The older drivers involved in the study were frequent users of the Phoenix urban freeway system, and were generally enthusiastic about the ITS devices that they felt responded to some specific challenges they faced while driving on freeways. They offered relatively small changes that would enhance their effectiveness. Large VMS with 18-inch yellow fiber optic letters displayed against a black background caught the attention and were far easier to read than standard highway signs. Drivers urged using them only to convey short, specific directions to current roadway users. Portable electronic signs captured attention near construction sites, but placement only on the right side of the freeway limited visibility. Legibility was a significant concern and double phased signs were particularly challenging to read in time to process information effectively. They preferred sequential signs mounted high above trailers. Ramp meters not only helped the flow of traffic, but also benefited older drivers by providing about 4 seconds to find a gap in traffic. Accidents have declined at on-ramps; the ramp meters and new acceleration lanes have both played a role. Older drivers also have identified key elements that they believe will enhance the usability of both the evolving 511 and AZ511 systems. ; A series of 11 focus group sessions held with drivers over age 65 from fall 2003 to spring 2004 provided the primary source of information on perceptions of ITS technologies. Both year-round residents and winter visitors were represented in focus groups that were held in a variety of locations and settings across the Phoenix urban area. One additional focus group with drivers aged 40 to 55 served as a control group. The study emphasized three technologies—variable message signs (VMS), portable variable message signs, and ramp meters. Focus groups and an additional group of older drivers in two heuristic user evaluation sessions also assessed the evolving ADOT Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) effort that includes both a dedicated interactive 511 telephone highway conditions reporting system, and an AZ511.com web site that provides almost real time highway conditions reports. An assessment of freeway on-ramp accidents involving older drivers for the period 2000-2003 offered a basis for a more objective review of the challenges faced by older drivers. ; This report presents the findings of a research project pursued by a faculty-student team from Arizona State University in cooperation with the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), Arizona Transportation Research Center (ATRC) and the Maricopa Association of Governments. The research focused on the perception of Older Drivers of ITS technologies, specifically those deployed on the urban freeway system in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area. ; The older drivers involved in the study were frequent users of the Phoenix urban freeway system, and were generally enthusiastic about the ITS devices that they felt responded to some specific challenges they faced while driving on freeways. They offered relatively small changes that would enhance their effectiveness. Large VMS with 18-inch yellow fiber optic letters displayed against a black background caught the attention and were far easier to read than standard highway signs. Drivers urged using them only to convey short, specific directions to current roadway users. Portable electronic signs captured attention near construction sites, but placement only on the right side of the freeway limited visibility. Legibility was a significant concern and double phased signs were particularly challenging to read in time to process information effectively. They preferred sequential signs mounted high above trailers. Ramp meters not only helped the flow of traffic, but also benefited older drivers by providing about 4 seconds to find a gap in traffic. Accidents have declined at on-ramps; the ramp meters and new acceleration lanes have both played a role. Older drivers also have identified key elements that they believe will enhance the usability of both the evolving 511 and AZ511 systems. ; A series of 11 focus group sessions held with drivers over age 65 from fall 2003 to spring 2004 provided the primary source of information on perceptions of ITS technologies. Both year-round residents and winter visitors were represented in focus groups that were held in a variety of locations and settings across the Phoenix urban area. One additional focus group with drivers aged 40 to 55 served as a control group. The study emphasized three technologies—variable message signs (VMS), portable variable message signs, and ramp meters. Focus groups and an additional group of older drivers in two heuristic user evaluation sessions also assessed the evolving ADOT Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) effort that includes both a dedicated interactive 511 telephone highway conditions reporting system, and an AZ511.com web site that provides almost real time highway conditions reports. An assessment of freeway on-ramp accidents involving older drivers for the period 2000-2003 offered a basis for a more objective review of the challenges faced by older drivers. ; This report presents the findings of a research project pursued by a faculty-student team from Arizona State University in cooperation with the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT), Arizona Transportation Research Center (ATRC) and the Maricopa Association of Governments. The research focused on the perception of Older Drivers of ITS technologies, specifically those deployed on the urban freeway system in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area. ; Arizona Department of Transportation, Phoenix ; Mode of access: Internet. ; Author corporate affiliation: Arizona State University, College of Architecture and Environmental Design, School of Planning, Tempe ; ""July 2004." ; Includes bibliographical references (p. 115-120) ; Final report. Aug. 2003 to July 2004 ; Sponsored by the Arizona Dept. of Transportation in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration. SPR-PL-1(63) -562 ; Subject code: FS ; Subject code: EEC ; Subject code: WTK ; Subject code: WUR ; Subject code: SBED ; Subject code: IEB ; Subject code: HBEK ; Subject code: PMKL ; Subject code: PMHF*CI
En trabajos anteriores de este mismo autor se abordó el temade los galeotes para el ambito de la Corona de Castilla y para el periodocronologico de los reinados de 10s Austrias. En esta ocasión el estudio deesta temática se ha extendido además a la Corona de Aragón y a losreinados de los Borbones del Antiguo Rigimen. Como consecuencia de lapoliterritorialidad existente en la Monarquia Hispánica no hubo en susdominios un único derecho penal aplicable en todos los reinos hasta lapromulgación de los códigos penales de 1822 y 1848. En lo que se refierea la implantación de la pena de galeras hubo una génesis y una evolucióndistinta en cada territorio. En Cataluña se comienzan a enrolar forzadosen las galeras a comienzos del siglo XV. De tal forma que en 1438 esta penaesti plenamente establecida en todos los territorios de la Corona deAragon. Por lo que se refiere a Castilla, la pena de galeras fue introducidapor Fernando el Católico y mas tarde Carlos V, en 1530, la reguló plenamentey perfiló los delitos que se hicieron acreedores de la misma.Felipe II, por su parte, hizo un gran esfuerzo por aumentar el poderíode la flota de galeras. Por ello aumentó la duración de las condenas a galerasy amplió el número de delitos sancionables con ellas, tanto en la Coronade Castilla como en la de Aragón. En un principio no se estableció enninguna parte la lista de delitos sancionables con la pena de galeras, sinosimplernente se autorizó la conmutación de penas, corporales, destierrosy otras sirnilares por servicios de galeras. No obstante la revisibn de la legislacionpenal poner de relieve que con el paso del tiempo un buen número de delincuentes se fueron haciendo acreedores de trabajos forzados al remo:ladrones, blasfemos, bigamos, testigos falsos, desertores, huidos de prisibn,vagabundos, resistidores de la acción de la justicia, etc. Como las necesidadesmilitares fueron crecientes a medida que se fue desarrollando elproyecto hegemonista de los Habsburgo, se hizo imprescindible modificaralgunos aspectos de la pena de galeras: Se aumentó la duración de lascondenas, se introdujeron nuevos delitos en el catálogo de delitossancionables con pena de remo, etc. Aunque no todos los remeros erangaleotes, istos constituian la mayor parte de la fuerza propulsora de lamarina de guerra mediterrinea. La penuria de mano de obra forj6 enla Corona una concepción utilitarista de la penalidad. En el artículo seanalizan ademas los delitos castigados con galeras y la evolución seguidaen tiempos de los Austrias y de los Borbones. Se finaliza explicando comoera la vida diaria del forzado. El rigor del trabajo, la mala alimentación ylas pésimas condiciones de la estancia ocasionaban altas tasas demortalidad anual. Tras estudiar los tres siglos que aproximadamentecomponen la Edad Moderna, se llega a la conclusión de que con el transcursodel tiempo no se dulcificó la penalidad. Los ilustrados fueronconscientes de la necesidad de humanizar las penas, pero sus logrosquedaron circunscritos al campo de las ideas en el siglo XVIII, preparandoel terreno para que el gran cambio se produjera en el siglo XIX. ; Previous studies of this author have dealt with the topic ofconvict oarsmen in the Crown of Castile during the period of Habsburgrule. For this study the theme has been extended to the Crown of Aragonand to the reign of the Borbons of the Old Regime. As a consequence ofthe multiple territories which comprised the Hispanic Monarchy, no onelaw applied to all of the kingdoms until the promulgation of the PenalCodes of 1822 and 1848. Regarding the implantation of the condemnationto the galleys each territory had its own genesis and separate evolution. InCatalonia convict oarsmen were first enlisted in the galleys at the beginningof the fifteenth century. By 1438 this punishment was fully establishedin all the territories of the Crown of Aragon. With regard to Castile,condemnation to the galleys was introduced by Ferdinand the Catholicand later in 1530, Charlcs V fully regulated condemnation to the galleysand the types of offences that incurred this punishment.For his part Philip I1 made a great effort to increase the power of thegalley fleet. As a result he increased the duration of those condemned toconvict galley service and widened the number of crimes sanctioned by itboth in the Crown of Castile and that of Aragon. Initially neither territoryestablished a list of crimes that incurred condemnation to the galleys.Instead capital punishment, exile and other similar penalties werecommuted to convict galley service. Nevertheless, the revision of penallegislation highlighted that, as time passed, a good number of criminalsbecame liable for forced labour at the oar: thieves, blasphemers, falsewitnesses, deserters, prison escapees, vagabunds, those who resisted justice,etc. As military needs grew as Habsburg hegemony developed, it provednecessary to modify some aspects of the condemnation to the galleys: thelength of service of those condemned was extended, new crimes were addedto those punishable by forced labour at the oar, etc. While not all oarsmenwere convicts, they constituted a majority of the manpower that drove theMediterranean war fleet. The shortage of manpower forced the Crowninto a utilitarian concept of punishment. This article also analyses thecrimes punished by condemnation to the galleys and the evolution thattook place under the Habsburgs and Borbons. The article concludes withan account of the daily life of the convict oarsmen. The rigours of the work,the poor diet and the wretched conditions in which they lived producedhigh annual mortality rates. A study of the three centuries or thereaboutsof the Early Modern period points to the conclusion that the passage oftime did not moderate the punishment. Men of the Enlightment wereconscious of the need to humanize the punishment, but their achievementswere limited to the field of ideas of the eighteenth century, preparing theway for the great change that took place in the nineteenth century.
