well as its answer. These selected works have all contributed to the field regarding Joshua Chamberlain and how he is remembered both in his own time and our modern age. ; Winner of the 2022 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the Senior Arts/Humanities category. ; Investigating Joshua L. Chamberlain; Distinctions Between the Memory and Reality of Maine's Famed Colonel Jacob Maker HI 430 A Professor Sodergren 12 December 2021 1 The United States holds dear our values of democracy, civil liberties, and the separation of the branches of our government. In fact, every member of our armed services has sworn an oath to defend the parchment that declares these institutions sacred, and it is the obligation of the United States Armed Forces to preserve and protect those democratic liberties which we hold dear. Given this, it is surprising to know that US Army doctrine idolizes a military dictator, who knowingly seized complete control of his home state following political unrest. Intriguingly, this same figure, who was revered by his soldiers and that same state he commandeered, struggled with marital and familial conflicts his entire life. These statements may be confusing, as there couldn't have possible been a military coup in the United States, let alone a leader of that coup who is still beloved by his statesmen today. Ironically, this individual is no other than Civil War hero Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain. While the aforementioned facts are not popularly discussed in history, many Americans know and recognize Chamberlain and his contribution to the United States. He is remembered for his actions in battle which earned him the Medal of Honor later in life. Joshua L. Chamberlain is undoubtedly one of the most popularly researched and written figures in the American Civil War era. Moreover, there are a multitude of sources that further my research, answering the question of how Chamberlain was remembered during and after the war compared to evidence of the life he lived. Upon examination of several key books and articles that discuss the memory of Chamberlain, from during the war to the modern day, a baseline literature review can be made regarding the question as well as its answer. These selected works have all contributed to the field regarding Joshua Chamberlain and how he is remembered both in his own time and our modern age. Academic books such as Hands of Providence by Alice Rains Trulock, John Pullen's Twentieth Maine, and Conceived in Liberty by Mark Perry portray Chamberlain in a prolific 2 light. They all generally revere him, initiating their books with praise calling him "a great American hero and a genuinely good man," as well as "remarkable" and a "graceful gentleman".1 Not only do these historians hold these ideals, but the US Army and other agencies openly promote Chamberlain for his heroics without analyzing the reality of who he was holistically.2 Hands of Providence is one of the more prolific biographies describing Chamberlain and the 20th Maine. Trulock writes of his life before, during, and after his war service. She accurately illustrates how Chamberlain's colleagues at Bowdoin, as well as others in his life, regarded him early in the war.3 Comparatively, she notes statements from his soldiers about how they viewed him during the war, both in good and bad lights.4 Pullen does the same, but instead focuses mainly on the unit instead of its commander. This also allows for more in-depth analysis of how his men, and soldiers of the Confederacy, viewed Chamberlain.5 He also describes his work ethic, intelligence, and leadership characteristics regarding how they effected his colonelcy and command during the war. Conceived in Liberty differentiates from the other works because it primarily focuses on the two commanders at Little Round Top and their lives before, during, and after the war. This includes some of the more unsavory events that Trulock and Perry omit, particularly how Chamberlain's home life regarding his wife Fannie's disappointment in their marriage.6 The mentioning of this, as well as information about the abovementioned 1880 affair make this source stand apart from the others.7 1 Trulock, Hands of Providence, xvii; Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 3. 2 United States Department of Defense, "Medal of Honor Monday," https://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/story/Article/2086560/medal-of-honor-monday-army-maj-gen-joshua-chamberlain/ [accessed 3 November 2021]; Weart, "Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain," https://themilitaryleader.com/leadership-action-chamberlain/ [accessed 3 November 2021]. 3 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 11; Trulock, Hands of Providence, 57; Trulock, Hands of Providence, 105. 4 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 305. 5 Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 128. 6 Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 4; Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 42; Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 333. 7 Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 387-392. 3 Edward Longacre's The Soldier and the Man is an interesting contradictory source. Instead of constant praise for Chamberlain, Longacre credits him for both his good and poor actions during the war. He calls into question his ego and insecurities, selfish desires for greatness above all else, and indifference towards soldiers to include ordering their execution.8 Longacre writes this from a different perspective, that of truth regarding Chamberlain's life both good and bad. There have also been two articles that discuss Chamberlain and his leadership both written by military officers. The first is "Leadership as a Force Multiplier" by Lieutenant Colonel Fred Hillyard, and the second is "Blood and Fire", written by Major John Cuddy. Hillyard focuses on Chamberlain's leadership characteristics while deeming if he deserves the high pedestal he is placed upon, while Cuddy analyzes how different scholars understood Chamberlain and his leadership philosophy. They both state how Chamberlain has been designated as a symbol of leadership within the military and agree that he received all his knowledge from his commander, Colonel Ames, who was West Point educated.9 Furthermore, they consider Chamberlain in a favorable light by calling him a military genius.10 This differs from other sources in that it outright debates his poor attributes instead of assuming him to be an admirable figure. These articles exemplify the dichotomy of reality and fiction regarding how Chamberlain is remembered. This literature provides insight on the dichotomy of thought regarding Chamberlain, with the more mainstream historians, like Trulock, Pullen, and Perry picturing him as an idyllic, humble, and professional gentlemen who represented the best of Federal officers. This is countered by more modern writers, such as Longacre, Hillyard, and Cuddy, understanding that 8 Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 100; Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 118. 9 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 4. 10 Cuddy, "Blood and Fire", 2. 4 Chamberlain was by no means perfect, and his flaws should be investigated as much as his successes. Chamberlain's life and legacy is extremely important because it effects how we remember him and his actions during the Civil War. Popular history tells us of Chamberlain's battlefield heroics and of his gentlemanly manner both in and out of battle. Yet, what has not been compiled popularly is the reality of his life, and the memory associated with it. Growing up in Maine, learning about Chamberlain and his regiment was common, mainly as a high point in Maine's history. However, it is increasingly important to recognize who our leaders and heroes were in their lives and hold them accountable for both the good and bad things they did over the course of their lives. Throughout the research, Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain was viewed in high regard by both his adversaries and peers during the Civil War, as well as in his post-war politics, continuing into today's popular history. Yet, there are differing opinions that emerge over time regarding whether his political skills were as impressive as portrayed as well as how multiple personal issues plagued him and his ability to execute the offices bestowed upon him. *** Joshua Chamberlain came from a respected family in Brewer, Maine, outside of Bangor. In the Bangor area, and later Brunswick, Chamberlain and his relatives were regarded as model citizens who held dear to principles of toughness, work ethic, and democratic values.11 He was raised with these morals and sought after them in his personal and professional life. Concepts of honesty and integrity became trademarks of the family, with his parents expecting those attributes from the Chamberlain children.12 Educated in religion at the Bangor Seminary as well 11 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 57; Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 16. 12 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 57. 5 as traditionally at Bowdoin, he garnered a reputation as an astute academic who was a stickler for the rules and lived by a code of honor.13 Despite his found success in the classroom, Chamberlain had always fancied a military lifestyle, devoting one term of school at the Whiting Military Academy in 1843, as well as participating in several musters with the Maine Militia before entering service in the Civil War.14 Soon after his schooling, Chamberlain accepted a position as a professor at his alma mater, Bowdoin College. He influenced and instructed students on rhetoric and language prior to the war, even writing recommendations and using his political sway to help students gain commissions and enlistments.15 Eventually, his longing to serve coincided with the nation's necessity for leadership. Joshua Chamberlain's contributions to the preservation of the Union are undoubted, yet the perception of him by peers before and in the early years of the conflict indicate dissenting opinions from his popular reference as a revered leader by all. With the nation at war, Chamberlain's desire to serve increased daily as students graduated, or dropped their academics, and enlisted to serve the Union. In envy, Chamberlain utilized his familial and academic connections to pen a letter to the Governor of Maine, Israel Washburn. In this letter he states, "I have always been interested in military matters, and what I do not know in that line I know how to learn", pleading with the governor to allow a man with no military background or training a chance to command.16 Having claimed to be taking sabbatical in Europe, his colleagues detested his notion to leave Bowdoin and sent letters to the Governor urging him to not grant Chamberlain a commission declaring him to be "'no fighter, but only a mild-mannered common student'", "'nothing at all'", and "'good for nothing'".17 Evidently, despite he and his family's 13 Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 20, 25-26. 14 Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 18, 53. 15 Nespitt, Through Blood & Fire, 17. 16 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Nespitt, Through Blood & Fire, 9. 17 Colleagues at Bowdoin, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 11. 6 reputation throughout Maine, some harbored public doubts about his ability to lead men into battle, mainly because he was thought to be needed more in his role as a Professor at Bowdoin than in the army by some. Contrarily, there were others who supported Chamberlain's military ambitions full-heartedly. Brunswick's reputable physician, Dr. John D. Lincoln, wrote on Chamberlain's behalf, declaring him to be "'as capable of commanding… as any man out of… West Point" and that the enlisted men would surely "'rally around his standard as they would around a hero.'"18 It wasn't just family friends who supported Chamberlain, local newspapers deemed him "a capable and efficient officer" both fit for battle and the lieutenant colonelcy of the 20th Maine.19 The political sway of the his physician as well as the admirability of local press convinced Governor Washburn to grant Chamberlain's commission, yet opting instead to place West Point educated Adelbert Ames of Rockland as commander of the unit due to Chamberlain's lack of field experience and general military knowledge.20 Although there was noted dissent regarding his commission, his soldiers and fellow officers attest to his leadership attributes both under fire and while encamped. In accordance with what Dr. Lincoln wrote to Governor Washburn, he was commended by his troops as being "idolized" within the unit for his stature and leadership, unlike Ames who was viewed as tyrannical and cruel to his men.21 The men of the 20th Maine were driven towards Chamberlain's sympathetic, more egalitarian leadership style, as Ames gave his men no respect believing that military hierarchy should be placed above all else. The men of the unit rejected this, as in Maine 18 Lincoln, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 11-12. 19 "Letter from the State Capitol," Portland Daily Press. 20 Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 55. 21 Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 77. 7 they and their commander stood evenly on the social scale.22 Colonel Ames was detested for his constant drill and disrespect for his men, being proclaimed by his soldiers as a "'savage" whose "'men would surely shoot him'" when drawn into battle.23 Ames was blissfully unaware of these thoughts, but Chamberlain relished his public perception and continued to care deeply about his men and by extension his image. By default, the volunteers fell on Chamberlain for support and assurance, as they distrusted their Colonel. Chamberlain proved himself militarily at Fredericksburg, and most notably Gettysburg, as a great military officer and tactician. Although his actions are known and renowned, the perspective of him by others during battle is paramount to understanding how he was perceived. For example, over the course of the war Colonel Ames forced many of his regiment's officers to resign due to poor performance and lack of leadership, yet he referred to Chamberlain as his "'best officer'" who led from the front and modeled honor and bravery for his unit.24 Soldiers testified to an instance where his academic and military intelligence united to deceive the enemy by pretending to be a Confederate under the cover of darkness, fooling the enemy into believing the Union line was far away.25 They also pronounced his leadership as something that should be exemplified, as he refused to order his men into unnecessary danger and would not give them orders he would not execute himself.26 This praise was not solely from his soldiers, but other officers from around the army. The commanding general of the Fifth Corps, General Sykes, congratulated him after Gettysburg by saying that the actions of the 20th Maine, and Chamberlain's leadership thereof, were the most 22 Loski, Chamberlains of Brewer, 15. 23 Thomas Chamberlain, as quoted in Loski, Chamberlains of Brewer, 15. 24 Ames, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 105. 25 Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 57. 26 Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 80; Trulock, Hands of Providence, 151. 8 important to occur during the battle and that if Little Round Top was lost so was the Union cause.27 His direct superior, Colonel Rice, declared "'your gallantry was magnificent, and your coolness and skill saved us.'" indicating a consensus amongst all involved that Chamberlain's actions were valiant and noble placing him amongst the army's most superb officers.28 His subordinates and supervisors agreed that Chamberlain was an exceptional officer, which is something to note considering some officers, like General Thomas, were liked by their men and hated by their leaders. While it is not surprising that comrades of Chamberlain praised him, the reactions and testimonies of his enemies are important as well. Colonel William Oates was the commander of the opposing 15th Alabama at Little Round Top, and remarkably only had good things to say about Chamberlain. Oates stated that the decisiveness taken by the 20th Maine made them the hardest fighting unit he had ever seen, and that their "'gallant Colonel'" possessed exorbitant amounts of "'skill and… great bravery'" that saved the Union from defeat.29 Another anonymous soldier recollected on how, during Little Round Top, he had a clear line of sight on Chamberlain, yet felt a strong feeling not to fire upon him. He adhered to this feeling, and later expressed how glad he was that he hadn't killed him in a letter to Chamberlain.30 However, it was not only units involved in direct conflict against Chamberlain that respected him. During the surrender at Appomattox, Confederate Major General John B. Gordon stated that the officer from Maine was "'one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal army'" because of the respect Chamberlain had bestowed upon the surrendering forces.31 Instead of 27 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 155. 