Случайно или закономерно все, что происходит с Российской цивилизацией в XX веке? Было ли "торжество реального социализма" так же, как и его крах, результатом активности каких-либо внутренних или внешних политических сил, отклонившей Россию от ее естественного исторического маршрута, или это следствие закономерного развития этнокультурной системы, центром которой является русский этнос? Попытка ответа на эти вопросы в терминах этноэкологической модели содержится в данной статье. ; The author makes an attempt at clearing up the peculiarities of political, social and cultural development of the Russian ethnos in the XXth century as a consequence of the Russia's transition from the extensive mode of development to the intensive one. The Russian ethnos is a unique ethnos of Eurasian Continent which expanded almost continuously its living territory during all its history. Thus the new natural resources were involved into the living sphere: land, woods, minerals etc. Human resources were also unlimited as high rate of population growth was typical for the Russian ethnos. It grew especially in late XIXth — early XXth centuries during the demographic transition period. The non-limited character of all kinds of resources allowed to cancel contradictions inside the ethnos. For example the stability of the social basis of the Russian rural community — was achieved through an outflow of "superfluous" people beyond the borders of the main area of population. Contradictions arising in the process of extensive urbanization were also solved through involving of the practically unlimited human and natural resources. The community's stability limited the quantitative growth of towns. And the lack of dense network of urban settlements preconditioned by hugeness of the territory restricted the collapse of rural community, hindering the growth of labor productivity. Therefore the vicious circle existed, which was broken as a result of the first crisis of the extensive development and the Great October Revolution became a political embodiment of the crisis. The main reason of the crisis consisted in the impossibility of the further extensive development of the agricultural technologies being traditional for the Russian ethnos. At the same time the outcome of the crisis was possible only due to the forced development of the basic traditions of ethnic culture for a moment of the crisis. This stage of the Russian ethnos development continued within the life period of three generations and corresponded to the period of construction of "real socialism". It was historically inevitable, making evident discrepancy of the extensive culture principles and new situation. The Russian ethnos in twenties and thirties of the XXth century was not ready yet for the development of democratic institutions of power, nor for "implementation"of market relations. The mentality of people masses being thrown out from villages to towns and having formed marginal strata could not form the basis for the development of these institutions. Namely in the process of socialism construction the system of predominating valuables was changed immensely, making possible a new step in transition from the extensive model of development to the intensive one. The condition of transition to the intensive model of development consists in exhausting of three sources having provided for centuries the possibility of attraction of unlimited quantity of resources for solution of intrinsic conflicts: of high natural population growth, of newly mastered lands, of super cheap raw materials (ore, fuel etc.). The new stage of the Russian ethnos and the whole civilization development is connected with transition of urbanization processes from the stage of quantitive growth of towns (mainly in connection with migration) to the stage of formation of qualitatively new urban local substructures. To the end of the XXth century the demographic conditions for an emergence of real urbanistic culture in Russia were quite different from the European ones. In the end of the XXth century the Russian ethnos entered the principally new stage of its development — the stage of final transition from extensive to intensive development model. Therefore the Russian ethnos will be changing qualitatively and these changes will effectuate the ethnos structure as well as the content of the Russian history in wide sense.The main directions of the structural changes are differentiation of the Russian ethnos, cristallization of stable groups (territorial, social, ethnic and cultural). Stabilization of migration mobility as well as revival of local markets will inevitably lead to localization of processes inside the Russian ethnos and to localization of the Russian society as a whole. The society of the "developed socialism" period was characterized with relatively movable borders of local and social groups. Localization of ecological and demographic processes will in its turn, increase the influence of local element in culture and in structure of ethnic self-consciousness. At the new stage the role of competition as a factor influencing all the elements of social life of the Russian ethnos will grow, since in the process of extensive development competition was canceled on account of attraction of additional sources. So the role of social and cultural mechanisms regulating the results of competition will increase. In particular the role of laws in society's life as a management principle in comparison with personal regulation will be necessarily higher. Formation of the intensive culture is the long-term process of confirmation of an experience of contradictions solution in the ethnos culture. Contradictions between principles of the extensive and the intensive culture will arise at the intergroup level, for example between the groups, having mastered the principles of intensive cultures and the groups preserving preference of the extensive norms as well as at the level inside the group and even at the personality level. It will lead to the psychological tension growth in the ethnos environment. As a whole perception of the main principles of intensive model by the Russian ethnos is inevitable. Still its culture was formed initially as the extensive one and it is not clear if would lead to a loss of its best qualities or even of integrity. The Russian culture is the last extensive culture of the mankind, and the question of possibility of its revival in new conditions is very important because its loss may become fatal for the whole civilization.
Raspravljajući o porijeklu hrvatske nacije, autor u prvom dijelu odbacuje tvrdnju da se ona razvijala kao tzv. "jezična nacija". Također osporava gledište da je u tome bitnu ulogu imalo jugoslavenstvo. Zatim pokazuje da je hrvatska nacija nastala u procesu međusobnih interakcija socijalnih i povijesnih vrijednosti, koje su napokon odredile njezinu individualnost spram svake druge zajednice na cjelokupnom prostoru Srednje i Jugoistočne Europe. Sve je to autor dokazao u drugom dijelu rasprave, gdje analizira hrvatski nacionalno-politički program, koji je nastao za revolucije 1848/49. godine. U njemu su hrvatski liberali i demokrati jasno odredili individualnost hrvatske nacije i hrvatske države (ujedinjene Trojedne Kraljevine Hrvatske), i to kao jedinstvene, samostalne i autonomne moderne države u sklopu konfederalnog političkoga i društvenog sustava Srednje Europe (austrijske konfederacije). ; In the present paper the author deals with the origin and development of Croatian nation, and creation of the modern Croatian state (Tripartite Kingdom of Croatia) in the first half of the 19th century, especially during the 1848/49 revolution, at several levels: idea about nation, ideology, political and social programmes, political actions, institutions, and political community. If considered from the point of view of new socio-political processes, when transformation of a people into a modern national-political community takes place, we can see that Slavic peoples in the middle and south-eastern Europe formed multinational states, but followed some quite clear courses: formation of individual ethnic and national communities within a plural social system. Being aware of these historical processes, at the time of formation of their own national communities, these Slavic peoples (according to the level of their social and political organizations), especially in 1848, asked for a change of traditional societies and reorganization of the existing empires, not only by the language national principle, but also by the principle of sovereignty, policy of federalism and confederalism and the principles of international law and international agreement. All this should have made possible formation of essentially new political communities: individual national states within equal and democratic multinational communities, but within a new middle-class society. However, considered from the point of view of formation of the identity and individuality of Croatian nation, which is the subject of this paper, it is indisputable that Croatian national political programme and programme of confederalism as well as legal principles compatible with them (like natural and national laws, Croatian historical and constitutional laws, international law and international agreements), which were the values Croatian politicians based their national policy on since 1848, had the essential influence on the explicit quality of Croatian national-political individuality, and thus, looking historically, on the integration of Croatian nation and creation of Croatian political and state community (the united State of Croatia). The subject and vey complex structure of that political programme had an impact onto clear definition of Croatian national-political community (the united Tripartite Kingdom of Croatia) in relation to other political communities in such a multinational state as it was the Habsburg Monarchy. And that state, in their eyes should have been formed (within the new middle-class society, and a democratic and parliamentary system) on confederal basis, by means of international agreements between quite equal ethnic/national states: within the middle European Austrian confederation. In any case, Croatian nation (if we consider its national integrative processes in terms of events, in terms of idea and ideology and/or in terms of ethnic identity) was not formed nor developed as solely the so-called "language nation", as historiography would like it. For, neither is ethnos (not even ethnic community, or people, or nation, or ethnic identity) only a language-cultural category, nor the Croatian politicians and reformers took only language and culture to determine Croatian people and nation. On the contrary, Croatian nation was formed in the process of interactions of social and historical values which defined its individuality in relation to any other community on the whole area of middle and south-eastern Europe. Also, Croatian nation was not formed only as a natural community (determined by natural conditions of work and society and genealogic structure, i. e. determined by undefined Slavic union and/or undefined Slavic ethnic identity), but, in the course of processes of modernization, it was formed first of all as a historical community, based on group institutions of its own historical community. In other words, Croatian nation was formed on its own cultural, political, state and public-law traditions. It is quite clear that in this process neither Slavism, nor Illyrism, nor Yugoslavism had any role more important that the secondary one, not even for the definition of any particular ethnic identity. Illyrism and Yugoslavism had declarative ideological meaning, expressed through the idea of still non-existing community. On the contrary, Croatianism (as a national principle, as a community and as a legal, state and political system) was an expression of existence of Croatian community as reality. Thus, if we want to discuss the integration of Croatian nation and formation of Croatian political community, i. e. the united State of Croatia, we should realize that these processes were influenced by numerous values and structures, especially spiritual-cultural, political, economic, legal and social. However, the importance of political system and all its substructures – political action, political organization of the community, political programme and formation of a modern national state — should also be noted. Formation of Croatian political and state community, which was clearly stated in the Croatian national and political programme of 1848/49, assumed: 1) associating the segments of Croatian people into one political people, within one integral Croatian political community; 2) uniting of all Croatian provinces into one united Croatian state (Tripartite Kingdom of Croatia, Dreieiniges Koenigreich Kroatien). And these were the most important determinants which led to the political homogeneity and formation of Croatian nation and Croatian modern state.
Nuestra tesis se dirige a convertir en protagonistas a una serie de personajes que por lo general han oficiado el papel de actores de reparto en las investigaciones sobre las obras estelares de la Historia del Pensamiento Económico: los libros de texto que habitualmente se emplean para la formación de los estudiantes de Economía en esta "disciplina". Posar la atención sobre estos libros nos permitirá indagar acerca de la elección, el orden y la jerarquización de las obras de la Historia del Pensamiento Económico (y de sus contenidos respectivos) que se enseñan habitualmente a los economistas. Y comprender qué se enseña de la Historia del Pensamiento Económico nos permitirá al mismo tiempo distinguir qué no se enseña. Como reza el adagio spinoziano, omnis determinatio est negatio. La Tesis investiga el estudio y la enseñanza de la obra de Adam Smith por medio de libros de texto de Historia del Pensamiento Económico sobre la base del desarrollo de tres desafíos. En primer lugar, nos proponemos dejar de considerar a estos libros de texto como meros materiales de consulta neutros, cuya sola función es la de "acompañar" y "facilitar" el estudio de las grandes obras de la Historia del Pensamiento Económico que realiza el estudiante universitario. Apostamos, en cambio, a mostrar que estos libros de texto, lo hagan explícito o no, se basan en un criterio para decidir qué aspectos de las obras pasadas deben (o no) formar parte de la Historia del Pensamiento Económico, y que esas selecciones impactan en la imagen que los estudiantes de Economía se forman de esas obras y de esa historia. Como segundo desafío, nos centramos en exponer la "disección económica" de la obra smithiana realizada por los libros de texto de Historia del Pensamiento Económico, es decir, cómo han privilegiado la lectura aislada de algunos pasajes de La Riqueza de las Naciones y han dejado en un segundo plano (u omitido) su relación con La Teoría de los Sentimientos Morales. Este punto será importante no sólo por el valor que consideramos puede tener la comprensión de la empresa intelectual smithiana para la formación del economista, sino porque nos permitirá mostrar algunos aspectos del proceso de elección, orden y jerarquización de la obra smithiana que los libros de texto realizan. 3 Por último, como tercer desafío, procuramos explorar y exponer un conjunto de aspectos relevantes de las obras smithianas que no han sido tratados por los libros de texto de Historia del Pensamiento Económico. Consideramos que esa exploración podrá contribuir, en primer lugar, a la comprensión del proyecto de Economía Política del autor y de la relación que éste guardó con su proyecto filosófico; especialmente, con sus incursiones en la Jurisprudencia y la Ética. En segundo lugar, al entendimiento de algunas nociones económicas básicas presentes en la obra smithiana no como susceptibles de ser analizadas con la vara de la "ciencia experimental" hoy imperante, sino como nociones que el autor pretendió desarrollar con actitud filosófica ; Our Thesis is aimed at turning into protagonists a series of characters that have generally played the role of casting actors in the research on the stellar works of the History of Economic Thought: textbooks that are usually employ for the training of students of Economics in this "discipline". Focusing on these books will allow us to inquire about the choice, order and hierarchy of works of the History of Economic Thought (and their respective contents) that are usually taught to economists. And understanding what is taught in the History of Economic Thought will allow us at the same time to distinguish what is not taught. As the spinozian adage says, omnis determinatio est negatio. The Thesis investigates the study and teaching of Adam Smith's work through textbooks of the History of Economic Thought based on the development of three challenges. Firstly, we propose to stop considering these textbooks as mere neutral reference materials, whose sole function is to "accompany" and "facilitate" the study of the great works of the History of 4 Economic Thought. On the other hand, we would like to show that these textbooks, whether explicit or not, are based on a criterion for deciding which aspects of past works should (or may not) be part of the History of Economic Thought, and that such selections have an Impact on the image that the students of Economics form of those works and that history. As a second challenge, we focus on expounding the "economic dissection" of the smithian work done by the textbooks of the History of Economic Thought, that is, how they have privileged the isolated reading of some passages of The Wealth of Nations and have left In the background (or omitted) its relation with The Theory of Moral Sentiments. This point will be important not only because of the importance we consider the understanding of the smithian intellectual enterprise has for the formation of the economist, but because it will allow us to show the process of choice, order and hierarchy of the smithian work that textbooks perform. Finally, as a third challenge, we try to explore and present a set of relevant aspects of the smithian works that have not been developed in the textbooks of the History of Economic Thought. We believe that this exploration may contribute, first of all, to the understanding of Smith's project of Political Economy and the relationship it has with its philosophical project; especially, with his incursions into Jurisprudence and Ethics. Secondly, to the understanding of some basic economic notions present in the smithian work not as susceptible of being analyzed with the rod of the "experimental science" now prevailing but as notions that the author tried to develop with philosophical attitude. ; Fil: Piqué, María del Pilar. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Económicas. Instituto de Investigaciones Económicas; Argentina
La tesi sostiene che, mentre molte teorie di pianificazione si sono concentrate sulle differenze, il multiculturalismo e risoluzione dei conflitti sociali, non c'è ancora sufficiente approfondimento su come queste differenze possano restare profondamente irrisolte e come questa debolezza possa essere fortemente legata a razionalità contrastanti e a una sorta di "slittamento dei livelli di senso" o "equivoci" cognitivi tra i soggetti coinvolti (Bourdieu e Wacquant, 1992). Soprattutto in termini di conflitti urbani espliciti, generati non da opposti interessi economici o differenti volontà politiche, ma semplicemente da differenti background culturali e comportamentali, il livello cognitivo di com-prensione tra le persone coinvolte ha un ruolo fondamentale in termini di consapevolezza e di effi-cacia delle scelte. Dunque il legame tra pianificazione, governance, contesti istituzionali e partecipazione delle comu-nità è, prima di tutto, una questione di reciproca, profonda e vera comprensione, piuttosto che la continua ricerca di nuovi strumenti e politiche. Partendo dalla convinzione che i conflitti siano una fonte incredibile di soluzioni creative e inaspet-tate all'interno dei contesti urbani, dei sistemi di pianificazione e di condivisione di valori, questo lavoro si propone di sondare come la Mobilitazione Cognitiva (Dalton, 1984), per la cura e la prote-zione di un bene comune, può essere in grado di guidare una comunità nella lotta per i propri diritti, permettendo l'acquisizione di conoscenze politiche e abilità specifiche per il raggiungimento di decisioni condivise collettivamente, la costruzione di nuove forme di azione politica dal basso, nuove processi di educazione (Dolci, 1974) e ampliamento culturale contro il prevaricare di Egemonie politiche e sociali (Gramsci, 2007). Utilizzando metodi quantitativi e qualitativi, l'autore presenta due esperienze di pratiche insorgenti provenienti dall' Europa meridionale: (1) un tradizionale Caso-Studio nell' area marina protetta dell' Arrábida, in Portogallo, per illustrare come la mobilitazione cognitiva, volta alla genuina e profonda comprensione delle istanze portate avanti dalla collettività, può realizzare forme di partecipazione che, guardando ai problemi in termini di risorse, permettono alla comunità di collaborare democra-ticamente cercando soluzioni nuove e condivise in grado di modificare profondamente un piano isti-tuzionale il quale, a causa di una profonda contrapposizione tra poteri gioco e valori espressi, ha ge-nerato forme di conflitto dichiarato, ma anche latente; (2) un caso di Participatory Action Research nella valle del fiume Simeto, in Italia, dove le comunità locali, attraverso una forte mobilitazione collettiva, sono state in grado di difendere e curare il fiume Simeto, il più grande in termini di bacino idrogeologico in un territorio caratterizzato da scarsità idrica come la Sicilia, minacciato dalla scelta istituzionale di collocare un inceneritore proprio in un area fortemente incentrata sull'agricoltura, per il suo sostentamento economico, e profondamente legata al paesaggio circostante, in termini di riconoscimento e senso di appartenenza. Questo lavoro può avere importanti implicazioni sia per la teoria, che per la pratica di pianificazione. La scelta di un approccio multi-disciplinare, inoltre, aiuta nella comprensione di come sia possibile trasformare l'antagonismo in spirito competitivo tra soggetti, diversi per natura e per cultura, concentrandosi principalmente sul rispetto e l'apprendimento reciproco, sulla costruzione di processi veramente inclusivi e sulla scelta di soluzioni davvero condivise. ; The thesis argues that while many planning theories have focused the sight on the social differences, multiculturalism and conflicts resolution, there is not yet sufficient acknowledgement on how these differences can be deeply unsolved and how this weakness could be strongly linked with conflicting rationalities and with a 'cognitive slipping' planes of meaning (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992). Especially in terms of inexplicit urban conflicts, generated by not opposite economic interests or political will, but by simply and natural differences of the cultural and behavioral baggage, the cognitive level of understanding between people involved plays a fundamental role in terms of awareness and choices efficacy. So this works wants underlines that the link between planning, governance, institutional adjustments and community engagement is, first of all, a matter of mutual deep and real understanding, rather than new form of tools and policies. Starting from the persuasion that conflicts are an incredible source of unexpected creative solution for urban contexts, planning systems and sharing values, this paper aims to probe how a 'cognitive mobilization' (Dalton, 1984) of a community, for the care and the protection of a common good, can be able to "fight for a right" in terms of acquiring political resource and skills to reach own decisions, and constructing new form of genuine power through education (Dolci, 1974) and culture against a 'dominant discourse' (Gramsci, 2007). Using quantitative and qualitative methods, the author presents two field experiences of insurgent practices in the southern Europe: (1) a traditional Case-Study of a Marine Protected Area in Arrábida, Portugal, to illustrate how a community mobilization, that aims to understand really every form of instance and claim, can realize forms of participation that, first of all, sight problems in term of resources, and then allowed people to work democratically together building new and shared solutions able to modify deeply an institutional plan that, due to a displacement between powers and values, generated forms of conflicts between stakeholders, especially in terms of economic and decision making point of view; (2) a case of Participatory Action Research in the Simeto river valley, Italy, where local communities through a strong mobilization were able to defend and took care the river, the biggest in terms of basin in a scarcity water territory, threatened by the institutional choice to collocated an incinerator in a valley strongly based on agriculture, for its economic sustenance, and deeply linked with the landscape, for its recognition and sense of belonging to . This understanding, it is suggested, has important implications for both planning theory and practice. Choosing a multi-disciplinary approach, this work attempts to explore if and how it is possible to transform the antagonism between enemies in competitive spirit among subjects, different for nature and culture, focusing on respect and mutual learning and on the building up of processes really inclusive and choices really shared
Traffic safety is a major concern for the public, and it is an important component of the roadway management strategy. In order to improve highway safety, extensive efforts have been made by researchers, transportation engineers, Federal, State, and local government officials. With these consistent efforts, both fatality and injury rates from road traffic crashes in the United States have been steadily declining over the last six years (2006~2011). However, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA, 2013), 33,561 people died in motor vehicle traffic crashes in the United States in 2012, compared to 32,479 in 2011, and it is the first increase in fatalities since 2005. Moreover, in 2012, an estimated 2.36 million people were injured in motor vehicle traffic crashes, compared to 2.22 million in 2011. Due to the demand of highway safety improvements through systematic analysis of specific roadway cross-section elements and treatments, the Highway Safety Manual (HSM) (AASHTO, 2010) was developed by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) to introduce a science-based technical approach for safety analysis. One of the main parts in the HSM, Part D, contains crash modification factors (CMFs) for various treatments on roadway segments and at intersections. A CMF is a factor that can estimate potential changes in crash frequency as a result of implementing a specific treatment (or countermeasure). CMFs in Part D have been developed using high-quality observational before-after studies that account for the regression to the mean threat. Observational before-after studies are the most common methods for evaluating safety effectiveness and calculating CMFs of specific roadway treatments. Moreover, cross-sectional method has commonly been used to derive CMFs since it is easier to collect the data compared to before-after methods.Although various CMFs have been calculated and introduced in the HSM, still there are critical limitations that are required to be investigated. First, the HSM provides various CMFs for single treatments, but not CMFs for multiple treatments to roadway segments. The HSM suggests that CMFs are multiplied to estimate the combined safety effects of single treatments. However, the HSM cautions that the multiplication of the CMFs may over- or under-estimate combined effects of multiple treatments. In this dissertation, several methodologies are proposed to estimate more reliable combined safety effects in both observational before-after studies and the cross-sectional method. Averaging two best combining methods is suggested to use to account for the effects of over- or under- estimation. Moreover, it is recommended to develop adjustment factor and function (i.e. weighting factor and function) to apply to estimate more accurate safety performance in assessing safety effects of multiple treatments. The multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) modeling is proposed to avoid the over-estimation problem through consideration of interaction impacts between variables in this dissertation. Second, the variation of CMFs with different roadway characteristics among treated sites over time is ignored because the CMF is a fixed value that represents the overall safety effect of the treatment for all treated sites for specific time periods. Recently, few studies developed crash modification functions (CMFunctions) to overcome this limitation. However, although previous studies assessed the effect of a specific single variable such as AADT on the CMFs, there is a lack of prior studies on the variation in the safety effects of treated sites with different multiple roadway characteristics over time. In this study, adopting various multivariate linear and nonlinear modeling techniques is suggested to develop CMFunctions. Multiple linear regression modeling can be utilized to consider different multiple roadway characteristics. To reflect nonlinearity of predictors, a regression model with nonlinearizing link function needs to be developed. The Bayesian approach can also be adopted due to its strength to avoid the problem of over fitting that occurs when the number of observations is limited and the number of variables is large. Moreover, two data mining techniques (i.e. gradient boosting and MARS) are suggested to use 1) to achieve better performance of CMFunctions with consideration of variable importance, and 2) to reflect both nonlinear trend of predictors and interaction impacts between variables at the same time. Third, the nonlinearity of variables in the cross-sectional method is not discussed in the HSM. Generally, the cross-sectional method is also known as safety performance functions (SPFs) and generalized linear model (GLM) is applied to estimate SPFs. However, the estimated CMFs from GLM cannot account for the nonlinear effect of the treatment since the coefficients in the GLM are assumed to be fixed. In this dissertation, applications of using generalized nonlinear model (GNM) and MARS in the cross-sectional method are proposed. In GNMs, the nonlinear effects of independent variables to crash analysis can be captured by the development of nonlinearizing link function. Moreover, the MARS accommodate nonlinearity of independent variables and interaction effects for complex data structures. In this dissertation, the CMFs and CMFunctions are estimated for various single and combination of treatments for different roadway types (e.g. rural two-lane, rural multi-lane roadways, urban arterials, freeways, etc.) as below:1) Treatments for mainline of roadway: - adding a thru lane, conversion of 4-lane undivided roadways to 3-lane with two-way left turn lane (TWLTL)2) Treatments for roadway shoulder: - installing shoulder rumble strips, widening shoulder width, adding bike lanes, changing bike lane width, installing roadside barriers3) Treatments related to roadside features: - decrease density of driveways, decrease density of roadside poles, increase distance to roadside poles, increase distance to trees Expected contributions of this study are to 1) suggest approaches to estimate more reliable safety effects of multiple treatments, 2) propose methodologies to develop CMFunctions to assess the variation of CMFs with different characteristics among treated sites, and 3) recommend applications of using GNM and MARS to simultaneously consider the interaction impact of more than one variables and nonlinearity of predictors.Finally, potential relevant applications beyond the scope of this research but worth investigation in the future are discussed in this dissertation. ; 2015-08-01 ; Ph.D. ; Engineering and Computer Science, Civil, Environmental and Construction Engineering ; Doctoral ; This record was generated from author submitted information.