28 Rice, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 155; Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 271. 29 Oates, as quoted in Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 128. 30 Pullen, Twentieth Maine, 122. 31 Gordon, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 305. 9 humiliating the men as they laid down their weapons, Chamberlain ensured that they were treated fairly, yet still making it known who the victor was. In postwar years, editions of the Confederate Veteran painted Chamberlain in a similar fashion. They tell of how brilliant he and his unit were in battle, over 35 years after the end of hostilities.32 The magazine makes it known how great of a leader Confederate soldiers believed he was. In fact, he is cited as representing the Federal Army in 1913 at a monument dedication in Chattanooga, Tennessee. This reconciliatory monument represented the peace between the states by inscribing the names of both Confederate and Federal war dead. Furthermore, Chamberlain attended as a "distinguished soldier" and gentlemen in the eyes of former Confederates.33 It is common for friendly forces to recognize the brilliance of successful military actions; yet surprising that enemy combatants also revered Chamberlain and his actions despite their catastrophic impact on the Confederate war effort. Chamberlain is remembered after the war for his accolades as a representative of Maine while pursuing political aspirations and maintaining public appearances, yet his support never faltered, and he remained generally well respected despite familial disputes and marital issues that troubled his private life. Politically savvy since his days as a professor, Chamberlain made the jump from wartime commander to state executive in a matter of years after the conclusion of hostilities. An indication of his popularity with the people of Maine, he was elected with the largest majority of any gubernatorial candidate in his first election. He ran on the promise to ratify the 14th and 15th amendments, all while ensuring the former Confederacy paid for their sins while earning their right of federal representation. 34 32 "About a Distinguished Southern Family," Confederate Veteran. 33 "Herbert Head of Peace Memorial", Confederate Veteran. 34 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 337. 10 Chamberlain desired "'suspension of certain privileges'" and "'certain rights'" for former Confederates, of which he believed had been relinquished by waging war. 35 He appealed to Congress, arguing that war is not a game, therefore the losers should be held accountable for their transgressions. He was known for a conservative streak compared to other Republicans, which itself angered those radicals in Maine politics. For example, he publicly argued against allowing suffrage to freedmen, claiming it to be too much of a change too quickly.36 He also supported Maine's conservative senator in voting against the impeachment of Andrew Jackson, an obvious minority opinion in fiercely liberal Republican politics. 37 He was never a practical politician, but his neglect of party viewpoints disgruntled leaders within Republican forums. This was different from other reconstruction leaders, as many focused-on reconciliation instead of punishment and often sided with the powerful postwar party. Although popular among the citizens of the state, he was unprepared for the life of a politician. In essence, he was not prepared for dissenting opinion, and outright disregard for his point of view at times, as he was at this point used to military reverence for the commanders orders. He fought with the legislature on several issues, mainly temperance and the legality of capital punishment in the state, but also found common ground and gained support from both parties.38 Previous legislations had proposed and supported temperance committees that oversaw laws regulating alcohol use and distribution. They established "special police", which Chamberlain declared an unconstitutional infringement on the rights of Mainers.39 He wrote to the legislature describing his dissatisfaction regarding this bill yet felt it his duty as executive to 35 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 338. 36 Longacre, The Soldier and the Man, 264. 37 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 338. 38 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 338. 39 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 338; Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 25. 11 sign it nevertheless due to its success in the legislature.40 He angered many within the state with his conduct regarding this issue, refusing to attend temperance meetings and denying them public forums. Chamberlain took his position as governor quite literally, as is evident by his signing of bills he disagreed with instead of vetoing them. He believed it was his, and the government of Maine's, responsibility to enact and therefore enforce law. By extension, he brought this same fervor to the capital punishment debate saying that laws should either change or be enforced. He is quoted saying, "'If we cannot make our practice conform to our law, [we must] make our law agree with our practice'".41 This debate had been raging far before Chamberlain was Governor, with his predecessors simply tabling execution authorizations as it was state law the Governor had to authorize each death with a signature. Furthermore, he used his executive power to commute sentences, but insisted on carrying out many of them considering it, again, his elected duty.42 He confided in his mother that "'many are bitter on me about capital punishment but it does not disturb me in the least'", continuing to describe that some had sent threatening letters in response to his ordering of the executions. 43 He responded calmly "'The poor fool for whomever thinks he can scare me… is mistaken… I do not have a particle of fear in me of anything that walks or flies,'" assuring his mother of his safety.44 His administration was not without success, as garnered support on several important issues. Chamberlain's exoneration of Civil War veterans with pardons received support from both parties, and the people as well.45 Furthermore, the establishment of the Maine's agriculture 40 Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 79; Smith, Fanny and Joshua, 197. 41 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 339. 42 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 339. 43 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 75. 44 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 75. 45 Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 71. 12 academy, the predecessor of the University of Maine, under his administration again excited the people and both political parties.46 This school created another avenue of education for Maine's youth, one not affiliated directly with the little ivy elite of Bowdoin, Bates, and Colby Colleges. Despite his immense popularity, and the fact that both parties supported him in a fifth term, Mainers typically regarded him as an ineffective politician.47 Today, he is not remembered for his political career or exploits, with historians and everyday people recognizing him for his war exploits. Unbeknownst to the public, while Chamberlain pursued political and public aspirations, his family was disintegrating. Not only did he and Fannie have marital issues, but his siblings all experienced turmoil that was directly and indirectly caused by the patriarch's endeavors. During the war, it was known that Fannie and Chamberlain were often at odds regarding their marriage and the direction of their lives. While she begrudgingly supported her husband's military endeavors, she was often distant during the war and hoped that when he returned to Maine he would settle down and make time for her.48 According to letters between the two, it appears that Fannie would often neglect to return letters to Chamberlain, saying he had sent seven letters by October of 1862 compared to receiving only two from his wife.49 This pattern continues throughout the war with Chamberlain asking "'Where are you… I do not hear from you all this long while?. It is more than a month that I have heard a word from you?'".50 Fannie and Chamberlain's marriage was strained by the distance and lack of communication during the war, yet his issues would also follow him into his post-war career. 46 Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 25. 47 Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 25. 48 Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 333. 49 Nespitt, Through Blood & Fire, 23. 50 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Desjardin, Life in Letters, 184. 13 Fannie understood how tenaciously ambitious her husband was. He was a man of perception, and it came to no surprise to her that he accepted the Republican nomination and subsequent election as governor. Unlike her support during the war, Fannie made it clear she did not and would not encourage him in this undertaking, as she felt neglected as a wife.51 She felt so strongly about this, she refused to accompany her husband in Augusta, instead opting to stay in Brunswick. He missed her dearly and wanted to share his experience as governor with her pleading, "'we are getting rather lonesome without you…'" while encouraging her to accompany him saying "'we are having some quite pleasant times, only you are wanting to complete our happiness.'"52 Still, despite his proposed love and longing for his wife, their marriage continued to decline throughout his term to the point of abuse accusations and threats of divorce. Fannie, extremely unhappy with her marriage by 1868, released public statements alleging physical and mental abuse during their marriage. Chamberlain's response was chilling, saying "'if it were not you… I should make quick work of these calumniaters…'".53 Seeming more concerned with his public image than his marriage or the state of his wife, he says his enemies will "'ruin'" him when they catch hold of the allegations.54 Chamberlain scolded her like a child, warning her of the perils that faced widows in their society, as well as the unsought humiliation a separation would bring for himself and their families.55 These marital issues continued for the remainder of their lives, with Chamberlain confused on how or why his wife remained so disappointed in their union. They came to a mutual agreement, that they would remain married to preserve public respect for themselves and their family while living separately 51 Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 334. 52 Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 334; Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 59. 53 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Smith, Fanny and Joshua, 195. 54 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Smith, Fanny and Joshua, 195. 55 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 341. 14 for much of the remainder of their lives.56 These public statements were used as fodder by his enemies but amounted to make little difference as Chamberlain was subsequently reelected. Despite this, it is important to understand these accusations to therefore appreciate Chamberlain holistically, and acknowledge their absence in popular history. During the war, Joshua's brother Tom fought alongside Chamberlain in the 20th Maine while the remaining Chamberlains awaited the return of their soldiers. Sarah, their sister, continued life at home while John, being chronically ill, served alongside his brothers as a Chaplain. Upon returning home, John became increasingly sick. Despite the ailments of his brother, Chamberlain ran and was elected for governor whilst his wife spent considerable time caring for John.57 Tom, meanwhile, was lost after his wartime service. He lived and worked in New York for a time, yet never found anything worthwhile. Soon thereafter, John died and Governor Chamberlain left his Tom to fend for himself, stranding him both financially and emotionally as Tom had come to rely on the hospitality of John in Chamberlain's absence.58 Later in life he did the same, as Tom returned to Maine in 1889 after failed pursuits in Florida. Chamberlain, now retired, refused to help him as he had his own financial problems. Tom, neglected to attend any reunions of the 20th Maine, therefore allowing his brother to obtain the spotlight.59 Upon Tom's death, Chamberlain retained the same mindset regarding his siblings. Despite this, Tom never resented his brother, in fact encouraging and supporting him until the day of his death.60 Joshua Chamberlain made himself a priority throughout his life, doing so by routinely disregarding the needs of his loved ones in exchange for his own. This is 56 Perry, Conceived in Liberty, 339. 57 Loski, Chamberlains of Brewer, 78. 58 Loski, Chamberlains of Brewer, 82. 59 Loski, Chamberlains of Brewer, 86. 60 Loski, Chamberlains of Brewer, 88. 15 another unknown aspect of Chamberlain's life, and something that he and popular historians do not want the public to see, as it would taint his image as a saintly officer and leader. Omitted from almost every contemporary textbook or lesson regarding Joshua Chamberlain is the 1880 Maine Gubernatorial crisis, termed the 'Count-Out Crisis'. Essentially, elected Democrat Governor Alonzo Garcelon sought reelection in 1879 against two opponents, Daniel F. Davis of the Republican Party and Joseph L. Smith of the Greenbacks Party. With the vote split between three candidates, 49.6% of the votes went to Davis with the remainder split between Garcelon and Smith. The Maine Constitution declared that without over 50% of the votes, no winner could be announced, and the legislature must elect the governor.61 Facing a Republican majority in the legislature, Garcelon manipulated the votes by casting aside Republican votes as invalid, causing the Supreme Court of Maine to declare his actions unconstitutional and award the governorship to Davis. Garcelon refused to yield his office and began appointing Democrat and Greenback Representatives and Senators while declaring himself the rightful governor. All sides began to mobilize paramilitary forces, forcing then Commander of the Maine Militia, Joshua Chamberlain, to intervene.62 Called upon by leaders of the elected legislature, Chamberlain swiftly took control of the government by using civilian police to oust Garcelon's staff and council before alterations could be made to the legitimate election results.63 Controlling the state as a military dictator, Chamberlain now faced the daunting task of relinquishing power to one of the three factions, retaining it for himself, or allowing the courts to decide. He was urged from all sides, with many pleading him to retain the democratic institutions in place.64 Chamberlain confides his great 61 Desjardin, Life in Letters, 239; Foley, Ballot Battles, 164. 62 Foley, Ballot Battles, 165-167. 63 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 356. 64 Desjardin, Life in Letters, 242. 16 responsibility in Fannie saying "'There is… No Governor, no legislature… I have been obliged to assume the defense… of the state… I am determined that Maine shall not become a Southern American State'".65 He is interpreted as referencing his Confederate counterparts and the lawlessness he associated with their secession and subsequent reintegration into the Union, as well as nations literally situated on the South American continent that were notable monarchies and dictatorships. Chamberlain's outlook on his role in this matter is that of a noble hero, something that surely inflated his ego as well as gave him a needed break from what he deemed to be a morbidly boring life as a civilian. Committed to solving the issue in a non-partisan and equitable manner, Chamberlain managed to enrage almost everyone in Augusta during his occupation. He was offered appointments as senator by each side, to which he adamantly refused stating it was the sole responsibility of the courts to decide the outcome.66 He was discouraged that his own party had amounted military forces and bribed him, and that they and the Democratic camp called him a traitor and usurper who abused his office as Commander of the Militia by intervening.67 Both sides plotted against him, threatened to kill or kidnap him, yet he stayed true to his goal of "'keep[ing] the peace'" and allowing laws to be executed rightfully.68 A local paper describes the scene as dire, where all of the power of the state was vested into Chamberlain until matters could be resolved.69 It was also cautionary, asking citizens to stay calm and avoid the capital, as infantry from Gardiner had been given authority to fire upon civilians or police should they act malicious.70 In the end, he gracefully guided Maine through twelve days of political and social 65 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Goulka, Grand Old Maine of Maine, 138. 66 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 357. 67 Trulock, Hands of Providence, 357. 68 Joshua Chamberlain, as quoted in Trulock, Hands of Providence, 359. 69 "Chamberlain Holds the Helm," Daily Kennebec Journal. 70 "Chamberlain Holds the Helm," Daily Kennebec Journal. 