Mental model development, deeper levels of information processing, and elaboration are critical to learning. More so, individuals' metacomprehension accuracy is integral to making improvements to their knowledge base. In other words, without an accurate perception of their knowledge on a topic, learners may not know that knowledge gaps or misperceptions exist and, thus, would be less likely to correct them. Therefore, this study offered a dual-process approach that aimed at enhancing metacomprehension. One path aimed at advancing knowledge structure development and, thus, mental model development. The other focused on promoting a deeper level of information processing through processes like elaboration. It was predicted that this iterative approach would culminate in improved metacomprehension and increased learning. Accordingly, using the Graduated Concept Model Development (GCMD) approach, the role of learner-generated concept model development in facilitating metacomprehension and knowledge acquisition was examined. Concept maps have had many roles in the learning process as mental model assessment tools and advanced organizers. However, this study examined the process of concept model building as an effective training tool. Whereas, concept maps functioning as advanced organizers are certainly beneficial, it would seem that the benefits of having a learner examine and amend the current state of their knowledge through concept model development would prove more effective for learning. In other words, learners looking at an advanced organizer of the training material may feel assured that they have a thorough understanding of it. Only when they are forced to create a representation of the material would the gaps and misperceptions in their knowledge base likely be revealed. In short, advanced organizers seem to rely on recognition, where concept model development likely requires recalling and understanding 'how' and 'why' the interrelationships between concepts exist. Therefore, the Graduated Concept Model Development (GCMD) technique offered in this study was based on the theory that knowledge acquisition improves when learners integrate new information into existing knowledge, assign elaborated meanings to concepts, correct misperceptions, close knowledge gaps, and strengthen accurate connections between concepts by posing targeted questions against their existing knowledge structures. This study placed an emphasis on meaningful learning and suggested a process by which newly introduced concepts would be manipulated for the purpose of improving metacomprehension by strengthening accurate knowledge structures and mental model development, and through deeper and elaborated information processing. Indeed, central to improving knowledge deficiencies and misunderstandings is metacomprehension, and the constructing of concepts maps was hypothesized to improve metacomprehension accuracy and, thus, learning. This study was a one-factor between-groups design with concept map type as the independent variable, manipulated at four levels: no concept map, concept map as advanced organizer, learner-built concept map with feedback, and learner-built concept map without feedback. The dependent variables included performance (percent correct) on a declarative and integrative knowledge assessment, mental model development, and metacomprehension accuracy. Participants were 68 (34 female, 34 male, ages 18-35, mean age = 21.43) undergraduate students from a major southeastern university. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions, and analysis revealed no significant differences between the groups. Upon arrival, participants were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions. Participants then progressed through the three stages of the experiment. In Stage I, participants completed forms regarding informed consent, general biographical information, and task self-efficacy. In Stage II, participants completed the self-paced tutorial based on the Distributed Dynamic Decision Making (DDD) model, a simulated military command and control environment aimed at creating events to encourage team coordination and performance (for a detailed description, see Kleinman & Serfaty, 1989). The manner by which participants worked through the tutorial was determined by their assigned concept map condition. Upon finishing each module of the tutorial, participants then completed a metacomprehension prediction question. In Stage III, participants completed the computer-based knowledge assessment test, covering both declarative and integrative knowledge, followed by the metacomprehension postdiction question. Participants then completed the card sort task, as the assessment of mental model development. Finally, participants completed a general study survey and were debriefed as to the purpose of the study. The entire experiment lasted approximately 2 to 3 hours. Results indicated that the GCMD condition showed a stronger indication of metacomprehension accuracy, via prediction measures, compared with the other three conditions (control, advanced organizer, and feedback), and, specifically, significantly higher correlations than the other three conditions in declarative knowledge. Self-efficacy measures also indicated that the higher metacomprehension accuracy correlation observed in the GCMD condition was likely the result of the intervention, and not due to differences in self-efficacy in that group of participants. Likewise, the feedback and GCMD conditions led to significantly high correlations for metacomprehension accuracy based on levels of understanding on the declarative knowledge tutorial module (Module 1). The feedback condition also showed similar responses for the integrative knowledge module (Module 2). The advanced organizer, feedback, and GCMD conditions were also found to have significantly high correlation of self-reported postdiction of performance on the knowledge assessment and the actual results of the knowledge assessment results. However, results also indicated that there were no significant findings between the four conditions in mental model assessment and knowledge assessment. Nevertheless, results support the relevance of accurate mental model development in knowledge assessment outcomes. Retrospectively, two opposing factors may have complicated efforts to detect additional differences between groups. From one side, the experimental measures may not have been rigorous enough to filter out the effect from the intervention itself. Conversely, software usability issues and the resulting limitations in experimental design may have worked negatively against the two concept mapping conditions and, inadvertently, suppressed effects of the intervention. Future research in the GCMD approach will likely review cognitive workload, concept mapping software design, and the sensitivity of the measures involved. ; 2004-12-01 ; Ph.D. ; Arts and Sciences, Department of Psychology ; Doctorate ; This record was generated from author submitted information.
Building upon research done by Carl J Richard, and Ricardo Herrera, this research paper will discuss how the Ancient Greek and Roman ideals that Alden Partridge was exposed to through his life growing up in close proximity to the time of the American Revolution and resulted in his development of a values based educational system that would produce citizen soldiers who would be able to serve their country both in the military and civilian sectors. ; Winner of the 2021 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category. ; There is Nothing More Inherently American: How the rebellion of Alden Partridge and Greek and Roman influences lead to the rejuvenation of the American education system Alex Rollins Professor McCann HI 243 Historical Methods 4 December 2020 1 Alden Partridge believed that the future of the new American Republic would be secured or lost as a result of the education of its youth. Living in a time of great reform and turmoil in the first 50 years after the founding of the American Republic, Alden Partridge was subject to the same influences of the Founding Fathers: The Ancient Greeks and Romans. The ideals of the Ancient Greeks and Romans penetrated the core of the educational curriculum that most European men received in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and served as the catalyst for the fight against British tyranny in the American Revolution. Partridge was a product of Dartmouth College and the United States Military Academy at West Point and was a man that was so radical that he was removed from his position of Superintendent at West Point by a Summary Court Martial in 1818. Despite his humiliation at the United States Military Academy, Partridge still retained his passion of educating the American youth. Partridge made the decision to create his own institution, the American Scientific and Literary Academy in Norwich Vermont in 1819 which is now known as Norwich University. Building upon research done by Carl J Richard, and Ricardo Herrera, this research paper will discuss how the Ancient Greek and Roman ideals that Alden Partridge was exposed to through his life growing up in close proximity to the time of the American Revolution and resulted in his development of a values based educational system that would produce citizen soldiers who would be able to serve their country both in the military and civilian sectors. Partridge embedded the Ancient Greek and Roman principles of individual freedom, duty to state, civic virtue, and ardent patriotism in order to create an educational system that prepares 2 ndividual citizens and aimed to ultimately "qualify them for all of those high responsibilities resting upon a citizen of this free republic." 1 Alden Partridge was a product of the time in which he lived: The age of the early American Republic. Hailing from Norwich Vermont, Partridge was educated in the "neighborhood schools" surrounding the town.2 Partridge eventually gained admittance to Dartmouth College, where he was introduced into "the mainstream of intellectual thought of the eighteenth century."3 While attending Dartmouth, Partridge developed expert level proficiency in Latin and Greek classics, arithmetic, grammar, and reading in a colonial era grammar school.4 These schools were known for having a "uniformed and standardized" education that was centered around knowledge in Greek and Latin as those languages were seen as the keys to college admission at the time.5 Like most children at the time who attended these school, Partridge most likely received instruction in arithmetic, Euclid's books, became familiar with the works of Virgil, Horace, Homer, and Xenophon, and Cicero's orations. Partridge would have been bombarded with classical influences and would have most likely developed an appreciation for living a moral and virtuous life like most Greek and Roman works compel their audience to do. Partridge Despite being a gifted academic blessed with the ability to teach, Partridge was drawn towards service to his community in the militia. Desiring to follow in his father and uncle's footsteps, Partridge joined the Regiment of Artillerists and was ordered to attend the United States Military Academy at West Point in the years immediately following its founding in 1802.6 While at West Point Partridge received training in military engineering and gained such a 1 Norwich University Cadet Handbook, iii. 2 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 1. 3 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 1. 4 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 2. 5 Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, 55. 6 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 3. 3 profound proficiency that he was later asked to instruct military engineering following his commissioning as an officer. He became proficiency in all aspects of military engineering, the employment of field artillery and infantry operations. While attending West Point, Partridge noticed several problems with the education system. Partridge wanted to ensure that a commission would only be given when one's studies are complete and thought that there needed to be tougher academic regulations to obtain a degree from the institution. Partridge contributed a great deal to West Point including introducing moral education and instruction in the application of living a life based off of the values of duty, obedience, and "morality, virtue and honor." 7 Alden Partridge excelled during his time instructing at West Point and took great strides to improve West Point in order to further the developments of the cadets and in his mind, ultimately secure the safety of the early American Republic. At the end of 1814, Partridge traveled to Washington DC to meet with Secretary of War Monroe about pushing more funding towards West Point and providing more support to the changes that he desired to make. When he returned to West Point however, Partridge found that "reports injurious to his reputation had been industriously circulated" and the faculty had begun to enact a plan to change the philosophy and overall purpose of West Point.8 These men included Andrew Ellicott, Jared Mansfield, and CPT David B. Douglass and their goals included to convert West Point into a civilian run school where the instructors would not be military officers.9 Their overall redesign of the institution included removing the Corps of Engineers as the primary operators of the school, introduce an entirely civilian staff, and to redesign the training process to prioritize developing engineers to serve the nation rather than military 7 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 203. 8 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 33. 9 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 51. 4 officers. 10 These three men pushed for Partridge to be court martialed under these 4 charges: 1.) Neglect and unofficer like conduct, 2.) Four accounts of unofficer like conduct that were to the "prejudice of good order and military discipline" for showing favoritism to cadets, 3.) Disobedience to orders for contradicting an order from a general officer and the President, and 4.) Mutiny, and the beginning and exciting mutiny.11 The Court martial which charged Alden Partridge of these crimes forced his departure from the United States Military Academy at West Point and serves as the mark of his new beginning as a civilian. After settling into civilian life, Partridge wrote President Monroe in November of 1820, "My employment since I left military service, I believe has been both honorable to myself and useful to my country and I now find myself placed at the head of a Seminary, founded by my own Exertions, and the first of the kind established in the United States-the Superintendency of which I hold, not at the option of any Human Being."12 This seminary is referring to the American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy, which became known as Norwich University. Partridge's Academy mirrored the educational background of the Ancient Greeks and Romans and was subjected to the influence of classical ideals of civic virtue, and duty to state that perpetrated educated men during the time of the Early American Republic. Partridge claimed that "In organizing the plan for this institution, I have taken for my guide, in part, the Constitution of the United States", a document filled with Roman Republican values.13 Partridge hoped to instill those values of duty to state and enthusiastically supported how the Constitution supported how all citizens should be used as a force to protect not only their own interests, but 10 Webb, Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833, 52. 11 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 89. 12 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 109. 13 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 138. 5 also serve as a vanguard against tyranny and control by elites. When the Constitution was written, it was the "time when the influences of the classics was at its height." 14 Drawing from their Classical education, the Founding Fathers relied heavily on the structure of the Roman Republic when designing the structure of the American experiment in liberty. The forefront of the Republican ideology that was present during this time was a counterculture movement against monarchical governments. The Founding Fathers were inspired by the stories of Sparta portrayed by Aristotle to "create a republic [established] on the natural rights of the citizen, even while urging the sacrifice for the common good."15 The Spartan state connected the concept of citizenship to the republican concept of duty to the state. Partridge, much like the Founding Fathers, admired "the Spartan's intense military training" which was the medium through which a Spartan citizen, much like an American one, carried out his duty to the state.16The Spartan State required all military aged males to undergo intense military training throughout the course of their youth because "individual Spartans could be conscripted by the state at any moment and could only be freed [from their duties] by the state" to return to society as normal citizens. Partridge followed a similar ideology within his citizen-solider concept that he wished to instill at his institution. Partridge believed that the American people should be "an informed people [who could] protect their liberties" which would be enabled through his scientific military instruction.17 Partridge also intended for his students to maintain a "Spartan life" which would force those students to focus on their studies both academically and militarily.18 14 Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, 174. 15 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 23. 16 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 31. 17 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 139. 18 Baker, "The Partridge Connection", 139 6 The Roman concept of citizenship lay in being an individual who held themselves to high moral standards, opposed corruption, defended liberty, and believed in their service to the state. Partridge held similar thoughts. In the 1820 prospectus for the A.S.L.M., Partridge outlined the classes that would meet his desired end state of creating model citizen-soldiers. Those classes included instruction in Latin and Greek, the sciences, History, logic, artillery gunnery, military tactics, and the ancient tactics of the phalanx and the legion to provide historical context as to how the US military has evolved while still retaining its classical influences. Partridge's citizen soldier concept was no doubt influenced by Cincinnatus, the Roman epitome of civic virtue and citizen-soldiery and the impact that he had on the Founding Fathers and the founding of the United States. Cincinattus was a Roman statesman who seized the reins of power to fight an invading army in a time of crisis and then voluntarily gave the up to return to his farm. Just as Patrick Henry believed that the fighters of the revolution were "sons of Cincinnatus…that served their country without ruining it", Partridge's institution would develop the same caliber of individual, who upon graduation would be postured to serve as a leader in the militia and his community.19 American soldiers in the years of the Early Republic embraced the ideas of liberty, citizenship, republicanism, and democracy. These ideals were utilized in the curriculum at Partridge's Institution which he linked to the aspect of serving in the military and helped develop as the corner stone of the military and overall American ethos. Partridge believed strongly in military service acting as the platform from which moral education is built on which aligns with the Roman principles of civic virtue and the Greek ideals of protecting individual liberty. Partridge sought to develop the American spirit which collectively resides in fighting 19 Richard, Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts, 125. 7 tyranny as a soldier, and then having the ability to return to society after service to better the nation in a different capacity. Partridge was a devout believer in the fact that military service is "basic to the very definition of American Nationalism" and helped American citizens define their relationship to the American Republic.20 Partridge stated in his Lecture on National Defense that "The liberties of Romer were safe, while every Roman citizen considered and felt himself a soldier."21 Using the same logic, Partridge sought secure the liberties of the American citizen at his institution by placing the Citizen-Soldier concept as the cornerstone of his curriculum. While this idea of having a militia composed of individual citizens was the key to America's success in its revolt against Britain, it was not a popular idea at the time. In a correspondence on the subject of Partridge's Lecture on Defense between William Sumner the Adjutant General of the Commonwealth and John Adams, the former President of the United States, Sumner presents his distaste of having a organized militia. Sumner stated that a "Militia, however large, never can be; for it is composed of citizens only, armed [and trained] for the preservation of their own privileges."22 Partridge did not agree with that belief at all. In fact Partridge made it where citizen-soldiers trained at his institution would identify with the concepts of self-sacrifice and catering towards the needs of the community and ultimately the state "became the touchstones of republican virtue and self-worth."23 In his Lecture on Education, Partridge highlighted that he would develop citizen-soldiers and fix the issues that he saw at West Point and in the American Education System as a whole. 20 Herrera, For Liberty and the Republic, 87. 21 Partridge, "Lecture on Defense", 2. 22 Adams, Partridge, and Sumner, Observations on National Defence, Drawn from Capt. Patridge's Lecture on That Subject, and from Gen. Sumner's Letter to the Venerable John Adams, on the Importance of the Militia System, 20. 23 Herrera, For Liberty and the Republic, 87. 8 Partridge's lecture on education presents the argument that investment in the elementary education of the American Youth is paramount because it is "the rising generation that we are to look for the future guardians and protectors of the inestimable rights and privileges."24 Partridge states that he does not believe that education should be tailored to any specific job but instead believes that education should be tailored to prepare "a youth in the best possible manner for the correct discharge of the duties of any situation that he may be placed."25 Partridge cites 6 major deficiencies in the education system. The first deficiency that Partridge highlights is that the education system is "not sufficiently practical, nor properly adapted to the various duties an American citizen may be called upon to discharge."26 Partridge observed that the American youth who were "destined for a liberal education"27 would be required to study Greek and Latin more than they were required to study their native language of English which he believed to be extremely impractical. Partridge states that while the youth are required to gain proficiency in dead languages, they are not taught relative subjects such as government, international relations, and physical fitness. These are all subjects that the American youth must be proficient in to be productive citizens in the civilian sector of society or to be the "defender of their countries rights and the avengers of her wrongs" as leaders in the military."28 Partridge asserts that if the education system does not set up American citizens to perform their duty and contribute to society, then it is nothing short of defective and sets America up for failure. Partridge notes that there is additionally a neglect of physical fitness and physical education within the American education system. Identifying physical fitness as an "absolute 24 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 1. 25 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 26 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 27 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 28 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 9 necessity," Partridge believes that a citizen's ability to endure fatigue and their ability to take care of themselves is critical to the creation and maintenance of the American workforce. 29 In order to have a strong, productive workforce, Partridge believes that it is up to the individual citizen to maintain a high level of physical fitness so that they do not "prematurely die or linger out a comparatively useless and miserable existence."30 Partridge additionally believes that it is important for citizens to be able of "enduring exposure, hunger, and fatigue."31 Partridge links one's ability to exert themselves physically to their ability exert themselves mentally and asserts that a strong body houses a strong mind. Partridge additionally identified that the current system of education fails to manage time adequately and creates an environment that fosters a sense of idleness and lackadaisicalness. Partridge believed that with proper time management, that the American youth could occupy their time with productive activities that reinforce what they are learning in the classroom. Fourthly, Partridge claims that students should live frugally while obtaining their education. He believes that access to more wealth allows students to live extravagant lifestyles that are "highly injurious" to the individual and are not conducive to a productive academic environment.32 Partridge states that giving youths money "and allowing them a portion of idle time and it may be viewed as a miracle if a large portion of them do not become corrupt in morals.[and] they are prepared to become nuisances" to society and not benefit the greater good.33 Fifthly, Partridge highlights that all students should not be required to pursue the same courses of study as everyone has their own strengths and weakness. Partridge believes that when 29 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 2. 30 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 3. 31 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 3. 32 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 33 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 10 one is forced to pursue a course of study that does not interest them that they will never excel in that field, achieve a state of proficiency in the subject, and will develop a general disdain to engage in academic activities. Finally, Partridge states that he does not believe there should be a set time limit to complete one's education and advocates for one to be able to work at their own pace. According to Partridge it is pertinent that a student is able to progress as quickly or as slowly as he or she wants so that they develop a "thorough understanding of the subject" that they choose to pursue. 34 Partridge sought to fix the deficiencies he presented in his lecture in his own institution where he would integrate military discipline and organization, the instruction of military science, history, and general sciences within the academic environment. It is through military organization and discipline that Partridge hopes to instill the Roman traits of honor, manliness, and obedience in the individual citizen to aid in his/her success in the academic environment. The instruction of military science reinforces the fostering of the traits of a soldier and strengthens the skill of the militia to eliminate the need of a large standing army that has the potential to infringe on the freedoms of the American citizen. Partridge believed heavily in incorporating the study of history to supplement the instruction of military science by providing case studies and context as to why military operations are conducted in the manner that they are and highlight the principles on which victory is created. Through this integration of military science, history, and general science instruction, Partridge hoped to increase the financial stability of the early American Republic by lowering defense spending and thereby decreasing 34 Partridge, Lecture on Education, 4. 11 national debt. Partridge's educational model would achieve this as a result of military training/defense spending would be tied to the general education of the American population. In examining whether the ideals of the Ancient Greeks and Romans influenced Alden Partridge, it is difficult to say given the time and access needed to peruse hundreds upon hundreds of documents. Partridge's life was devoted to the education of America's youth because he believed that the success of the American Republic pivoted on the education of the youth. It can safely be asserted that Alden Partridge's educational ideology correlates with the Greek and Roman values of civic virtue, and duty to state; however, correlation does not equal causation. In examining three archival sources from the Partridge Papers and other secondary sources pertaining to the subject of the early American Education system and Classical Education as a whole it can only be asserted that if Partridge was subject to Ancient Greek and Roman ideals, then they implicitly impacted his plan to rejuvenate the American system of education along with his experiences both good and bad instructing at the United States Military Academy at West Point. 12 Annotated Bibliography Archival Sources from Norwich Partridge, Alden. The Partridge Papers. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Partridge, Alden. Lecture on Education, 1828. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Partridge, Alden. Lecture on National Defense, 1824. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. • Observations on National Defense, Drawn from CPT Partridge's Lecture, 1824. 5th Floor Special Collections. Norwich University Archives, Kreitzberg Library, Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont, United States. These sources from the Partridge Collection at the Norwich University Archives provide Partridge's opinion on education, national defense, and the opinion of other key players in American history such as John Adams and John C. Calhoun regarding Partridge's idea of national defense. These sources are very cut and dry in addition to being easy to read and are critical to my research as they present the revolutionary ideas of the citizen-soldier concept and Partridge's educational reform straight from the man himself. Primary Sources Painter, Jacqueline S., Dean Paul. Baker, and United States. Army. Court-martial (Partridge : 1817). The Trial of Captain Alden Partridge, Corps of Engineers: Proceedings of a General Court-Martial Convened at West Point in the State of New York, on Monday, 20th October 1817, Major General Winfield Scott, President. Norwich University Library Occasional Paper; No. 3. Northfield, Vt.: Friends of the Norwich University Library, 1987. This source is the transcript from the court-martial of CPT Alden Partridge that led to his dismissal as superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point. This transcript is critical to my research as it gives historical context to a key event in CPT Partridge's life that pushed him to go out and create his own educational institution. This source reveals the immense controversy that surrounded the case and highlights a key time in the development of American Military education. 13 Secondary Sources Baker, Dean Paul. "The Partridge Connection: Alden Partridge and Southern Military Education," (PhD diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), 1986. This is a dissertation that was submitted to UNC Chapel Hill to satisfy the requirements for a History PhD for Dean Paul Baker. The fifth chapter titled "The Captain's Academy" provides a unique presentation of how Partridge's Academy fits in the larger picture of American Education at the time of the early 19th century. Baker additionally covers how Partridge spearheaded educational reform and inspired others to do so. Baker highlights while Partridge's academy specialized in training military leaders, its greatest contribution to society was training men for civilian careers. Harmon, Ernest N. Norwich University: Its Founder and His Ideals. Newcomen Address, New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1951. MAJ. GEN. Ernest Harmon was the Professor of Military Science and Commandant of Cadets at Norwich University from 1927-1931. This is a small 31 paged primary source document that explains the founding of Norwich University and how it has contributed to American success both on the battlefield and on domestic soil. This document provides a look as to how the leader of Norwich University as an institution views the ideals of Alden Partridge and additionally provides an overview on Norwich's establishment following Partridge's removal from West Point. Hanson, Victor Davis., and John Heath. Who Killed Homer?: The Demise of Classical Education and the Recovery of Greek Wisdom. 1st paperback ed. San Francisco [Calif.]: Encounter Books, 2001. Victor David Hanson is a Professor of Greek at California State University at Fresno and is a renowned author, military historian. He additionally holds a PhD in the classics from Stanford University. Who Killed Homer? describes the importance of understanding Greek culture and its contribution to the development of the United States and Western Civilization as a whole. The second section of the work is entitled "Thinking Like a Greek" and provides a clear and concise overview of what ideas and ideology is considered to be "Greek" and gives a broad context as to the Greek influences on one's life. This is critical to this paper as it presents Greek ideas and ideology simply as interpreted by a leading expert in the Ancient Greeks. Herrera, Ricardo A. For Liberty and the Republic: The American Citizen as Soldier, 1775-1861. 1 online resource. vols. Warfare and Culture. New York: New York University Press, 2015. Ricardo Herrera is an associate Professor at the US Army Command General Staff College. This source relies primarily on unpublished manuscript sources to convey the ethos of the citizen soldier concept from America's birth to the breaking of the Civil War. Herrera goes into great detail as to how in the mind of an American, the idea of citizenship is closely linked 14 with being a soldier. This source is pertinent in my research because it displays how in early American History, the ideals of liberty, citizenship, republicanism, and democracy are linked to serving in the military. The identification of these ideals in the citizen-soldier ethos can be utilized to highlight similarities to the ethos that existed in Ancient Greek/Roman society and that has transcended the Hellenic age to the time of America's birth and the early 19th century when Alden Partridge founded his academy. Howe, Daniel. "Classical Education in America." The Wilson Quarterly (1976-) 35, no. 2 (2011): 31–36. The focus of this source is how classical education has developed and been implemented throughout America History starting just after the Revolution. The article gives a fantastic overview of how classical ideas influenced the creation of America and remained a cornerstone from which the republic was developed. I plan to implement this source in my research by using it to provide an overview of how classical ideas remain present during the time of Alden Partridge, and how they influenced his upbringing and his personal education in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Gummere, Richard M. The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition : Essays in Comparative Culture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674284531. This source is a compilation of essays that discuss how the classical tradition influenced Colonial Americans. One essay is entitled "Colonial Reactions to a Classical Education" and discusses the classically based curriculum of the colonial grammar schools. Highlighting the emphasis placed on reading Greek authors such as Homer, Xenophon, Euclid, and developing an appreciation for learning Greek and Latin, this chapter aids me in my research paper by providing a detailed look as to what the curriculum of the early classical schools were and helps me develop a better picture of what Partridge's education was as an American youth. Norwich University Cadet Handbook. The Office of the Commandant, 2020. This is the handbook with all of the knowledge that is required to learn as a first-year cadet at Norwich University. The Office of the Commandant releases a new one each year. In this book you will find the Norwich Cadet's Creed, a brief history of Norwich University, a list and brief bio of the medal of honor winners and other things such as that. 15 Richard, Carl J. Greeks & Romans Bearing Gifts: How the Ancients Inspired the Founding Fathers. 1st Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009. Carl J. Richard is a professor of history at the university of Louisiana. This source explains how the Founding Fathers of the United States were influenced by their education in the Greek and Roman Works. Richard explains that the ideals of civic virtue, individual liberty, checks and balances on government, were derived from the classics and aided the Founding Father's in their incitement of revolting against tyranny. This source critical to my research because it specifically outlines what about the Greeks and Romans influenced the creation of America and will provide ample amounts of evidence that I can tie to the ideology that Partridge shares with the Founding Fathers. Thelin, John R. A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. This source covers the overview of higher education in America from the founding of colleges in the colonial era to the 21st century. This source goes into detail as to the curriculum and teaching methods utilized at early American universities such as Dartmouth, Alden Partridge's Alma Mater prior to attending the United States Military Academy at West Point. I plan to utilize this source in my research paper to provide insight as to what Partridge's educational experience was like at Dartmouth and sheds light as to what the potential influences are on his educational philosophy that was considered so radical at the time. Urban, Wayne J., and Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. American Education: A History. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. Accessed November 5, 2020. This source covers the history of American education from the precolonial era to the twenty-first century. The source develops a whole chapter to the development of the education system from 1776-1830 entitled "Education and the Building of a New Nation" that covers the influences of classical education on the development of civic virtue and duty to state that Partridge sought to instill in his students at his institution. The author covers the classical influences on the enlightenment that perpetrated the thoughts of the founders of America and explains how those classical ideas remained tied to the development of citizens within the educational system. I plan to use this work in my research paper by using it to explain the type of school that Alden Partridge attended and to show how common the proliferation of classical ideals were in 18th-19th century society . 16 Webb, Lester A. Captain Alden Partridge and the United States Military Academy, 1806-1833,. Northport, Ala.: American Southern, 1965. This source is a biographic overview of Partridge's upbringing in the Vermont frontier all the way to when he was fired at West Point. Lester Webb presents a thoroughly researched work that compiles information from varying primary sources regarding Alden Partridge and his career as a teacher of mathematics and military science. I plan to incorporate this source in my research paper by using it to help me provide context as to how Alden Partridge was brought up and to help me describe what educational influences he was subject to since not much is known about his childhood. Wood, Gordon S. The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States. Penguin, 2011. Gordon S. Wood is a Pulitzer Prize winning historian that has written several books on the American Revolution. This work focuses on the emphasis that Ancient Greece/Rome played in the development of the American Republic and how education is a cornerstone of creating citizens and instilling a sense of pride and involvement in the activities of one's nation. I plan to implement this work in my research by using it to draw parallels between the ideals of the Greeks and Romans that the ideal of America was based on and the educational ideals and citizen soldier concept developed and implemented by CPT Alden Partridge.