17 unrest, ultimately allowing the court to empower the duly elected legislature to establish Davis as Governor. While Chamberlain fought to maintain his public image though marital and political disputes, today's scholars have begun to delve into his life and analyze his actions. Military writers, for example, annotate analysis his military exploits without necessarily focusing on other aspects of his life. By extension, these writers represent the popular memory of Chamberlain today. Military doctrine displays Chamberlain as the best and brightest military leader of the Civil War, yet writers like Hillyard, Cuddy, and Foley discuss his leadership style progression and whether he deserves the high pedestal he is placed in. Fred Hillyard points out in his paper that the Army uses Joshua Chamberlain as an example of leadership to be emulated, saying that the Army claims responsibility in developing leaders in his image through their education pipelines.71 Hillyard, in the 1980's, questions whether or not this selection is plausible, stating that the notion of military education is lost using Chamberlain as an example as he was schooled at a liberal arts college and volunteered for his commission without any prior military education.72 Hillyard also asserts that although the individual actions of Little Round Top are admirable, the tactics and leadership of the Civil War cannot be adequately translated to modern conflicts. He argues that "students may not relate to the muskets, bayonets, [and] bugle calls… when their thoughts are normally of sophisticated weapons systems… [and] the modern battlefield".73 Moreover, Hillyard continues to question the Army's position regarding Chamberlain, asking if his actions, although notable, were necessarily different from military actions of his time. 71 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 3. 72 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 3. 73 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 6. 18 Hillyard equates Chamberlain's war heroics to his personality, luck, and the fact that the pressure of the situation helped shape him into a military genius. Chamberlain's temperament and personal awareness were key to his success at Gettysburg, in that he was able to learn and adapt to the given situation.74 Hillyard also contributes Chamberlain's willingness to share in the suffering of his men as a motivator for them to follow his lead in battle.75 Unequivocally agreeing that his actions were great, he remains unconvinced that Chamberlain was a special instance of leadership. He determines that when people of character are placed in precarious situations, they usually will make consequential decisions.76 He concludes that Chamberlain is a great example of leadership, one that people can look to and learn from, but is not convinced he is the best example that the military should look toward. This exemplifies that, even in the 1980's, scholars viewpoints of him were changing as a holistic image of Chamberlain and his leadership attributes were being developed. In his paper, John Cuddy focuses on Chamberlain's leadership development over time, and how he became a symbol of leadership for the military and the public. Interestingly, Cuddy contradicts Hillyard by saying that his actions during battle were not a result of him being an exemplary human being, instead attributing his bravery to his personality, personal interactions with different role models, as well as his education and professorship at Bowdoin.77 These characteristics, Cuddy argues, projected him to success in leadership roles, and the evaluation of them and him can help others in the future. He also asserts that Chamberlain had an inert sense of entitlement for esteem and prestige citing his pleas to Senator Morrill regarding his permanent appointment to Major General following the war.78 Despite his ego, he was outwardly concerned 74 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 6. 75 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 8. 76 Hillyard, "Force Multiplier", 5. 77 Cuddy, "Blood and Fire", 4-5. 78 Cuddy, "Blood and Fire", 6. 19 for the welfare of his troops, yet also garnered the need for respect and order within his unit. He was sympathetic to his men but was also strict when called to do so. Cuddy attributes these and other personality traits to his success militarily and asks future students to analyze his self-need for adventure and validation as an example of poor leadership. Chamberlain's combination of humbleness regarding his troops and desire to prove himself made him daring yet conscious enough to lead gracefully in times of stress. Cuddy also determines that Chamberlain is an example of what good role models can do for leadership development, citing his boyhood idols as well as military leaders. Cuddy establishes that Chamberlain's upbringing was filled with military heroes, like his father and grandfather, of whom he always wanted to emulate.79 His childhood was filled with menial labor, hard lessons, and eventual academic prowess. Chamberlain was an advocate for hard work before the war and took these ideals with him into service. Never receiving formal military training, he yearned to prove himself in battle saying "'Soldiering in a time of peace is almost as much against my grain as being a peace man in time of war'" when asked prior to the war about militia service.80 His upbringing shaped his character, which Cuddy argues helped shape him into an effective military leader. Interestingly, we see Foley stray from the commonality of the other military writers, as he seems to agree with popular historians that Chamberlain was a "honorable" and "inspiring" man who answered his nation's call when needed.81 Foley neglects to mention his development as a leader, instead citing sources that clearly picture him as a leader born for greatness. He cites a plethora of Chamberlain's victories, both on and off the field of battle. These include early 79 Cuddy, "Blood and Fire", 15. 80 Chamberlain, as quoted in Cuddy, "Blood and Fire", 7. 81 Foley, "Citizen Warrior", 8. 20 military accomplishments, as well as earning the trust of his men.82 Foley concludes that Chamberlain was simply a military anomaly, crediting in part his successes to "'good genes'".83 He states that Chamberlain's intellectual prowess and desire for challenge fueled his military success, completely disregarding his development as a leader and person throughout his life.84 His lackluster analysis of Chamberlain's life and development is a discredit to leadership development of future military officers, as his paper clearly misinforms the reader by asserting that Chamberlain was a special instance of innate leadership capability. Chamberlain's preeminence is further celebrated today through monuments erected in his name and image. Intriguingly, these monuments were placed far after the Colonel's death in 1914. The first monument was raised on Veteran's Day, 1997, in Brewer near the Chamberlain home. 85 This monument is placed in a public park that is itself a replica of Little Round Top as well as an homage to the Underground Railroad. Named after Chamberlain, it serves to commemorate his battlefield heroics and those of the Hollyoke House that was an actual part of the railroad.86 It is interesting, noting Chamberlain's unfavorable opinions on voting rights for freedmen, that a memorial to him and his unit are placed at an extremely interesting and important historical site in terms of the Underground Railroad, of which Chamberlain was not involved. Yet, the contributions of the Holyoke Family are overshadowed by Joshua Chamberlain's legacy. It's date of completion, as well as location, are significant 82 Foley, "Citizen Warrior", 16. 83 Foley, "Citizen Warrior", 30. 84 Foley, "Citizen Warrior", 29. 85 Maine Civil War Monuments, "Brewer," https://www.maine.gov/civilwar/monuments/brewerchamberlainpark.html [accessed 3 November 2021]. 86 Maine Civil War Monuments, "Brewer," https://www.maine.gov/civilwar/monuments/brewerchamberlainpark.html [accessed 3 November 2021]. Chamberlain Park Statue, Brewer, Maine 21 Chamberlain Statue, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine Maine National Guard Headquarters, Augusta, Maine Chamberlain Post Office, Chamberlain, Maine because it shows that his popularity continued to grow despite his actions having taken place more than 130 years before the monument was placed. The revival of Chamberlain and his exploits in the 1990's can also be explained by he and his unit's stardom in later media. Additionally, Chamberlain retains a second monument in Brunswick on the campus of Bowdoin College. Dedicated in 2003, it is not surprising that the college wanted to commemorate its most notable alumni.87 Yet, this is significant given that the school and its faculty denied his initial requests to serve and slandered him to retain him as a professor. Again, it is notable that almost one hundred years after his death, Bowdoin utilizes the popularity and prestige of Chamberlain's name and likeness to honor him on their campus. Both monuments indicate that Chamberlain's popular memory is alive and thriving in Maine and will be for the foreseeable future. They also indicate that his remembrance has grown in recent years, as these monuments were dedicated in the last twenty-five years. In addition to monuments, his memory lives through his posthumous appointment as the namesake of the Maine National Guard Headquarters in Augusta, dedicated in 2018, as well as an eponymous village in my hometown established sometime in the late 19th century. His legacy is an integral part of Maine's military and political lineage as identified through his idolization by local and state organizations. 87 Maine Civil War Monuments, "Brunswick," https://www.maine.gov/civilwar/monuments/brunswickchamberlain.html [accessed 3 November 2021]. 22 It would be absurd to diminish Joshua Chamberlain's importance to the Civil War and the Battle of Gettysburg. His decisive military actions and the courage of his unit earn him the distinction as a great officer in the history of our military. The memory displayed by both the northern and southern soldiery indicates just this and exemplifies his gentlemanly traits that are often noted by popular historians and the public. Yet, these examples do not demonstrate the holistic view of who Chamberlain was during his time on earth, both during and after his service in the war. While he was respected for his gallantry in battle by almost all, historians have regularly neglected or diminished his shortcomings in life. Understanding the totality of historically significant people's life is important because we cannot afford to remember people in a single-faceted sense. When looking back on the past, the public deserve to know the good and the bad about the people they are supposed to admire. A one-dimensional viewpoint on any figure has no benefit except to paint a false reality, one that hides reality in exchange for a rose-colored fallacy. Instead, we should be yearning to investigate the lives of our heroes to learn from both their mistakes and accomplishments. In essence, there is more to learn from the mistakes of others than from their successes. Joshua Chamberlain has rightfully been admired for his heroics in battle, yet his private life seemed secluded, isolated, and rarely discussed. Yet, as of late, writers have begun to acknowledge that the hero of Little Round Top was indeed human, with his own demons that menaced him throughout his life. Accusations of abuse, familial abandonment, and general neglect of those he loved has begun to threaten Chamberlain's legacy. Given these flaws and misdeeds being exhumed, will his reputation, for which he fought vehemently to maintain, be tainted or amended in the coming years? Will the lessons taught in Maine schools feature his military feats, as well as his personal shortcomings? This is a question for historians, both 23 professional and amateur, to answer. We hold the keys to truth through research and analysis, and despite the man's noted contributions to our nation, we also owe a debt to future generations to lay out the entirety of Chamberlain's story, and let our children decide the fate of Maine's famed Colonel. 24 Annotated Bibliography Cunningham, S.A. "About a Distinguished Southern Family," Confederate Veteran, 1900. This edition of the Confederate Veteran discusses an encounter between a former Confederate and Gen. Chamberlain years after the war, discussing what happened on the Gettysburg battlefield. The disagreement the two had regarding it, as well as the adjectives used to describe Chamberlain, are interesting and are noted in the paper. "Chamberlain holds the Helm," Daily Kennebec Journal, January 12, 1880. This news article discusses the Maine gubernatorial crisis in 1880 from their point of view. The article talks about Chamberlain being essentially inserted as a military governor, and the fear in the community regarding this. It is used to support research done in other sources. Chamberlain, Joshua. The Passing of the Armies: An Account of the Final Campaign of the Army of the Potomac, Based Upon Personal Reminiscences of the Fifth Army Corps. Lincoln and London, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. Chamberlain's own autobiography is interesting because it was written out of necessity for money. It describes his own experiences of the war and why he believed certain instances occur. This is fascinating because others have differing accounts than he. I did not cite it in the paper, but it is listed in the bibliography. Cuddy, John F. "Training Through Blood and Fire: The Leadership Development of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain." Air Command and Staff College (2015): 2-37. Major Cuddy's essay focuses on Chamberlain's progression as a military leader throughout the war. He states that by modern standards he was a great strategist and soldier yet did not learn at an academy or college. Cuddy advocates for the experiential learning that affected Chamberlain, which he says made him into a great officer. It is used as support for the changing of thought regarding Chamberlain as of late. Desjardin, Thomas A, ed. Joshua L. Chamberlain: A life in Letters: The Previously unpublished letters of a great leader of the Civil War. Harrisburg, PA: National Civil War Museum, 2012. This collection of letters from Chamberlain depicts his personal feeling throughout the war, his gubernatorial years, when he was President of Bowdoin, and throughout his life with his family and colleagues. These primary sources were used when discussing his marital issues, as well as personal feelings during his post-war life. 25 Desjardin, Thomas A. Stand Firm Ye Boys from Maine: The 20th Maine and the Gettysburg Campaign. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995. Desjardin's work focuses exclusively on the Battle of Gettysburg and the actions taken on Little Round Top by the 20th Maine. Most of this book regards the tactics of the battle, but throughout there are personal quotes from soldiers that will be useful, as well as the final two chapters that deal with the immediate memory of the 'Count-on Crisis' and how that affected the remainder of his life. I did not cite this in the paper, but did research it. Foley, Edward B. Ballot Battles; The History of Disputed Elections in the United States. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, 2016. This book has a chapter devoted to the Maine gubernatorial crisis, which was very hard to find research on. I used this source to provide context on the event and why it occurred, while highlighting the importance of Chamberlain's resulting actions. Foley, Chris M. "Citizen Warrior; Major General Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain; A Study in Command." USMC Command and Staff College (2012): 8-32. Foley offers a Marine Corps investigation into Chamberlain, who he was as a person, and his leadership characteristics. Like the other officers' papers on Chamberlain, he agrees that the man was a military genius but tends to agree with Trulock and Pullen that Chamberlain's knowledge was an anomaly. Goulka, Jeremiah E, ed. The Grand Old Man of Maine: Selected Letters of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain 1865-1914. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 2004. Goulka's collection of letters fits well with the subject of memory because these letters go from during the war until his death. They discuss in depth his time as governor and the issues regarding his family. They are used to support the secondary source work regarding his life and the events that occurred during it. "Herbert Head of Peace Memorial" Confederate Veteran, 1913. The source is another Confederate viewpoint on the Colonel of the 20th Maine. This, like many, portrays him in a positive light. It is regarding a monument displaying peace between belligerents in Chattanooga, Tennessee. This primary source shows an example of how Confederates and Federal troops viewed him during his life. Hillyard, Fred. "Leadership as a Force Multiplier: The Joshua L. Chamberlain Example." US Army War College (1983): 1-29. This essay is written by an Army officer at the War College. LTC Hillyard discusses Colonel Chamberlain's leadership attributes and if he deserves the high stature he has and still is placed in within the Army. He focuses on how Chamberlain was not a trained soldier, but instead an avid learner who used his ability to absorb knowledge from other professional soldiers. Cuddy's piece on the same subject will support this, and Hillyard's 26 article will be used to further demonstrate Chamberlain's reverence amongst the modern military and changing ideals today. "Indignation in Maine" New York Tribune, December 20, 1879. The New York Tribune article discusses again the situation in 1880 in Maine, but from the outside viewpoint of New Yorkers. It is more of how outsiders view the situation instead of Mainers. "Letter from the State Capital" The Portland Daily Press, August 9, 1862. In my research, this is the first instance I could find discussing then Lt Col Chamberlain and his appointment to the newly designated 20th Maine. It states who the officers and NCOs will be within the unit. It describes Chamberlain in a good light, before he was even in combat, which is important to the research. Maine Civil War Monuments "Brewer." https://www.maine.gov/civilwar/monuments/brewerchamberlainpark.html [accessed 3 November 2021]. This is the State of Maine website that documents all the monuments within the state. It gives the relevant information regarding when the monument was placed and by whom. I also will include personal photographs of the site in the final Draft. Maine Civil War Monuments. "Brunswick." https://www.maine.gov/civilwar/monuments/brunswickchamberlain.html [accessed 3 November 2021]. This is like the prior source, simply a different monument. They serve the same purpose and this one will have a personal photograph as well. Nespitt, Mark, ed. Through Blood & Fire: Selected Civil War Papers of Major General Joshua Chamberlain. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1996. This source will add to primary source collection off Chamberlain through letters but only includes works from 1862-1865. They will be used to express his personal feelings during the war regarding his service, his family, and hopefully any issues within his organization. It is used as supporting documents regarding how he was viewed in his time versus how he is remembered. New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center. "140th New York Infantry Regiment's Monument at Gettysburg." https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit-history/infantry-2/140th-infantry-regiment/monument-gettysburg [accessed 1 November 2021.] The site depicts the 140th New York Infantry's monument at Gettysburg, which is a statement itself about the men who fought with the unit. It stands as a simple memorial to those who died, including the regimental commander. 27 New York State Military Museum and Veterans Research Center. "44th New York Infantry Regiment's Monument." https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/unit-history/infantry/44th-infantry-regiment/monument-gettysburg [accessed 1 November 2021.] This huge castle is dedicated to the fighting men of the 44th New York, who were also alongside the 20th Maine at Little Round Top. It is a superfluous monument, given the fact their role in the battle was overlooked by the heroics of Chamberlain and his men. It has a lengthy inscription, unlike the 44th's, which describes what they did during the battle and how many perished. Both these sources will be used to show that some friendly soldiers harbored at least a little bit of jealousy and resentment for Chamberlain's popularity and recognition when they received little to none. Longacre, Edward G. Joshua Chamberlain: The Soldier and The Man. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1999. This book was one of the more helpful sources. It goes into who Chamberlain was as both a soldier and normal person, which my paper discovers through memory. This source helped me express to the reader who Chamberlain really was and how that relates to his popular portrayal. Also, it is one of the only sources that really questions Chamberlain and asks tough questions of his character and actions. Loski, Diana H. The Chamberlains of Brewer. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1998. Loski's book primarily confers how the entire Chamberlain family came to be, and their relevance throughout history. It not only discusses Joshua and Fanny, but also his brother Tom, his sister, other extended family, and of course his parents. I use it to discuss his familial life, mainly regarding how he abandoned them routinely. Norton, Oliver W. The Attack and Defense of Little Round Top, Gettysburg, July 2, 1863. New York, NY: The Neale Publishing Company, 1913. Norton's piece, while older, gives a lot of valuable insight into the battle itself. While this is important to compare thinking from the past to present, there are other sources that do a better job. I do not cite it in the paper Perry, Mark. Conceived in Liberty: Joshua Chamberlain, William Oates, and the American Civil War. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin Books Limited, 1997. This is one of the more credible sources regarding Chamberlain and his memory, as it also discusses his adversary on Little Round Top and their parallels. Through this source, we can see how other officers and officials of the time viewed Chamberlain both during and after the war, and more importantly how his foes viewed him. Also, the book discusses some of his actions after the war, how it affected his personal life, and how others perceived him. This is a good source to use to refer to both how people thought about him but also the reality of his actions. Also, it is a beneficial source to see how adversaries thought of him, specifically William Oates who commanded the regiment that opposed him at Little Round Top. 28 Pullen, John J. The Twentieth Maine: A Volunteer Regiment in the Civil War. Philadelphia, PA: J.B Lippincott & Company, 1957. The book provides instances of how he is/was remembered. Mainly this source quotes Oates, Chamberlain's counterpart, but also Chamberlain's soldiers regarding their leader. Because the point of this paper is to focus on memory, this source will be helpful because it has a lot of points regarding how the people he commanded felt about Chamberlain. Smith, Diane Munroe, ed. Fanny and Joshua: The Enigmatic Lives of Frances Caroline Adams and Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1999. Like the Chamberlains of Brewer source, this book will give greater understanding of the relationship of Chamberlain and his wife. Comparing to other sources, I will see if in fact their relationship was strained and if so why. It is mainly letters between the two, accompanied by brief excerpts describing the times and circumstances of the letters. These sources will help determine if his stately appearance was a public rouse or if he was privately a different man. Trulock, Alice Rains. In the Hands of Providence: Joshua L. Chamberlain and the American Civil War. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Trulock's work is one of the prolific biographies of Joshua Chamberlain but is claimed by writers like Cuddy and Longacre to be one sided and only include the more cheerful instances in his life. Most of the work puts Chamberlain in a good light by designating him as a marvelous leader who was fair and beloved by his troops. Strangely, she does mention some of his more unsavory actions after the war, as well as explaining his resistance in allowing freedmen to vote. I use this source a multitude of times because the author covers almost every instance of Chamberlain's life. United States Department of Defense. "Medal of Honor Monday." https://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/story/Article/2086560/medal-of-honor-monday-army-maj-gen-joshua-chamberlain/ [accessed 3 November 2021]. This DoD article discusses Chamberlain as an astute, gentlemanly officer who was a gallant recipient of the Medal of Honor. While this is true, it again is an example of popular memory regarding Chamberlain. He is viewed only through his singular actions, not by a collection of them. Weart, David. The Military Leader. "Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain- Leadership in Action," https://themilitaryleader.com/leadership-action-chamberlain/ [accessed 3 November 2021]. Weart's online article does the same as the DoD's. It describes Chamberlain in a single faceted manner and neglects all the instances that made him human like everyone else.
Putu Yulita Ayu Werdhaningrum D3 – Business English, Faculty of Languages and Arts, University State of Surabaya, hyoelita@yahoo.co.id Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is a technical services unit that can carry out the promotion and development of SMEs and Human Resources through technical training in the field of management, technology, process, production, standardization, environmental, and information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya has the aim to improve the performance of the technical implementation of various industrial units and crafts as well as developing human resource to support the competitiveness of the global market. In support of all the aim of the UPT, the researchers looked at the role of leadership to participate in the process of developing the performance of the craftsmen. Therefore, researchers are trying to see and understand firsthand how the leadership role to improve the performance of the craftsmen and what the response generated afterwards. Through the process of making this final assignment, the author can know that leadership is very supportive to improve the performance of the craftsmen. And by conducting job training, participated in various exhibitions, and provide counseling and guidance on a variety of crafts has given quite satisfactory results for the craftsmen in preparation to launch a new world in opening a small business and can also be one way to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. Keywords: Leader, Managerial Skill, Craftsmen. Introduction High unemployment in Indonesia, including the city of Surabaya. It then becomes a reference for policy actors seek alternative employment for others to absorb the available labor. Entrepreneurship is one alternative that can provide solutions to these problems. As of 2009, the number of unemployed in Indonesia as many as 3.713 million people, higher than the desired target of government at the level of 2.38 million people (Kompas, 2009). In addition, until 2007, there were 740,206 unemployed college graduates. This proves that the field work in Indonesia is very small while the number of graduates each year continues to grow, Eddy Suryanto Soegoto, 2010. Entrepreneurship in the goods sector is economic artery in big cities like Surabaya. The high increase of population, resulting in the need for goods is also increasing rapidly. The problem becomes more complex due to the time available did not allow the public to be able to do all the priority needs at once. Bids will need items that instantly becomes an option. According Ritonga (2011), unemployment is mainly due to the problem of unskilled labor and skilled. The company prefers candidates who already have the skills or expertise. The issue is very relevant in our country, given the large numbers of unemployed are people who do not have the skills or expertise. The causes of unemployment are very visible from the complaint that the lack of skills in a person. The lack of confidence in one's soul, lack of interest and lack of socializing with others is also very influential in the intensity rising unemployment. It also agrees with Drs. Sudrajad, MM. (2011) who said "Cause Unemployment in Indonesia is the lack of desire to work, lack of skills and have thoughts just want to be an employee." This should be addressed with all efforts possible, because the average company today want and need employees who have the skill and expertise. Strengthening small and medium business sector is one of Indonesia's development policy. SMEs have the ability to survive in times of economic crisis gripping the country. At great effort faltered storm knocked down the financial crisis, the SME sector is able to give breath to the nation's economy. On this basis then arise initiative on craftsmen, to be able to meet those needs, by following the guidance and development by implementing the rules or ordinances of a leader who is really to improve the performance skills of a craftsman and judge it as something that is fairly decent to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, this is the reason why the researcher write about the efforts of a craftsman in business by implementing the rules of a good leader to improve their skills. In this case why the writer discuss this issue in order to make a useful input for all beginner craftsmen in Indonesia in order to become a successful craftsman and can open their own business field and in order to reduce the value of unemployment in Indonesia, especially in Surabaya. In the discussion of this material writer took guidance on UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. Because according to the writer here is one of the features of a good government and the right to develop one's own skills to become a craftsman by implementing the rules of a successful leader as well. And in this case, the craftsmen also want to improve the quality and quantity of a craftsman in Indonesia. And with the application is expected to be more able to produce more young craftsmen who are talented and can create new business field and to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. By conducting training to improve the skills of a person more likely to get jobs than those who do not. This is because companies prefer to hire people with the skills, so do not bother to practice again. And can even be a great opportunity to expand the opening of a new business pitch. This is also one way to overcome the educated unemployment is mostly done by the government, AnneAhira (Social and Cultural Rights, 2012). Based on the research, the objective of the study are : To describe the implementation of leadership role, To implementation of leadership role of the craftsman, To analyze the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role. The researcher hopes this study can give contribution to the student, craftsmen, University, the institution and for the readers. For the student it can be provide new insights about the real world of work to students in the field of trade and industry and can prepare themselves before entering the world of work firsthand. For the Craftsmen to be a reference to become a successful entrepreneur by implementing the rule of a leader. For the University as input to evaluate the Extend to which the curriculum has been implement in accordance with requirements of skilled manpower in the field. For the Institution as a media to open up new business opportunities as an example for students. For the Readers can provide the information needed by the reader. Definition of Leadership Leadership is a person or a leader who can build the subordinates especially in this case is a craftsman to craftsmen to become a more developed and has a broad view of creativity in him. By applying the concepts and meaning of fostering a craftsman can be expected to be a key new birth craftsmen talented and have high creativity. A leader in this regard should be always trying to develop the talents of the craftsmen gradually and regularly which lead to the desired goals or objectives. Leaders and leadership can be approached from different angles (Thoha, 1986:3). Each approach will bear different meanings with other approaches. Leaders and leadership needed by humans due to the advantages and disadvantages possessed by each human being. The leader is a person who has certain skills that can influence their followers to cooperate towards the achievement of predetermined objectives. The ideal leader is a dream for every person, because that's what leaders will bring forward-pullback of an organization, institution, company, state and nation. Surely the soul of a leader must have good soul of leadership that has been described in the above basic concepts and leadership should not be viewed as a facility for control, but meant as a sacrifice that must be carried out as well as possible. Leadership is also not arbitrary to act, but the power to serve and protect and do the fairest. Miftha Thoha in his book Organizational Behavior (1983:255) leader is someone who has the ability to lead, it means having the ability to influence another person or group without regard to the form of reason. Kartini Kartono (1994:33) the leader is a person who has the skills and strengths in particular skills and strengths in one area, so he was able to influence others to jointly carry out certain activities, for the achievement of one or more goals. Concept of Leadership The basic concept of the soul of leadership by Mr. Athoenk's (2010): Leadership is a force that flows in a way that is not known to the leader of the disciples, encouraging his followers to be mobilized on a regular basis to the point that formulated. Working towards goals and achievements provide satisfaction for leaders and followers. Leadership is also coloring and colored by the place, the environment and climate in which it serves. Leadership does not work in an empty room, but the atmosphere created by the various elements. Leadership is always active, it could change in rank, intensity