Issue 23.5 of the Review for Religious, 1964. ; Constitution on the Liturgy by Vatican Council II 561 About the Constitution on the Liturgy by Paul VI 592 Persons and the Religious Life by Paul J. Bernadicou, S.J. 596 Work: A Becoming Process by Sister M. Judith, O.S.B. 604 Utilizing the Psychologist's Report by Alan F. Greenwald 612 Decision-Making by Richard M. McKeon 616 Positive Examination of Conscience by Daniel L. Araoz, S.J. 621 Examination of Conscience for the Religious Woman by Sisters Vincent Ferrer and M. Elizabeth, S.P. 625 Ancient Abbess and Modern Superior by Sister Marie Estelle, &D.S., 633 The Need to Be Needed by;Sister Teresa Margaret, O.D.C. 644 Survey of Roman Documents 652 Views, News, Previews 657 Questions and Answers 660 Book Reviews 666 VOLUM~ 23 September 1964 VATICAN COUNCIL II Constitution on the Liturgy PAUL, BISHOP THE SERVANT OF THE SERVANTS OF GOD TOGETHER WITH THE FATHERS OF THE COUNCIL FOR A PERPETUAL RECORD OF THE MATTER 1. This Council,* dedicated as it is to the things that pertain to holiness, has the following aims as its objectives: the steady growth of the Christian life of the faithful; the better adaptation to the needs of our times of those things that are subject to change; the fostering of whatever can contribute to the uniting of all believers in Christ; and the strengthening of whatever conduces to the leading of all men into the Church's fold. It is because of these aims that the Council is convinced that it is also its duty to make special provisions for the renewal and the promotion of the sacred liturgy. 2. For the liturgy, through which, especially in the di-vine Eucharistic sacrifice, "the work of our redemption is continued," 1 is of the highest importance in bringing it about that the faithful by their lives express and manifest to others the mystery of Christ and the genuine nature of the true Church. It is characteristic of the Church to be at one and the same time human and divine, visible yet endowed with invisible realities, devoted to action yet dedicated to contemplation, present in the world and yet * The original Latin text of the Constitution appeared in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, v. 56 (1964), pp. 97-138. In this translation, chapter titles, subtitles, and paragraph numbers are taken from the original. x Secret of the Ninth Sunday after Pentecost. ÷ ÷ ÷ Vatican Council 11 VOLUME 23, 1964 561 ÷ ÷ ¥ot~:mt o~nci~ I! REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 562 a pilgrim in the world. These aspects of the Church axe so constituted that the human in her is directed and sub-ordinated to the divine, the visible to the invisible, action to contemplation, the present world to that future city for which we are striving.2 Those who are within the Church are day by day built up by the liturgy into a temple cou-secrated to the Lord, into a dwelling place for God in the Spirit) into the complete development of the fullness of Christ.4 At the same time the liturgy notably strengthens their power to preach Christ, and in this way it shows the Church to those who are outside her as the standard lifted up among the nations5 under which the scattered sons of God may be gathered together into unity0 to the extent that there may be one fold and one shepherd.7 3. Wherefore, this Council judges that it should call attention to the following principles concerning the pro.- motion and the renewal of the liturgy and that it should set forth practical norms in the matter. Among these principles and norms there are some which can and should be applied both to the Roman rite and to all the other rites. The practical norms, however, which are given below are to be understood as applying only to the Roman rite except in the case of those which in the very nature of things affect other rites as well. 4. Finally, this Council, in faithful obedience to tradi-tion, affirms that the Church considers all lawfully recog-nized rites to be of equal right and dignity; that she is determined to preserve them in the future and to foster them in every way; and that she desires that, where neces-sary, they be carefully revised in the spirit of sound tradi-tion and given a new vigor to meet the circumstances and the needs of today. CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES ON THE RENEWAL AND PROMOTION OF THE SACRED LITURGY I. The Nature o[ the Sacred Liturgy and Its Importance [or the Li[e o[ the Church 5. God who "wishes all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth" (1 Tim 2:4) and who "at many times and in different ways formerly spoke to the fathers through the prophets" (Heb 1:1), when the fullness of time came, sent His Son, the Word become flesh, anointed :See Heb 13:14. sSee Eph 2:21-2. ~See Eph 4:13. nSee Is ll:12. nSee Jn 11:52. *See Jn 10:16. by the Holy Spirit, to proclaim the gospel to the poor, to heal the contrite of heart,s to be a "bodily and spiritual physician,''9 and to be the mediator between God and man.xo For His humanity in the unity of the persgn of the Word was the instrument of our salvation. Hence in Christ "there came forth the perfect achievement of our reconciliation and there was given to us the fullness of divine worship." 11 This work of human redemption and of perfect glori-fication of God to which the mighty works of God among the people of the Old Testament were a prelude was achieved by Christ the Lord principally through the pas-chal mystery of His holy Passion, His Resurrection from the dead, and His glorious Ascension whereby "dying He destroyed our death, and rising, he restored our life." 12 For from the side of Christ sleeping on the cross in death there came forth the wondrous sacrament of the whole Church.13 6. Accordingly, just as Christ was sent by the Father, so He Himself sent the Apostles, filled with the Holy Spirit, not only to preach the gospel to every creature1~ and to proclaim that the Son of God by His resurrection and death had freed us from the power of Satan1~ and from death and that He had brought us into the kingdom of the Father, but also to continue the work of salvation which they proclaimed. This they were to do by means of the sacrifice and the sacraments around which all liturgical life revolves. Thus, by baptism men are grafted on the paschal mystery of Christ;13 they receive the spirit of adop-tion as sons "in which we cry out: Abba, Father" (Rom 8:15), and they thus become those true worshipers whom the Father seeks.1T So also, whenever they eat the Lord's Supper, they proclaim the death of the Lord until He comes,is This was the reason why on that very day of Pentecost when the Church appeared in the world "those who welcomed the preaching" of Peter "were baptized." And they "continued in the teaching of the Apostles, in SSee Is 61:1; Lk 4:18. s St. Ignatius of Antioch, Ad Ephesios, 7,2; Patres apostolici, F. X. Funk, ed. (Tiibingen: H. Laupp, 1901), v. 1, p. 218. ~°See 1 Tim 2:5. a Sacramentarium Veronerme, C. Mohlberg, ed. (Rome: Herder, 1956), n. 1265, p. 162. ~ Roman Missal, Easter Preface. l~See St. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos, 138,2; "Corpus Christianorum," v. 40 (Turnholt: Brepols, 1956), p. 1991; and the Oration after the Second Reading of Holy Saturday in the Roman Missal before the reform of Holy Week. 1'See Mk 16:15. ~See Acts 26:18. l"See Rom 6:4; Eph 2:6; Col $:1; 2 Tim 2:11. ~ See Jn 4:23. ~See 1 Cor 11:26. 4. 4. 4. Liturgy 4. 4, 4. REV[EW FOR RELIG]OUS the sharing of the breaking of bread, and in prayer . They praised God continually, and all the people spected them" (Acts 2:41-7). From that time on, the Church has never failed to meet together in a body to celebrate the paschal mystery by reading those things "in all of Scripture that were about him" (Lk 24:27), by cele-brating the Eucharist in which "the victorious triumph of His death is once more made present," 10 and at the same time by giving thanks "to God for the indescribable gift" (2 Cot 9:15) possessed in Christ Jesus "to the praise of his glory" (Eph 1:12) through the power of the Holy Spirit. 7. For the accomplishment of so great a work, Christ is always present in His Church, especially in her liturgi-cal actions. He is present in the Sacrifice of the Mass not only in the person of His minister ("It is the same [Christ] who now makes the offering through the ministry of His priests and who formerly offered Himself on the cross" 2o) but especially in the Eucharistic species. By His power He is so present in the sacraments that when anyone baptizes, it is Christ Himself who baptizes.21 He is present in His word, for it is He who speaks when the Sacred Scriptures are read in the Church. Finally, He is present when the Church prays and sings; for it was He who made the promise: "When two or three have gathered together. in my name, I am right there among them" (Mr 18:20). It is true to say that Christ always associates the Church with Himself in this immense work whereby God is per-fectly glorified and men are made holy. She is His beloved Bride who calls out to her Lord and through Him offers her worship to the eternal Father. Rightly, then, is the liturgy regarded as an exercise of the priestly office of Jesus Christ in which human sanctifi-cation is signified by sensible signs and effected in a way corresponding to those signs and in which public worship in its entirety is performed by the Mystical Body of Jesus Christ, that is, by the Head and His members. Accordingly, every liturgical celebration, since it is a work of Christ the priest and of His Body which is the Church, is a surpassingly holy action the efficacy of which is equaled by no other action of the Church on the same ground and to the same degree. 19Council o~ Trent, Thi'rteenth Session, October 11, 1551, Decree on the Eucharist, c. 5; Goncilium Tridentinttm: Diariorum, actorttm, epistolarum, tractatuttm nova collectio, ed. by the Gfirres Society, t. 7 (Freiburg: Herder, 1961), p. 202. ~°Council of Trent, Twenty-second Session, September 17, 1562, Doctrine on the Sacrifice of the Mass, c. 2; Concilium Tridentinttm: Diariorttm, actorum, epistolarum, tractatuttrn nova collectio, ed. by the Gfirres Society, t. 8 (Freiburg: Herder, 1919), p. 960. a See St. Augustine, In loannis evangelium tractatus, VI, c. 1, n. 7; P.L., v. 35, col. 1428. 8. In the liturgy of this earth we share in a foretaste of that heavenly liturgy which is celebrated in the holy city of Jerusalem towards which we pilgrims are journeying and where Christ sits at the right hand of God as the minister of the holy things and of the true tabernacle;22 together with all the troops of the heavenly army we sing a hymn of glory to the Lord; when we honor the memory of the saints, we hope for a share in fellowship with them; we wait for the Savior, our Lord Jesus Christ, until He our life will appear and we in turn will appear with Him in glory.:~3 9. The sacred liturgy does not exhaust the entire range of the Church's activity. Before men can come to the lit-urgy, they must be called to faith and conversion: "How can they call on someone in whom they have never be-lieved? And how can they believe in someone of whom they have never heard? And how can they hear unless there is someone to preach? But how can there be preachers unless they are sent?" (Rom 10:14-5). For this reason the Church proclaims the news of salva-tion to unbelievers so that all men may know the one true God and Jesus Christ whom He sent and that they may be converted from their ways by doing penance,z* And to believers also the Church must always preach faith and penance; she must prepare them for the sacraments; she must teach them to obey whatever Christ has com-manded; 2~ and she must draw them to all the works of charity, of piety, and of the apostolate, for it is by these works that it becomes clear that the faithful, though not of this world, are nevertheless the light of the world and are to give glory to the Father before men. 10. Nevertheless, the liturgy is the summit towards which the action of the Church is directed, and at the same time it is the source from which all her power flows. For all apostolic endeavors are ordered to the objective that all men, being made sons of God by baptism and faith, should come together in unity, should praise God in the midst of the Church, should take part in the Sacrifice, and should eat the Lord's Supper. The liturgy, in its turn, urges the faithful who have been filled "with the paschal mysteries" to be "one in holi-ness"; z6 it prays that "they hold fast in their lives what they have grasped by their faith"f7 and the renewal in the Eucharist of the covenant of the Lord with men draws the faithful into the compelling love of Christ and sets ~See Ap 21:2; Col 3:1; Heb 8:2. See Phil 3:20; Col $:4. ~See Jn 17:3; Lk 24:27; Acts 2:38. See Mt 28:20. Postcommunion of the Easter Vigil and of Easter Sunday. Collect of the Mass for the third ferial within the octave of Easter. 4- 4" 4" Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 565 them on fire. From the liturgy, therefore, and especially from the Eucharist, graces come to us as from a fountain; thereby there is achieved in the most effective way possi-ble that sanctification of men in Christ and that glorifica-tion of God which is the goal towards which all the other activities of the Church are directed. 