and extent. Leadership works according to the principles, tools and methods are defined and fixed. Leadership Function According to Yuki (1998) the function of leadership is trying to influence and direct the employees to work hard, have high morale and high motivation to achieve organizational goals. This is primarily tied to the function of regulating the relations between individuals or groups within the organization. Craftsmen Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". Craftsmen create great skill in the manual arts. Craftsmen also called creator, which means people who grow or make or create things. The Relationship between Leadership and Craftsmen In this case the role of a leader is also very important and participate in fostering and development by conducting training and exhibitions the work of craftsmen. And may provide a strategy to cultivate the efforts of craftsmen. It is expected that the craftsmen also have the soul of a leader in developing a business. It is also stated by Ari Setiawanan (2011) in his personal blogger states "Leadership is the process of influencing or give examples of leaders to followers in an effort to achieve organizational goals. Natural way to learn leadership is to "do it in the workplace" with practices like apprenticeship in a skilled artist, craftsman, or practitioner. In this connection, the expert is expected as part of its role providing teaching / instruction ". Discussion about leaders and leadership as well as its influence on a craftsman in general explains how to be a good leader, and a style that suits the nature of leadership and what conditions need to be possessed by a good leader. Nevertheless it is still difficult to implement in full, so that in practice only a few leaders are able to perform well and the leadership to bring his followers to the desired state. The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research activities will not regardless of where the data is the raw material of information to provide a specific description of the object of research. Data are facts collected by researchers for the purpose of solving the problem or answer the research questions. Research data can come from a variety of sources collected by using a variety of techniques during the course of the study. Based on the source, research data can be grouped into two types of data qualitative research and quantitative research data. In this research, entitled "The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen? And How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?" so this research used qualitative research. Qualitative data is data that collected by means of a process that saw the object of research. Such data over see the process rather than the result because it is based on a description of the process and not on mathematical calculations. Data collection techniques include observation, interviews, literature reviews, etc. It also agrees with Cahya Suryana (2010:115) which says the data is qualitative data in the form of words, not in the form of numbers. Qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, the discussion focused or observations that have been set forth in the notes field (transcript). Other forms of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video recordings. In this research the researcher conducted research in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. UPT is Technical Services Unit are carrying out promotion and development of Small and Medium Industries (SMEs) and the Human Resources or business through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standardization, Environment and Information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is located on Jl. Pagesangan II / 38-42 Surabaya. In this place has two training rooms, each for a capacity of 40 people, has 10 bedrooms for 40 craftsmen, and other facilities provided. The writer believe this place highly qualified resource persons and trusted to get info on how the implementation of leadership role of the craftsmen to improve their performance and other info needed writer. In this case the implementation of leadership role is expected to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen and to cultivate leadership skills and can teach it back to the new craftsmen later. In improving the performance of the craftsmen, the researcher often do see education and training, held an exhibition to the work of the craftsmen, and attend job training activities in the field of craft in UPT. Therefore the role of leadership is needed to manage and cultivate the managerial skills of the craftsmen. The role of leaders build skills one must master thriving. This is the next level of the management skills pyramid. Someone who must master personal development. This is the level of management skills, which shows the skills a person must master to be successful and show how management skills build on each other toward success. These are the basics that made the role of a leader for the management skill craftsmen: Plans Set Direct Control Motivation Conducting Training and Coaching The direct involvement of leader In this study the data of things that can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, caring and discipline. All that can be applied when crafting artisan training, opened the exhibition and even open their own craft business. Which was all the training can provide the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing artisans to improve their skills through training and creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. By implementing a leadership role in the managerial skill craftsmen are expected to increase knowledge of the design and color combination to make crafts. Craftsmen can transfer the new knowledge gained to other craftsmen and all those who would learn a new craftsmen. Craftsmen can be more creative in making other handicrafts. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter will analyze the data that has been collected. The purpose of analyzing the data is to answer the questions of the researcher. As mentioned in the first chapter, "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen?" and "How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?". The subject in this research are the craftsmen. From sources that the authors could have about ±30 craftsmen who are doing the implementation and development of skill. In this research the author prefers the craftsmen making plaiting and ceramic or gypsum. The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen In this case the data subject can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, a sense of caring and discipline. All that can be applied when artisans craft training, opened the exhibition and even opened his own craft business. Which is the training it can provide all the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing crafters to enhance the capabilities and skills through creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. With the moral support and provide the necessary facilities, providing motivation, conduct training and job fairs for the efforts of craftsmen also a way to improve the performance of the leader of the craftsmen. Here are some ways to improve the performance of the craftsmen: Guide and cultivate prospective new employers that will be developed into an independent businessman. Given coaching or income. Given technical training. Examples given creative woven design, gypsum, and ceramics. Held the exhibition of the craftsmen. The purpose of these activities is intended to: Improve the skills of the craftsmen, To foster the craftsmen in order to thrive, That the craftsmen more creative, Can give entrepreneurs insight, To support the welfare and craftsmen, Fostering the craftsmen to be independent and get satisfactory results, Mental strengthen the craftsmen to become a successful entrepreneur, as a successful entrepreneur should require struggle and sacrifice. The Craftsmen Respond after the Implementation of Leadership Role Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". For craftsmen to apply leadership role to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen is very important because it can help the craftsmen to be able to perform all the activities during the training on the craft. In this case that is the primary motivation is a craftsman wants to be a successful artisans, craft businesses can open and create new jobs to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. Suggestion The expectations of the craftsmen is that welfare can be much better and can open their own business field by always applying a given leadership roles during a training run. And hopefully this research can be useful for readers to find the information they want to know about the craftsmen can add insight and knowledge. And also can make a new discourse about the craftsmen at UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi Dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelayanan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian Dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Jawa Timur, 2012, Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Karyawan dan Pengrajin, Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Skill. About.com Guide Http//.www.geogle.com.Bisnis dan Kewirausahaan Qibtiyah, Mariyatul. 2008. "PENGEMBANGAN USAHA SENTRA PENGRAJIN BATIK". Malang: UIN. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Guide. About.com Guide. It's retrieved from http://management.about.com/bio/F-John-Reh-229.htm http//.www.geogle. com.What is Leadership Drs. Sudrajad, MM. 2011. Kiat Mengentaskan Pengangguran dan Kemiskinan melalui Wirausaha. Bumi Aksara Athoenk's. Mr. (2010) Konsep Jiwa Pemimpin / Leadership. http://athoenk46.wordpress.com/?s=konsep+jiwa+pemimpin Zahra. Fatimah. 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SEXUAL SADISM AS EXPERIENCED BY LISBETH SALANDER IN STIEG LARSSON'S THE GIRL WITH DRAGON TATTOO Dea Anissa Rahmat English Literature, Faculty of Languanges and Arts, Surabaya State University dearbepe@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si English Literature, Faculty of Languanges and Arts, Surabaya State University much.khoiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Sadisme dalam seksualitas adalah perasaan gairah seksual yang disebabkan oleh pemberian rasa sakit, penderitaan, dan penghinaan kepada orang lain. Perilaku sadisme yang nampak secara langsung dan terang-terangan dalam pencapaian titik klimaks perilaku seks seseorang dapat dijadikan indikator bahwa orang tersebut mengalami penyimpangan. Penyimpangan seks dalam kasus sadisme sering mengalami penurunan signifikasi dan fungsi akibat perilaku menyimpang dalam berfantasi. Orang yang menjadi mitra atau objek yang dikenai perilaku sadis dalam hubungan seks belum tentu menjadi rekan yang bersedia. Jika kegiatan seks yang identik dengan perilaku sadis ini disetujui oleh kedua pihak ataupun hanya seorang saja, maka dapat diartikan pihak yang melakukan kegiatan tersebut mengalami kegagalan seksual secara normal dan perlu alternatif lain untuk mencapai titik klimaks. Misalnya, melakukan aktifitas kekerasan pada saat berhubungan. Dalam kajiannya, peneliti sengaja mengambil novel dengan judul The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo untuk menganalisis perilaku menyimpang dalam hubungan seks yang dialami oleh tokoh Salander. Teori yang digunakan untuk menganalisis perilaku menyimpang dalam tokoh utama dalam novel berasal dari teori Sigmund Freud tentang psikologi dan kepribadian. Dengan dilengkapi teori relevan, penelitian ini mengambil beberapa kutipan dalam novel yang mewakili perilaku menyimpang dalam seksualitas untuk dijadikan data dalam kajian peneliti. Hasilnya, perilaku menyimpang dalam seks ditunjukkan oleh tokoh Lisbeth Salander dalam novel memberikan dua hipotesis. Pertama, dalam novel muncul beberapa sadisme seksual yang terjadi pada rekan tokoh Bjurman yang teridentifikasi dari data berupa kutipan teksnya. Salander sebagai korban sadisme seksual dari pengacara rekan Nails Bjurman. Kedua, beberapa faktor yang berkontribusi Lisabeth Salander untuk melakukan sadisme seksual. Penelitian ini mencerminkan pengalaman deskriptif sampel perempuan yang terlibat dengan perilaku sadisme seksual beserta faktor-faktor yang berkontribusi dibaliknya. Keywords: Sexual sadism, sadistic behavior, The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo Abstract Sexual sadism is a feeling of sexual excitement resulting from administering pain, suffering, or humiliation to another person.When sadism becomes directly and overtly related to sexual gratification, they are considered perversions. Sexual sadism often experiences significant impairment or distress in functioning due to actual sadistic behaviors or sadistic fantasies. With regard to actual sadistic behavior, the person receiving the pain, suffering, or humiliation may or may not be a willing partner. Whether or not the partner is consenting, it is the very real suffering they are experiencing that is arousing to the sadist. This study examines Stieg Larsson's The Girl With The Dragon Tatttoo, which is about sexual sadism as experienced by Salander. This study uses theory of sexual sadism and Sigmund Freud's theory of Psychology and Personality. By using relevant theories, the study analyses the data—i.e. quotations from the novel that represent sexual sadism. The result of this analysis shows that sexual sadism experienced by Lisbeth Salander as reflected in Steig Larsson's The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo can be described by two parts. First, it shows that there are several sexual sadism which occurs from her guardian Bjurman. Salander as a victim of sexual sadism from the guardian laywer Nails Bjurman. Second is to reveal the factors that contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism. It is about a descriptive experiences of a sample of women who have been consensually involved with sexual sadism and factors that contribute to sexual sadism. Keywords: Sexual sadism, sadistic behavior, The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo INTRODUCTION In human sexual life, there are certain conditions of sexual disorder which consider as embarassing and dangerous situations from the society's point of view. Normally, sexual activity is the union of the female and male's genital and other sexual activity besides it is taken as "abnormal". Few examples of sexual deviations are: homosexual, masochism, sadism, necrophilia, fetishism, etc (Barlow, 2009: 364). Sadism implies pleasure in inflicting. When sexual sadism is applied to show fantasies, urges or behaviors that involve real acts in which the suffering of another person is found sexually exciting. The essential feature of sexual become directly related sexual gratification. That sexual gratification it considered perversions. Sadism is a feeling of sexual excitement resulting from administering pain, suffering, or humiliation to another person. The pain, suffering, or humiliation inflicted on the other is real, it is not imagined and may be either physical or psychological in nature. A person with a diagnosis of sexual sadism is sometimes called a sadist. The name of the disorder is derived from the proper name of the Marquis Donatien de Sade (1740-1814), a French aristocrat who became notorious for writing novels around the theme of inflicting pain as a source of sexual pleasure. The sadistic acts performed or fantasized by a person with sadism often reflect a desire for sexual or psychological domination of another person. These acts range from behavior that is not physically harmful although it may be humiliating to the other person (such as being urinated upon), to criminal and potentially deadly behavior. Acts of domination may include holding or imprisoning the partner through the use of handcuffs, cages, chains, or ropes. Other acts and fantasies related to sexual sadism include paddling, spanking, whipping, burning, beating, administering electrical shocks, biting, urinating or defecating on the other person, cutting, rape, murder, and mutilation. Psychopathia Sexualis, later defined sadism as: "The experience of sexual, pleasurable sensations (including orgasm) produced by acts of cruelty, bodily punishment afflicted on one's person or when witnessed in others, be they animals or human beings. It may also consist of an innate desire to humiliate, hurt, wound or even destroy others in order, thereby, to create sexual pleasure in one self". This kind of sexual sadism has appeared in the literature (Kraft-Ebing, 1886: 274) . One of the writers that written about sexual sadism in a novel is Stieg Larsson. The novel was released to great acclaim in Sweden and later, on its publication in many other European countries. In the original language, it won Sweden's Glass Key Award in 2006 for best crime novel of the year. It also won the 2008 Booke Prize, and in 2009 the Galaxy British Book Awards for Books Direct Crime Thriller of the Year, and the prestigious Anthony Award for Best First Novel. Larsson was posthumously awarded the ITV3 Crime Thriller Award for International Author of the Year in 2008. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo debuted at number four on The New York Times Best Seller list. The novel received mixed reviews from American critics. In a review for The New York Times upon the book's September 2008 publication in the United States, Alex Berenson wrote, "The novel offers a thoroughly ugly view of human nature"; while it "opens with an intriguing mystery" and the "middle section of Girl is a treat, the rest of the novel doesn't quite measure up. The book's original Swedish title was Men Who Hate Women, a label that just about captures the subtlety of the novel's sexual politics." The Los Angeles Times said "the book takes off, in the fourth chapter: From there, it becomes classic parlor crime fiction with many modern twists.The writing is not beautiful, clipped at times (though that could be the translation by Reg Keeland) and with a few too many falsely dramatic endings to sections or chapters. But it is a compelling, well-woven tale that succeeds in transporting the reader to rural Sweden for a good crime story."Several months later, Matt Selman said the book "rings false with piles of easy super-victories and far-fetched one-in-a-million clue-findings."Richard Alleva, in Commonweal, wrote that the novel is marred by "its inept backstory, banal characterizations, flavorless prose, surfeit of themes (Swedish Nazism, uncaring bureaucracy, corporate malfeasance, abuse of women, etc.), and--worst of all author Larsson's penchant for always telling us exactly what we should be feeling." Discussing and analyzing about character or human, they cannot be separated from personality terms. Personality derives from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. The character is easy to see how persona came to refer to outward appearance, the public face we display to the people around us. Personality refers to the characteristics patterns of behavior and ways of thinking that determine a person's adjustment to his environment. The personality of somebody has built from the experiences that they got from the social surrounding and also the genetic factor gives the background of someone's personality Schultz (2009: 8). The direct influences of sexuality on personality comes from the effects of sex hormones. It influences body build, body functioning, and the quality of the individual behaviour. The indirect influence comes up from three sources: the effect of cultural influences sex drive, the attitudes of significant people and their treatment to the individual caused by sexuality, also the molding of personality pattern of sex appropriatenes, which admitted by society. To understand the aspect of psychology within literary work, needed psychology of literature, it is used to investigate the psychology aspect, which shown by the character within the novel The Girl with Dragon Tattoo by Stieg Larsso. Wellek and Werren (1989: 81) stated psychology of literature, mean the psychological study of the writer as type and as individual, or the study or creative process, or the study of the psychological types and laws present within works of literature, or, finally, the effects literature upon its readers (audience psychology). Sigmund Freud emphasizes how early stage of childhood is important part to create someone's adulthood personality and behavior. He says that part of our personality is formed on the basis of the unique relationships we have as children with various people and objects. Accordingly we develop a personal set of character attributes, a consistent pattern of behavior that defines each of us as an individual (Shannon, 2009: 64). Grossman (1991) states the psychological effects trauma, wheteher in infancy or adult life, are best understood in connection with the development and functioning of the capacity to fantasize. Here, a child which has been experienced physical and psychological trauma can build a fantasy refers to the violence.Violence can be in the form of hitting, slamming, humiliating, and so on. Consequently, a child can imagine that she/he is happy if he/she hurts and or being hurt by another people. This kind of fantasy can cause sexual sadism behaviour. In accordance of background study above, it can be simplify to discuss among two problems that emerge as significant concern toward this novel. How is sexual sadism as experienced by Lisbeth Salander reflected in Steig Larsson's The Girl With Dragon Tattoo? What factors contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism in Stieg Larsson's The Girl With Dragon Tattoo? This study will uses two theories which are in line with the statement of the problems.The first is about review of related literature which contains the theories that are used in the analysis. In this chapter, the concept of sexual sadism and will be related to the concept of sexual sadism and theory of personality. The second will deal with the core of the study, which is the analysis of the study. The last chapter of this study is the conclusion as the result of the analysis. The additions will be added and got along with the analysis such as appendix, which consists of the biography of the author of this novel, and the synopsis of the novel. Those additions are to be the closing of this study. RESEARCH METHOD Research methodolgy that used in this analysis here must be qualified as an applying in literary appreciation. The thesis is regarded as a descriptive-qualitative study and uses a library research. This study uses novel of Stieg Larsson entitled The Girl with The Dragon Tattoo that published Seven Stories Press, 140 Watts Street, New York in 2007 as the data source of this study. The data are in the form of direct and indirect speech of the characters, dialogues, epilogues and quotations which indicate and represent aspect of power abuse and sexualization which is experienced by the main character. This thesis is using the library method in collecting the data. It does not use the statistic method. That is why it is not served in numbering or tables. Library research used an approach in analyzing this study. The kind of library research which is used here is intensive or closely reading to search quotations or phrases. It also used to analyze the literary elements both intrinsic and extrinsic. The references are taken from library and contributing ideas about this study from internet that support the idea of analyzing. The analysis is done by the following steps: (1) Classification based on the statement of the problems. This classification is used to avoid the broad discussion. There are two classifications in this study. (2) Describe the reflection of Sexual sadism as experienced.(3) To reveal the factors that contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism in Stieg Larsson's The Girl With Dragoon Tattoo.The quotations that showed how the character's sexuality is affected by his power are taken as data. (4) Drawing the conclusion based on the analysis which is in line with the problems. ANALYSIS The first section is about the analysis of sexual sadism as experienced by Salander. The experience of Salander in sexual sadism is started when she meets her new guardian lawyer. Sexual sadism happened when she has an interview with Bjurman just after he became her guardian. Bjurman, on the other hand is recognize as a person who likes to do sex by sentence that is written in the novel. Salander is uncomfortable with Bjurman question and she feels that it is not her business by asking about sex in some kind of an interview. Salander's statement proves it. "No, it's not particulary nice to be fucked in the arse but what the hell business is it of yours?" . She left his office with a feeling of disgust. (Larsson, 2008: 220) The statement that Bjurman has no business with Salander sexual background, even he asks her impolitely. His authority is all about Salander legal powers, no more than that. Salander, moreover, express her disgust feeling to him after she feels that Bjurman was going too far. It can be concluded that she feels uncomfortable with Bjurman's questions. Salander thinks that it is not his right to ask her those questions. Then, she has been decided that she does not like Bjurman by leaving his office. The sex that is done by Bjurman is not like the sadist thing that he will do to Salander. He does some enjoyable acts to make Salander comfortable and feel horney. The nice thing is also given to her so she enjoyed the sex because Bjurman has a plan to have a sex with her again. The sex act done by Bjurman can be seen in quote below. He stood behind her. Suddenly he was massaging the back of her neck, and he let one hand slide from her left shoulder across her breasts. He put his hand over her right breast and left it there. When she did not seem to object, he squeezed her breast. Salander did not move. She could feel his breath on her neck as she studied the letter opener on his desk; she could reach it with her free hand (Larsson, 2008: 241). The incident happened when Salander comes to Bjurman office ask money to buy new computer, since her old laptop broken caused by an accident. She does not get the money easily because Bjurman forces her to do something. Bjurman assaults her by touching her breast. The quotation shows that Bjurman sexual sadism her by touching and squeezing her breasts. This is the one of sexual part that shows from the novel. Salander did nothing with all what Bjurman has already done to her. She got one lesson from Holger Palmgren that when there was an impulsive actions led to trouble, and trouble could have unpleasant consequences. Salander will never do anything without first weighing the consequences. In that quotation stated Salander feeling towards Bjurman. She has plan to use the letter opener as th weapon to fight againts him. Sexual sadism has formed her to be a person not easy to back down, she would always take revenge to all forms of act that try to hurt her. However, her status limits her to do that. Even, Salander cannot do something because she needs the money. All that she thinks is about the consequences. Bjurman starts to say what adult usually says which one another are known what the conversation means is. "I think you and I are going to be a good friend," he said. "we have to be able to trust each other." When she did not replay he said: "you're a grown woman now, Lisbeth" She nooded. "Come here," he said and held out his hand. (Larsson, 2008: 242) Salander just fixed her gaze on the letter opener for several seconds before she stood up and went over to him. In her heart, she says, consequences. It means that she knows the consequences by having such a lawyer guardian. The real acts that lead to sex activity are shown by Bjurman. The statement is explained bellow. He took her hand and pressed it to his crotch. She could feel his genitals through the dark gabardine trousers. While said, "If you're nice to me, I'll be nice to you." He puts his other hand around her neck and pulled her down to her knees with her face in front of his crotch. (Larsson, 2008: 242) It is shown that Bjurman rapes to her. In this case, he forces to suck his genital or can be called as oral sex. At the time she is just thinking that she did it for the money. In this case, Bjurman makes it difficulty to Salander in getting her money. In addition Bjurman treat her by saying: "If you're nice to me, I'll be nice to you," he repeated. "If you make trouble, I can put you away in an institution for the rest of your life. Would you like that?" (Larsson, 2008: 243) In this case, Salander cannot do anything to protect herself. She said nothing if Bjurman only gives words in order to treat Salander, without caring with Salander answer about his question, he continues the sex to Salander. He waited until she lowered her eyes, in what he regarded as submission. Then he pulled her closer. Salander opened her lips and took him in her mouth. He kept his grip on her neck and pulled her fiercely towards him. She felt like gagging the whole ten minutes he took to bump and grind; when finally he came, he was holding her so tight she could hardly breathe. (Larsson, 2008: 243). From the quotation above, it is clearly stated how Salander is forced to suck her guardian genital. He places his genital in Salander's mouth in order to get satisfied. Salander passively action towards those kinds of sadism makes Bjurman thinks more to hurt her. It is supported by (Krafft-Ebing, 2008: 14) that Sadism in sexual pleasurable sensations (including orgasm) produced by acts of cruelty, bodily punishment afflicted on one's own person or when witnessed in others, be they animals or human beings. The additional terrifying expression is shown by Salander in the quotation bellow. She realized with terrifying clarity that she was out of her depth. (Larsson, 2008: 273). It makes Salander in dead feeling. She thinks that Bjurman is doing something so serious and injury. What can help Salander this time is only keeping the pain that she gets? In another situation Bjurman turn mad and crazy. By taking metal stuffs that Salander hear from the sound of the clanking. The clanking sound of metal shows that Bjurman begins to do the sexual sadism, beside he says the words to treat Salander. The quotation is show at below: "You have to learn to trust me, Lisbeth," he said. "I'm going to teach you how this grown-up is played. If you don't treat me well, you have to be punished. When you're nice to me, we'll be friends."( Larsson, 2008: 274) From the quotation above Salander seems not to do anything. She only does what Bjurman wants and the only thing that she can feel is sick and gets more pain by Bjurman. Bjurman do not stop his act to Salander. In another situation, Bjurman asks Salander wheather she likes to do anal sex or not by asking "So you don't like anal sex, he said"(Larsson, 2008: 274). The more Salander keep silence, the more he maltreats her. Anal sex is the act of sexual by putting something in someone anus. It is really dangerous for someone's health or even can caused a great injury to victim. He also starts the sadism acts along sexual activity. The quotation below shows his sadist act that Bjurman does to Salander. Salander opened her mouth to scream. He grabbed her hair and stuffed the knickers in her mouth. She felt him putting something around her ankles, spread her legs apart and tie them so that she was lying there completely vulnerable. She heard him moving around the room but she could not trough the T-shirt around her face. It took him several minutes. She could hardly breathe. Then she felt an excruciating pain as he forced something up her anus. (Larsson, 2008: 274) The using of metal stuffs are cannot be tolerated anymore. The sadist action in sexual is real happening to Salander. Stuffed the knickers in Salander mouth is an act that hurt Salander physically. Bjurman spreads her legs apart and ties her so that she is completely vulnerable. Those acts are considered as physical sadism that she gets when having sex with Bjurman. Salander is completely pain of being sadistic by Bjurman when they having sex. It is shown when she felt an excruciating pain as forced something up her anus. Bjurman must do something to her anus that makes Salander in total pain. Beside, Bjurman did more and more tricks so that he could release his sadism along the act that he applied to Salander. Bjurman is going crazy more than before. The acts that Bjurman has done is supported by Matsumoto (2009: 490) theory about sexual sadism that defines sexual sadism is a paraphilia in which sexual arousal occurs as the result on inflicting physical or mental pain on another person as a means of exercising control over him or her. It means that the sadist feels pleasure and lust when he/she sexual partner suffered. Thus she/he can show his/her domination and power. Then, the second section will show factors contributed Salander to do sexual sadism. Then, the second section will show the factors that contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism. This chapter will apply the theory in chapter two as the base theory, and hopefully this analysis will not deviate from the theory that has been explained before. Bjurman, now, has responsible for Salander's assets and financial, but he handles it out of his authority. He is a corrupt guardian that used Salander victim. He opened a new account in her name, and she was supposed to report it to Milton's personal office and use it from now on. The good old days were over. In future Bjurman would pay her bills, and she would be given an allowance each month. He told her that expected her to provide receipts for all her expenses."This had to do with the fact that i'm responsible with for your mone," he said. "You have to put money aside for the future. But don't worry; I'll take care all of that." (Larsson, 2008: 182) The quotation above shows that how Bjurman make Salander financially dependent happen is done by Bjurman. Although he is responsible for her assets and financial, but he handle it out of his authority. He is a corrupt guardian that used Salander victim. It is totally different with the precede guardian who let her free to manage her own money even though her status still under guardianship. Since, Bjurman is a corrupt, he take over and fully contol Salander money. He does not let Salander free access to use her money. Even, he force Salander to open a new account in a bank and requiring the victim to justify all money spent, so that Bjurman can control it. Besides, the