11. But in order that this effectiveness be achieved in its fullness, it is necessary that the faithful come to the sacred liturgy with the right attitudes of soul, that they attune their minds to its voice, and that they cooperate with its supernatural grace lest they receive it to no purpose.~ Hence, in the celebration of the liturgy pastors of soul:~ must carefully see to it that not only are the laws for a valid and lawful celebration observed but also that the faithful take part in it in an intelligent, active, and en. riching way. 12. The spiritual life, however, is not limited to par-ticipation in the liturgy. Though the Christian is truly called to pray in common with others, yet he must also go into his own room to pray to the Father by himself;2~ in-deed, as the Apostle teaches, he must never cease praying.80 Furthermore, we are taught by the same Apostle to carry about in our bodies the death of Jesus so that the life of Jesus may be manifested in our mortal flesh,al It is for this reason that in the Sacrifice of the Mass we implore the Lord "to receive the offering of the spiritual victim" and to make out of us "an eternal gift" a2 for Himself. 13. Devotional practices of the Christian people, pro-vided they conform to the laws and norms of the Church, are highly recommended, especially when they are ap-proved by the Apostolic See. Devotional practices of individual churches also have a special value if they are done with the permission of the bishops and in accord~tnce with legitimately approved customs and books. But since the liturgy by its nature is far superior to them, all such practices should be such that they harmo-nize with the liturgical seasons and that they are in ac-cord with the liturgy, are derived from it in some way, and lead the people to it. II. Education in the Liturgy and Active Participation in the Liturgy ÷ 14. It is the earnest desire of the Church that all the ÷ faithful should be led to that full, intelligent, and active ÷ part in liturgical celebrations which is demanded by the Vatican Coundl H REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 566 See 2 Cor 6:1. ~*See Mt 6:6. ~°See 1 Th 5:17. ~See 2 Cor 4:10-1. The Secret of the second [erial within the octave of Pentecost. very nature of the liturgy and which, by reason of baptism, is the right and obligation of the Christian people, that "chosen race, kingly priesthood, holy nation, and pur-chased people" (1 Pt 2:9; see also 2:4-5). In the matter of the restoral and renewal of the sacred liturgy, this full and active participation of the entire people is the most important thing to be taken care of; for it is the primary and indispensable source from which the faithful draw a genuinely Christian spirit. Hence, in all their pastoral work pastors of souls must earnestly strive to accomplish this participation. But no real hope of realizing this can exist unless pas-tors of souls themselves are deeply imbued with the spirit and power of the liturgy and have become masters of it. For this reason, it is absolutely essential that measures should first of all be taken to ensure the liturgical educa-tion of the clergy. Therefore, this Council has passed the following enactments. 15. Professors who are appointed to teach the course in sacred liturgy in seminaries, in religious houses of study, and in theological faculties must be properly trained in their work at institutions that specialize in this area. 16. In seminaries and religious houses of study the course in the sacred liturgy is to be ranked among the compulsory and major courses, while in theological facul-ties it is to be ranked among the principal courses; and it is to be taught under its theological, historical, spiritual, pastoral, and juridical aspects. Furthermore, the profes-sors of other courses, especially those of dogmatic theology, of Sacred Scripture, and of spiritual and pastoral theology, should take care to expound the mystery of Christ and the history of salvation from the viewpoint of their own sub-jects in such a way that the relationship of these courses with the liturgy can be clearly seen as well as the unity that exists in the training of priests. 17. Clerics in seminaries and religious houses should be given a liturgical formation in their spiritual life. This should be done through an adequate introduction that enables them to understand the sacred rites and to par-ticipate in them wholeheartedly and through the actual celebration of the sacred mysteries together with other de-votional practices that are imbued with the spirit of the liturgy. They must likewise learn the observance of the liturgical laws in such a way that life in seminaries and in institutes of religious is profoundly shaped by the liturgi-cal spirit. 18. Priests, both diocesan and religious, who are al-ready working in the Lord's vineyard, are to be helped in every suitable way to achieve a better understanding of what they do when they perform their sacred functions, ÷ ÷ ÷ Liturg~ VOLUME 23, 1964 567 Vatican Council II REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS to live a liturgical life, and to communicate such a life to the faithful entrusted to them. 19. Pastors of souls must zealously and patiently pro~ mote the liturgical training of the faithful and their ac-tive participation, both internal and external, in accord-ance with their age, condition, type of life, and degree of religious background. In doing this, pastors will be ful-filling one of the chief duties of a faithful dispenser of the mysteries of God. In this matter, moreover, they must lead their flocks not only by their words but also by their ex-ample. 20. Radio and television transmissions of the sacred functions, especially in the case of Mass, are to be done with discretion and dignity under the direction and super-vision of a qualified person appointed by the bishops for that purpose. IlL The Renewal of the Sacred Liturgy 21. In order that in the sacred liturgy the Christian people may more surely derive an abundance of grace, the Church wishes to give careful attention to the general renewal of that liturgy. The liturgy is composed of un-changeable because divinely instituted elements and of other elements that are subject to change. These latter can vary in the course of time and they even should do so if there has crept in among them things that do not fully correspond to the inner nature of the liturgy or that have become less suited to it. In this renewal, both texts and rites should be so ar-ranged that they give a clearer expression to the holy things signified. As far as possible, these holy things should be able to be easily understood by the Christian people and to be taken part in by an active celebration proper to a community. Wherefore, this Council has set up the following general norms. ,4. General Norms 22. § 1. The regulation of the sacred liturgy depends solely on the authority of the Church; that is, on the Apostolic See and, within the limits of the law, on the bishop. § 2. In virtue of a power granted by law, the regulation of liturgical matters within certain defined limits also be-longs ~o the various kinds of competent and legitimately established territorial groupings of bishops. § 3. Therefore, no other person whatsoever, even if he be a priest, may on his own authority add, remove, or change anything in the liturgy. 23. In order that sound tradition be retained while let-ting the way be open to legitimate progress, revision of individual parts of the liturgy should always be preceded by a careful theological, historical, and pastoral investiga-tion. Moreover, consideration should be given both to the general laws of the structure and spirit of the liturgy as well as to the experience derived from recent liturgical reforms and from the indults granted at various times. Finally, innovations should not be introduced unless the genuine and certain good of the Church demands them; moreover, care should be taken that the new forms should in some way grow organically out of the forms now in existence. Insofar as it is possible, care must also be taken that notable differences in rites should not be used in ad-jacent regions. 24. Sacred Scripture is of the greatest importance in the celebration of the liturgy. From it Readings are read which are then explained in the homily; its Psalms are sung; from its influence and inspiration come the liturgi-cal prayers, collects, and hymns; and from it the actions and the signs of the liturgy receive their meaning. Hence, in order to achieve the renewal, progress, and adaptation of the sacred liturgy, there must be fostered that warm and living love of Sacred Scripture which is witnessed to by the venerable traditions of both the Eastern and Western rites. 25. As soon as possible, the liturgical books are to be revised with the help of experts and after consultation with bishops from various parts of the world. B. Norms Derived [rom the Hierarchical and Communitarian Nature o[ the Liturgy 26. Liturgical services are not private functions but celebrations of the Church which is the "sacrament of unity," the holy people united and ordered under the bishops.33 Hence, these services pertain to the whole. Body of the Church, both manifesting and influencing it; they affect individual members of the Church in different ways ac-cording to differences in rank, office, and actual participa-tion. 27. Whenever the rites, in accordance with their spe-cific nature, are compatible with community celebration involving the presence and active participation of the faithful, it should be stressed that such a celebration in-sofar as it is possible is preferable to an individual and quasi-private celebration. This is particularly true for the celebration of Mass (although every Mass is public and social in nature) and for the administration of the sacraments. ~St. Cyprian, De catholicae Ecclesiae unitate, 7, G. Hartel, ed., C.Sa~.L., t. 3.1 (Vienna: 1868), pp. 215-6. See also Epistle 66, n. 8, 3 in the same edition, t. 3.2 (Vienna: 1871), pp. 732-3. ÷ ÷ ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 ,569 ÷ + ÷ Fatican Coundl 11 REVIEW FOR REL~GIOUS 28. In liturgical celebrations each person, whether minister or layman, who has a part to carry out should perform all and only those things which pertain to his function according to the nature of the rite and the liturgi-caJ norms. 29. Servers, readers, commentators, and choir members perform a genuinely liturgical function. Hence, they are to perform their functions with the kind of sincere piety and correctness which befits so important a ministry and which the people of God rightfully expect. Hence, they must be imbued, each in his own way, with the spirit of the liturgy; and they must be trained to carry out their parts in a correct and orderly way. 30. In order to increase active participation, acclama., tions, responses, psalmody, antiphons, and hymns should be encouraged on the part of the people along with bodily actions, movements, and positions. And at its due time, a reverent silence should be observed. 31. In the revision of the liturgical books, care should be taken that the rubrics provide for the parts of the people. 32. In the liturgy, apart from the differences arising from liturgical function and from holy orders and from the honor due to civil authorities according to the norm of liturgical law, no special distinction is to be given in the ceremonies or in the external display to any private person or class of persons. C. Norms Derived [rom the Didactic and Pastoral Nature o[ the Liturgy 33. Although the sacred liturgy is principally the wor-ship of the divine majesty, it also includes a great deal of instruction for the faithful;34 for in the liturgy God speaks to His people and Christ still proclaims His gospel. And the people in turn respond to God in song and prayer. Moreover, the prayers addressed to God by the priest who presides over the assembly in the person of Christ are said in the name of the entire holy people and of all who are present. Finally, the visible signs used by the sacred liturgy to signify invisible divine realities have been chosen by Christ or the Church. Hence, not only when the things are read "which were written for our instruction" (Rom 15:4) but also when the Church prays or sings or acts, the faith of the participants is nourished, and their minds are lifted up to God so that they may give Him their reasonable service and receive His grace in a more abundant way. ~ See the Council of Trent, Twenty-third Session, September 17, 1562, Doctrine on the Sacrifice of the Mass, c. 8; Concilium Tridenti-hum: Diariorum, actorum, epistolarura, tractatuum nova collectio, ed. by the G6rres Society, t. 8 (Freiburg: Herder, 1919), p. 960. Wherefore the following norms are to be observed in the renewal of the liturgy. 34. The rites are to be distinguished by a noble sim-plicity; they should be brief and avoid useless repetitions; they should be within the comprehension of the faithful and, generally speaking, should not need much explana-tion. 35. In order that the intimate relationship between rite and words should be apparent in the liturgy: 1) In sacred services a richer, more varied, and more suitable Reading from Scripture should be brought back. 2) Since it is a part of the liturgical action, a more suit-able place should be given to the sermon as far as the nature of the rite allows; and this should be noted in the rubrics. The ministry of preaching should be responsibly performed with the utmost fidelity. Preaching should be principally derived from the source of Sacred Scripture and the liturgy, since it is a proclamation of the wondrous acts of God in the history of salvation, that mystery of Christ which is always present and operative among us especially in liturgical celebrations. 