statement in the quotation, "You have to put money aside for the future. But don't worry; I'll take care all of that"(Larsson, 2008: 182). Support the fact that Bjurman has abuse her financial as well. It is found that his life is to be a guardian of mentally disturbed likes Salander. He lives in her prosperity which is comes from his clients assets or money. He uses their weakness in legal status power, so that he is easily corrupt their money. Their weakness in legal status would make them afraid and do nothing about it. Obviously, it is form of economical as factor. The second form of economical that is done by Bjurman towards Salander is that by withholding the money or the access to the money. It is a complicated for Salander to ask her money, even for buying food. She has to work and Bjurman easily take over the money. It is prove by this quotation. Bjurman moved back to his side of the desk and sat on his comfortable leather chair. "I can't hand out money to you whenever you like,'' he said. "Why do you such an expensive computer? There are plenty of cheaper models that you can use for playing computer games." "I want to have control of my own money like before." Bjurman gave her a pitying look. (Larsson, 2008: 242) The quotation clearly stated can be concluded that Bjurman has underestimates her by saying that she did not need such sn expensive computer. It means that she is only a stupid girl that needs a computer just for playing games. Here, how Bjurman make a difficulty for Salander to get her money. He always ask or even demand her to do something first before she get the money. In this case, he would give Salander money after he takes advantages from her in terms of satisfying him by oral sex and anal sex, touching her breasts, and so forth. On the one hand, Bjurman has been abuse Salander by those various forms of violence. On the other hand, he has been abuse his profession as a guardian who is supposed to be protect the client. Here, he is withholding Salander own money that supposed to be her rights. Her authority is only take over Salander assests and financial so that the money can be used in a right way. However, Bjurman has been corrupted the money give some terms for her in getting her own money. Thereby, Bjurman has already one other forms ef economical as factor towards Salander. In the next meeting with Bjurman, Salander really need to buy a food. All the money that is kept by Bjurman is locked. It such the difficult thing to get the money like she must kill him first then she will get her own money. Psychological sadism is always given by the prepetator in order to treath the victims so they agree to do the sexual sadism. Psychological sadism also happen in the process of the sex itself in order to make the victims cannot avoid the prepetator to do sadism along the sex process. This is shown by Salander that she agree when Bjurman treat her to be nice with him. A threat could make the victim afraid psychologically. If the victim feels afraid with threat of the perpetrator, so they will be easily to do what they want to the victim. You have to learn to trust me, Lisbeth,'' he said. "i'm going to teach you how this grown-up game is played. If you dont treat me well, you have to be punished. When you're nice to me, we'll be friends (Larsson, 2008: 274) The quotation above shows Salander is threatened by Bjurman. After force to suck his genital, he threat her not to tell anyone about that. Salander just keep silence because she is feels afraid about the consequences related with her status if she reports it. He treats her as a whore not as a girl under his protection. In supported by Freud who insisted his sexual theory applied to all mental illness. However, in this moment, Bjurman not only threats her but he has done threatening harm. It is stated that threat and hurt her b slap and grip chin tight. It can be concluded that combine sadism always happened to Salander. Salander is not only facing of psychological but also accompanied by physical. The same thing also happened to her which is done by Bjurman. In another hand, the personality of somebody is built from the experiences they got from the social surrounding and also the genetic factor gives the background of someone's personality. Part of our personality is formed on the basis of the unique relationships we have as women with various people and objects. We develop a personal set of character attributes that defines each of us as an individual. The personality of Salander is considered as having a bad image. In her life, she likes to do dangerously violent things made her caught up by the police. One of her acts is explained below: When she turned fifteen, the doctors had more or less agreed that she was not, after all, dangerously violent, nor did she represent any immediate danger to herself. (Larsson, 2008: 174) Salander, in her life, she does not only danger someone near with her but also herself. Such of her bad behavior is leading her personality as a bad teenage. In other situation she has troubles with surrounding and herself by consuming alcohol and drug abuse. She builds an image that she has the negative attitude toward anybody and herself. It is said by Salander that the sex world is nothing new for her. It happens because she has already done the sex with more than ten people in her teen age. It is supported by the information she had had over fifty partners since the age of fifteen that she totally sex players. It is shown that by doing such of the sex activities will make her impression that going to be judge by other person. This is supported by Schultz (2009: 8) that based on its derivation, we might conclude that personality refers to our external and visible characteristics, those aspects of us that other people can see. Our personality would then be defined in terms of the impression we make on others that is, what we appear to be. In short, our personality may be the mask we wear when we face the outside world. CONCLUSION The analyzing of sexual sadism in Stieg Larsson's The Girl with Dragon Tattoo has give better understanding about several forms of sexual sadism as experienced that occurs and factors contributed Lisabeth Salander to do sexual sadism . Through the thesis analyzing, is is found that Salander has suffered from several forms of sexual sadism. As explained above that Salander as the main character experiences some forms sexual sadism, they are physical sadism, psychological and factor that contribute to do sexual sadism, they are threat and economical The conslusion of research question 1 are sexual sadism as experienced by salander is as an object. She gets both physical and psychological experiences by Bjurman asher guardian lawyers. She gets pain and suffer from physical experience. While in pysichological experience, she gets treatments from Bjurman. These are the conslusion of research question 2. The factors that make Salander to do the sexual sadism are unbelieveable because not all people want to be an object of sexual sadism. They are pyschology, personality, and economic factors. The psychology is like trearments that Bjurman has given to her and the personality is when Salander has such a bad personality backgrond, like havinh sex with many people. Finally, economic is the main factor for Salander to sexual sadism because if she wants to get her money, she must do the sex with Bjurman which bring her to sexual sadism. In Stieg Larsson The Girl with Dragon Tattoo, we can see Salander gets some forms of sexual sadism from Bjurman. There is not only sexual insult verbal, but also some kinds of sexual sadism of rape forms. The experience of Salander in sexual sadism is started when she meets her new guardian lawyer, Bjurman. On the other hand is recognize as a person who likes to do sex in the novel. Bjurman takes an opportunity by keeping Salander account and if she wants to get the money she must do the sex with him first. It is also supported by interview that is done, Bjurman asks about Salander sex life which is turn out to be another interrogation by asking her private aspect in her life, is that about her sexual background. All she wanted is about the money without making and giving any sexual sadism with him. With all scare feeling she agrees to do it again with Bjurman. The thing that she hates so much is having sex with a condition and compulsion. The fear is appears on Salander body language. This sexual sadism has made Salander suffered from some physically. It has become the worst experience ever in her life. Sexual sadism which is experienced by Salander is mostly done by Bjurman. Bjurman is not only doing the sexual sadism toward Salander in form of rape, but also psychological. In this case, Salander can be concluded to get she witnesses and watching other person, or even the person that she like, suffered from physical sadism. In this novel, Salander has been found experiencing sexual sadism. REFERENCES Barlow, H. David, Durand. V. Mark. 2009. Abnormal Psychology 5th edition. USA : Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Hoeksema, Susan Nolen. (2004). Abnormal Psychology. Third edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Comapanies Inc. Krafft-Ebing, Richard von. 1933. Psychopathia Sexualis: With Especial Reference to the Antipathic Sexual Instinct: A Medico-Forensic Study. New York: Physicians and Surgeons Book Co. Larsson, Stieg. (2008). The Girl with Dragon Tattoo. New York: Vintage Books. Matsumoto, David. 2009. The Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology. USA: Cambridge University Press. Schultz, D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2009).Theories of personality 9th Edition. United States of America:Wadsworth Cengange Learning. Shannon, Joyce Brennfleck. 2009. Theories of Personality 9th Edition. United States of America: Omnigraphics, Inc.
Positionality statement As we begin to discuss this issue, its origins, and its importance in contemporary society, I wanted to acknowledge my positionality and the role that it may play in the formation of this issue. Jonathan O. Cain is an African-American male working in the LIS field. Before moving into administration, I taught data and digital literacy and worked on developing programs that focused on improving access to these critical skills at zero cost to learners. It is important to acknowledge my positionality and the lens through which I see the data science field. Trevor Watkins is an African American male working in the LIS field at an academic institution in an academic library. I teach critical data literacy workshops and engage in diversity and BIPOC-related digital projects with faculty, students, and the broader academic community across the country. I am also a researcher and practitioner in artificial intelligence (AI) and data science. The global pandemic, its impacts, and why it matters We first met in August 2020 to discuss the possibilities of this special issue about five months into the pandemic. We spent a good chunk of that meeting getting to know each other and, most importantly, discussed the toll the pandemic placed on our communities and us. It is probably safe to say that many of you, at some point, were uncertain of the future. Like most people worldwide, we lost family and friends or knew of people who succumbed to Covid-19 and other illnesses that weren't treated because the focus shifted to Covid-19. We get it. At one point, Covid-19 killed over three thousand people per day (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2022). According to data from the CDC, 90% of the 385,676 people who died between March and December 2020 had Covid-19 listed as the underlying cause of death on their death certificate. The murders of Ahmaud Arbery in February, Breonna Taylor in March, and George Floyd in May 2020 sparked civic unrest across the United States (US) and protests across the globe in solidarity against racial injustice. When we announced this special issue and initiated a call for papers, we didn't get much of a response initially. We expected and acknowledged that it would probably take some time before we received inquiries or proposals about the issue, the intent to submit, or any submissions. Like many of you, we are still picking up the pieces from 2020 and dealing with the aftermath of Covid-19. The pandemic may be over now, depending on whom you ask, but the emotional scars are still there and may remain so for quite some time. Patience was the one quality we all had throughout this process, which is why we can present this publication today. Data and liberatory technology Liberatory technology. This is a concept that invited contemplation as we sat down to record our reflections on this special issue. In drawing together scholars, educators, and practitioners to address the issue of data and its relationship to race, ethnicity, and representation, we, as coeditors, were making a statement about the importance of data, the material impact that this seemingly abstract and ethereal object can and does have on individual and community lives. And thinking about that impact brought liberatory technology to the front of our minds. The definition of liberator technology offered by the IDA B. Wells Just Data Lab intrigues us and invites us to grapple with that topic. They defined liberatory as something that "supports the increased freedom and wellbeing of marginalized people, especially black people outside of capitalism and settler colonial power structures" and technology as "a tool used to accomplish a task." And as we contemplate this set of definitions, we are left to question whether data can be a liberatory technology or not. (LIBERATORY TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MARRONAGE, n.d.) In Liberation Technology: Black Protest in the Age of Franklin, Richard S. Newman draws parallels with the asserting ownership and mastery of new communication technologies and black liberation activities. Reflecting on the transformative nature of print technology, he writes, "If the Marquis de Condorcet was right in 1793 that print had unshackled Europe from medieval modes of thought and action, then it is also true that print was perhaps the first technology to liberate blacks from the servile images that had long haunted their existence in Western culture." And draws a 19th-century example of how it expressly connects to black lives post-emancipation noting "W. E. B. Du Bois certainly thought that black history and print history worked in tandem. Wherever one found newspapers in the post-Civil War South, he observed, one found some form of black freedom" (Richard S. Newman, 2009, p. 175). He even notes how scholars note that black activists embraced other communication technologies like photography "to reshape the image of African Americans in nineteenth-century culture." (Richard S. Newman, 2009, p. 175) We have no shortage of examples of how data and data-driven technologies fail to support the "increased freedom and wellbeing of marginalized people outside of capitalism and settler colonial power structures." In 2016, ProPublica published Machine Bias, a report that looks at Risk assessment technologies used in arraignment and sentencing. They report that "The formula was particularly likely to falsely flag black defendants as future, wrongly labeling them this way at almost twice the rate as white defendants" and "white defendants were mislabeled as low risk more often than black defendants" (Julia Angwin, 2016). A 2021 article, Fairness in Criminal Justice Risk Assessments: The State of the Art, in their analysis, noted, "The false negative rate is much higher for whites so that violent white offenders are more likely than violent black offenders to be incorrectly classified as nonviolent. The false positive rate is much higher for blacks so that nonviolent black offenders are more likely than nonviolent white offenders to be incorrectly classified as violent. Both error rates mistakenly inflate the relative representation of blacks predicted to be violent. Such differences can support claims of racial injustice. In this application, the trade-off between two different kinds of fairness has real bite." (Berk et al., 2021, p. 33) These are just a few examples of how these technological developments, on their own merits, fail to meet the definition offered by the authors of the "Liberatory Technology and Digital Marronage" Zine from the Ida B. Wells Just Data Labs. Reflecting on the technological path illustrated by Newman, the work of ownership and mastery of the tool provides the potential for it to be liberatory. Through this lens, the work of the Just Data Lab is exemplary for this meditation; it draws a direct line from technology, education, mastery, and liberatory technology. Data in higher education Data literacy education is an area that has been a focus of our careers in librarianship. It's a space where we saw the libraries' ability to make a meaningful impact. Data has had a tremendous impact on college campuses, from how research is conducted to the pressures colleges feel from stakeholder groups: students, governments, funders, donors, and employers to prepare students with the data and technology skills to gain employment in the knowledge economy. As colleges and universities have turned (with varying degrees of success) to meet the needs of these communities, a myriad of explorations on the importance of the representation of these marginalized communities in these systems—to combat and dismantle the harmful practices that we see embedded in the systems that drive society and the potentially debilitating consequences they produce. That is partly why the works in this special issue are so important at this moment in time. These scholars and scholar-practitioners are engaging with these issues that drive the opaque structures surrounding us. And hopefully, their work can give us another perspective on how to engage with these structures and transform them to support liberatory practices. The entries in this issue We have some fantastic articles for you to read in this issue. We open with an article by Kevin Manuel, Rosa Orlandini, and Alexandra Cooper, who discuss how the collection process of racial, ethnic, and indigenous data has evolved in the Canadian Census since 1871, the erasure of minorities and indigenous citizens from those censuses, and the work to restore and accurately identify and categorize racialized groups. In the next article, Leigh Phan, Stephanie Labou, Erin Foster, and Ibraheem Ali present a model for data ethics instruction for non-experts by designing and implementing two data ethics workshops. They make important points about the failure of academia to incorporate the ethical use of data in course curriculums and digital literacy training and demonstrate how academic libraries have become an essential resource for the academic community. Their workshop structure can be modeled for any academic library that endeavors to provide a similar service to its community. In the third article, Natasha Johnson, Megan Sapp Nelson, and Katherine Yngve, interrogate the collective and local purposes of institutional data collection and its impact on student belongingness and propose a framework based on data feminism that centers the student as a person rather than a commodity. Finally, our closing article from Thema Monroe-White focuses on marginalized and underrepresented people in the data science field. The author proposes that racially relevant and responsive teaching is necessary to recruit more people from these groups and diversify the field. She discusses how the Ladson-Billings model of cultural relevant pedagogy has been applied and is beneficial to STEM curriculums, and how a liberatory data science curriculum could promote a student's voice and sense of belonging. Conclusion We want to thank all those involved in producing this special issue. We want to thank the authors first. Their patience, dedication, and perseverance throughout this process were much appreciated. The reviewers provided timely, very detailed, and thorough feedback. We would be remised if we didn't acknowledge their hard work and labor. We would like to thank the IQ Editorial Team, Michele Hayslett and Karsten Boye Rasmussen, for working with us over the last two years, and Ofira Schwartz-Soicher, for helping us get to the finish line. Trevor Watkins Jonathan O. Cain References Berk, R., Heidari, H., Jabbari, S., Kearns, M., & Roth, A. (2021). Fairness in Criminal Justice Risk Assessments: The State of the Art. Sociological Methods & Research, 50(1), 3–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124118782533 Flipsnack. (n.d.). Liberatory Technology Zine. Flipsnack. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.flipsnack.com/EBC8CD77C6F/liberatory-technology-zine.html LIBERATORY TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL MARRONAGE. (n.d.). IDA B. WELLS JUST DATA LAB. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.thejustdatalab.com/tools-1/liberatory-technology-and-digital-marronage Mattu, J. A., Jeff Larson,Lauren Kirchner,Surya. (n.d.). Machine Bias. ProPublica. Retrieved December 17, 2022, from https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing Richard S. Newman. (2009). Liberation Technology: Black Printed Protest in the Age of Franklin. Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8(1), 173–198. https://doi.org/10.1353/eam.0.0033
Agriculture is the largest user of the resource soil. So, even small changes in certain soil properties can lead to huge effects on a regional scale. The infiltration capacity is as such an important soil parameter, and also a good indicator of soil quality and soil fertility. Silent sealing, as a result of a negative change in the infiltration capacity due to unfavourable landuse and management, will results in severe effects like faster runoff production and flooding on regional scale,. The assessment of impacts due to land-use or land-management changes on a regional scale is difficult, because detailed information on soil properties and land-management are rarely available. The awareness of the effects of interference in ecosystems is extremely important to supply landscape planners and politicians with information about the impacts of their proposed plans. The aim of this work is the assessment of the maximum water storage capacity of soils under different land-use and land-management situations in a real river catchment (Schunter). Based on field measurements of infiltration under several land-use and land-management situations, a modelling approach has been developed to determine the maximum potential water storagecapacity (Smax). This maximum water storage capacity is closely related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), and also a suitable indicator, which can be used to compare different land-use/land-management scenarios. Smax is a theoretical value describing the maximum potential of a given soil/land-use unit. Although, in reality, the water storage is highly variable due to different soils and land-uses on a catchment scale, Smax allows the direct comparison of different soil/land-use units. Since the required input parameters for detailed process models are often not available at a regional scale, general assumptions and simplifications have to be applied in order to provide meaningful statements. In this special case an integrated measure is needed which takes the soil properties in combination to the land-use and the land-management into account. Such an integrated measure can be found as a part in the Curve Number (CN) from the "Curve Number Model" of the National Resource Conservation Service. The CN is a dimensionless value which has been experimentally identified for a variety of different soil, land-use and land-management situations for small scale catchments in the US. The CN is related to the water retention potential (S), and S was originally used to compute the direct runoff from a precipitation event. Since this work addresses only the agricultural viewpoint of impacts of land-use and land-management, the main focus is on the relation of CN to the water retention potential and the computation of Smax. Final runoff computations were not the aim of this work. Knowing the limitations of the Curve Number Model for hydrological questions, runoff has been computed for the year 2002for demonstration purposes only. The CN-Model has often been criticized for its obscure determination of the CN from precipitation/runoff relations, which have not been properly published, not even in the official handbooks. In this work new methods for the determination of the CN have been developed. Now the CN can be directly measured (CNm) based on field infiltration measurements. Use of the saturated hydraulic conductivity allows the computation of the maximum water storage capacity (Smax) for a given soil, land-use and land-management combination. Since the maximum storage capacity is used, the prevailing wetting status of the soil can also be neglected. On a catchment scale, only a subset of all soil, land-use and land-management situations can be covered by measurements. The remaining situations have to be estimated or be adapted from literature values. The use of pedotransfer functions allow the computation of soil properties (e.g., Ks) based on their textural composition. The performance of the pedotransfer functions in comparison to the field measurements have been tested, resulting in a poor capability of predicting correct values from the pedotransfer functions. The comparison of measured CNm with published values of the CN performed very well. Based on the CNm-Model, scenarios of historic (1950), current (2009) and future (2070) land-uses for the Schunter catchment have been computed, showing the direct impact of different land-use situations to the maximum water storage capacity on a regional scale. Although the scenarios are just snapshots, not taking the temporal dimension of land-use changes into account, this method is useful to detect the impacts of land-use and landmanagement changes. This work examined a new method to derive the CNm by infiltration measurements in the field. The experimental determination of the CNm allows the update of existing curve numbers for special situations not covered in the handbook. Also, the application of the CN concept to German soils is now possible. The computation of the maximum potential storage capacity (Smax) is a useful measure to identify the impacts and to compare land-use and landmanagement scenarios. The impact of land-use and land-management changes on a catchment scale has been clearly demonstrated. Compared to the situation in 1950, in the year 2009 the maximum water storage capacity has decreased by 17 %. Projecting a similar land-use change of the past 60 years into the future will result in a loss of water storage capacity of 19 % compared to 1950. The model approach offers a useful tool for landscape analysis. Due to the manifold different landmanagement practices in agriculture, additional measurements should be performed in the future. Auf Wunsch des Autors / der Autorin ist diese Dissertation nur als Druckausgabe verfügbar. ; Agriculture is the largest user of the resource soil. So, even small changes in certain soil properties can lead to huge effects on a regional scale. The infiltration capacity is as such an important soil parameter, and also a good indicator of soil quality and soil fertility. Silent sealing, as a result of a negative change in the infiltration capacity due to unfavourable landuse and management, will results in severe effects like faster runoff production and flooding on regional scale,. The assessment of impacts due to land-use or land-management changes on a regional scale is difficult, because detailed information on soil properties and land-management are rarely available. The awareness of the effects of interference in ecosystems is extremely important to supply landscape planners and politicians with information about the impacts of their proposed plans. The aim of this work is the assessment of the maximum water storage capacity of soils under different land-use and land-management situations in a real river catchment (Schunter). Based on field measurements of infiltration under several land-use and land-management situations, a modelling approach has been developed to determine the maximum potential water storagecapacity (Smax). This maximum water storage capacity is closely related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), and also a suitable indicator, which can be used to compare different land-use/land-management scenarios. Smax is a theoretical value describing the maximum potential of a given soil/land-use unit. Although, in reality, the water storage is highly variable due to different soils and land-uses on a catchment scale, Smax allows the direct comparison of different soil/land-use units. Since the required input parameters for detailed process models are often not available at a regional scale, general assumptions and simplifications have to be applied in order to provide meaningful statements. In this special case an integrated measure is needed which takes the soil properties in combination to the land-use and the land-management into account. Such an integrated measure can be found as a part in the Curve Number (CN) from the "Curve Number Model" of the National Resource Conservation Service. The CN is a dimensionless value which has been experimentally identified for a variety of different soil, land-use and land-management situations for small scale catchments in the US. The CN is related to the water retention potential (S), and S was originally used to compute the direct runoff from a precipitation event. Since this work addresses only the agricultural viewpoint of impacts of land-use and land-management, the main focus is on the relation of CN to the water retention potential and the computation of Smax. Final runoff computations were not the aim of this work. Knowing the limitations of the Curve Number Model for hydrological questions, runoff has been computed for the year 2002for demonstration purposes only. The CN-Model has often been criticized for its obscure determination of the CN from precipitation/runoff relations, which have not been properly published, not even in the official handbooks. In this work new methods for the determination of the CN have been developed. Now the CN can be directly measured (CNm) based on field infiltration measurements. Use of the saturated hydraulic conductivity allows the computation of the maximum water storage capacity (Smax) for a given soil, land-use and land-management combination. Since the maximum storage capacity is used, the prevailing wetting status of the soil can also be neglected. On a catchment scale, only a subset of all soil, land-use and land-management situations can be covered by measurements. The remaining situations have to be estimated or be adapted from literature values. The use of pedotransfer functions allow the computation of soil properties (e.g., Ks) based on their textural composition. The performance of the pedotransfer functions in comparison to the field measurements have been tested, resulting in a poor capability of predicting correct values from the pedotransfer functions. The comparison of measured CNm with published values of the CN performed very well. Based on the CNm-Model, scenarios of historic (1950), current (2009) and future (2070) land-uses for the Schunter catchment have been computed, showing the direct impact of different land-use situations to the maximum water storage capacity on a regional scale. Although the scenarios are just snapshots, not taking the temporal dimension of land-use changes into account, this method is useful to detect the impacts of land-use and landmanagement changes. This work examined a new method to derive the CNm by infiltration measurements in the field. The experimental determination of the CNm allows the update of existing curve numbers for special situations not covered in the handbook. Also, the application of the CN concept to German soils is now possible. The computation of the maximum potential storage capacity (Smax) is a useful measure to identify the impacts and to compare land-use and landmanagement scenarios. The impact of land-use and land-management changes on a catchment scale has been clearly demonstrated. Compared to the situation in 1950, in the year 2009 the maximum water storage capacity has decreased by 17 %. Projecting a similar land-use change of the past 60 years into the future will result in a loss of water storage capacity of 19 % compared to 1950. The model approach offers a useful tool for landscape analysis. Due to the manifold different landmanagement practices in agriculture, additional measurements should be performed in the future. Upon author request this thesis is available as printed version only.
Abstract ; The main intellectual and translation center in the Iberian Peninsula in the twelfth and thirteenth century, without a doubt, was the School of Toledo, or also called School of Translators of Toledo. Jourdain was one of the first to realize the importance of it, and he gave an account in the preliminary results of his research in 1819. Since then, references to the Toledo School, and, especially, disputes over its significance, existence and importance have not ceased, and so, there are no agreements on certain basic aspects, due above all to a mixture of intellectual, political, social and identity interests. Naturally, in this work I do not intend to solve these controversies, but only to offer some historical and semantic precisions regarding the meaning of the School of Toledo notion. So, first, I will contextualize the origin of the denomination School of Translators of Toledo; for this, I will analyze the germinal contributions of Jourdain and Rose; then, I will describe the reception of these notions in Renan and Menéndez Pelayo, and finally, I will offer some notes for the understanding of the notion of Toledo School, which will be focused on examining: (1) the importance of Toledo; (2) the existence of a formal school; and (3) the activity carried out in Toledo. ; Other ; {"references": ["Daniel de Morley (ca. 1175/1839). \u00abPrefatio ad librum de Naturis inferiorum et superiorum. Bib. Arundel. Mus. Brit. 377. Philosophia magistri Danielis de Merlai ad Iohannem Norwicensem episcopum\u00bb. En: Rara Mathematica; or, A Collection of Treatises on the Mathematics and Subjects Connected with Them, from ancient inedited manuscripts, editado por James Orchard Halliwell. Londres: J. 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