8) Instruction that is more directly liturgical is to be emphasized as much as possible. And in the rites them-selves, if it is necessary, provision should be made for brief remarks by the priest or the competent minister but only at suitable moments and in prescribed or similar words. 4) On the vigils of the more solemn feasts, on some of the weekdays of Advent and Lent, and on Sundays and feast days, Scripture services are to be encouraged espe-cially in places where there is no priest; in this latter case, a deacon or someone else delegated by the bishop is to direct the service. 36. § 1. The use of the Latin language is to be retained in the Latin rites, exception being made for particular cases provided for by law. § 2. Since, however, in Mass, the administration of the sacraments, and in other parts of the liturgy the use of the vernacular can frequently be of great advantage to the people, a wider use is to be given to it especially in the Readings and the instructional remarks and in some prayers and chants in accord with the norms for the matter to be laid down individually in the following chapters. § 3. These norms being observed, the decision on the use and the extent of the use of the vernacular is a matter for the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority men-tioned in article 22, § 2 after consultation, if the case war-rants it, with the bishops of adjacent regions of the same language; what is done in this matter is to be approved or confirmed by the Apostolic See. § 4. The translation of the Latin texts into the vernacu- + + + Liturgy VOLUME 23~ 1964 ¯ 571 lar for liturgical use must be approved by the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority mentioned above. Vatican Council I1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS D. Some Norms [or Adapting the Liturgy to the Character and Traditions of Peoples 37. Even in the liturgy the Church does not desire to impose a rigid uniformity in matters which do not involve the faith or the welfare of the entire community; rather she respects and fosters the cultural qualities character-istic of various nations and peoples. She studies with sym-pathy and, if she can, preserves intact the things in a people's way of life that are not indissolubly linked to superstition and error; at times she even admits such things into the liturgy provided they fit in with the quali-ties of a genuine and true liturgical spirit. 38. Provided that the substantial unity of the Roman, rite is preserved, provision should be made in the revision of the-liturgical books for legitimate variations and adap-tations to different groups, regions, and peoples, especially in mission territories; this should be kept in mind as the occasion warrants when the structure of the rites and the rubrics thereof are drawn up. 39. Within the limits set down in the normative edi-tions of the liturgical books, it will pertain to the com-petent territorial ecclesiastical authority mentioned in article 22, § 2 to specify adaptations especially with regard to the administration of the sacraments and to sacra-mentals, processions, liturgical language, and sacred music and art, in accord, however, with the basic norms laid down in this Constitution. 40. In some places and circumstances there may be an urgent need for a profounder adaptation of the liturgy which may involve greater difficulties. Wherefore: 1) The competent territorial ecclesiastical authority mentioned in article 22, § 2 should carefully and prudently consider what pertinent elements of the characteristic traditions of individual peoples can be appropriately ad-mitted into divine worship. Adaptations which are judged to be useful or necessary are to be proposed to the Apos-tolic See and introduced with its consent. 2) In order that this adaptation may be done with all the circumspection necessary, the Apostolic See will grant to this same territorial ecclesiastical authority the power, as the case requires, to permit and direct for a determined period of time necessary preliminary experiments among certain groups suitable for that purpose. 3) Since in the matter of adaptation, especially in mis-sion territories, liturgical laws generally involve special difficulties, experts in the matters in question should be used in drawing up such laws. IV. Promotion o] Liturgical Life on the Diocesan and Parish Level 41. The bishop is to be considered as the principal priest of his flock from whom the life in Christ of his faithful is somehow derived and on whom it somehow de-pends. Hence, all should have the greatest esteem for the litur-gical life of the diocese centered around the bishop espe-cially in his cathedral church; they should be convinced that the principal manifestation of the Church is had in the plenary and active participation of the entire holy people of God in these same liturgical celebrations, espe-cially in the same Eucharist in a single prayer at one altar where the bishop presides surrounded by his college of priests and by his ministers.~ 42. Since the bishop cannot always and everywhere preside in person over the entire flock in his church, he is obliged to establish groupings of the faithful; among these groups parishes organized locally under a pastor acting in the place of the bishop hold the preeminent place, for in some way they represent the visible Church as it is con-stituted throughout the world. Hence, the liturgical life of the parish and its relation-ship to the bishop is to be fostered in the thought and practice of laity and clergy; and effort should be made to develop a parish sense of community, especially in the common celebration of Sunday Mass. V. Promotion of Pastoral Liturgical Action 43. Eagerness for the promotion and renewal of the sacred liturgy is rightly regarded as a sign o1~ the provi-dential plans of God for our age, as a movement of the Holy Spirit in His Church; it is a distinguishing mark that characterizes the life of the Church as well as the general religious mood in which our times think and act. Accordingly, to give greater encouragement to this pastoral liturgical action, the Council decrees the follow-ing. 44. It is desirable that the competent territorial ec-clesiastical authority mentioned in article 22, § 2 set up a liturgical commission to be assisted by experts in liturgy, music, sacred art, and pastoral practice. As far as it is possible, this commission should be aided by some kind of institute of pastoral liturgy composed of members eminent in these matters, and not excluding laymen if circum-stances warrant. Under the leadership of the territorial ecclesiastical authority mentioned above, it will be the ~ See St. Ignatius of Antioch, Ad Magnesianos, 7; Ad Philadelphe-nos, 4; ,4d Smyrnaeos, 8; Patres apostolici, F. X. Funk, ed. (Tiibingen: H. Laupp, 1901), v. 1, pp. 236, 266, 281. ÷ ÷ ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 Vatican Council H REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS duty of this commission to regulate pastoral liturgical action in its territory and to promote the research and the necessary experimentations whenever there is question of adaptations to be proposed to the Apostolic See. 45. In the same way there should be had in each dio-cese a commission of sacred liturgy to promote liturgical action under the direction of the bishop. At times it may be expedient for several dioceses to set: up a single commission to foster liturgical matters by com-mon consultation. 46. In addition to the commission on sacred liturgy, each diocese should also set up, as far as possible, a com-mission on sacred music and one on sacred art. It is necessary that these three commissions work to-gether in close collaboration; indeed it will frequently be best to join the three into a single commission. CHAPTER II THE SACRED MYSTERY OF THE EUCHARIST 47. At the Last Supper on the night He was betrayed, our Savior instituted the Eucharistic Sacrifice of His Body and Blood by which He perpetuated the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until He should come again; thereby He entrusted to the Church, His dearly beloved Bride, a memorial of His death and resurrection: a sacra-ment of holiness, a sign of unity, a bond of charity,3e a paschal banquet in which Christ is consumed, the mind is filled with grace, and a pledge of future glory is given to us.aT 48. Accordingly, the Church is greatly concerned that the faithful should not be present at this mystery of faith as though they were strangers or mute onlookers; rather, she desires that through a good understanding of the rites and prayers, they take an intelligent, devout, and active part in the sacred action. She wants them to be instructed by the word of God and nourished at the table of the Lord's Body. Her wish is that they give thanks to God and that they learn to offer themselves by offering the spotless Victim not only through the hands of the priest but also together with him. She wishes that through Christ the Mediatoras they should day by day be perfected in union with God and among themselves so that finally God may be all in all. 49. Having in mind the Masses celebrated in the pres-ence of the people especially on Sundays and holydays of ~ See St. Augustine, In loannis evangelium tractatus, XXVI, c. 6, n. 13; P.L., v. 35, col. 1613. ~ Roman Breviary, Magnificat Antiphon of Second Vespers of Corpus Christi. ~ See St. Cyril of Alexandria, Commentarium in Ioannis evan-gelium, bk. 11, cc. 11-2; P.G., v. 74, col. 557--64. obligation, the Council has enacted the following decrees in order that the Sacrifice of the Mass may attain its full pastoral efficacy even in the form of its ceremonies. 50. The Mass rite is to be revised in such a way that there will be a clearer manifestation of the characteristic nature of its individual parts as well as of their mutual relationship so that a devout and active participation of the faithful will be made easier. Therefore, the ceremonies are to be made simpler, though their substance is to be carefully preserved; parts which have been duplicated in the course of time or were added to no great advantage are to be omitted; and, to the extent that it seems useful or necessary, there should be a restoration in accord with the ancient norms of the holy fathers of elements which fell into disuse through accidents of history. 51. In order that the table of the word of God be spread more plentifully for the faithful, the treasures of the Bible are to be opened up more fully so that during a pre-scribed number of years the more important parts of the Sacred Scriptures are read to the people. 52. Since it is a part of the liturgy, there should be great esteem for the homily by which in the course of the liturgi-cal year the mysteries of faith and the norms of Christian life are expounded from the sacred text. In fact, at con-gregational Masses on Sundays and holydays of obligation, the homily is not to be omitted except for a serious reason. 53. The "common prayer" or the "prayer of the faith-ful" is to be restored after the Gospel and homily, espe-cially on Sundays and holydays of obligation. In this way petitions in which the faithful participate will be made for the Church, for civil authorities, for those oppressed by various needs, and for all men and the salvation of the entire world,ao 54. In Masses celebrated with the people a fitting place should be found for the vernacular, especially in the Readings and the "common prayer" and also, as local conditions allow, for those parts which pertain to the people in accordance with the norm of article 36 of this Constitution. Nevertheless, measures should be taken to see to it that the faithful are able to say or sing together in Latin those parts of the Ordinary of the Mass which pertain to them. Wherever a greater use of the vernacular seems to be de-sirable, the prescription of article 40 of this Constitution is to be observed. 55. High esteem should be given to that more complete participation in the Mass by which the faithful, after the priest's Communion, receive the Lord's Body from the same sacrifice. "See 1 Tim 2:1-2. ÷ + ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 Though the dogmatic principles enunciated by the Council of Trent remain intact,40 Communion under both species can be given to clerics, religious, and lay people in cases to be specified by the Apostolic See and when the bishops judge it wise. Examples of such cases are: To the ordained at the Mass of their ordination; to the professed at the Mass of their religious profession; to the newly baptized at the Mass which follows their baptism. 56. The two parts of which the Mass in a sense is com-posed, namely, the liturgy of the word and the Eucharistic liturgy, are so closely interrelated that they form but a single act of worship. Hence, this Synod strongly urges pastors of souls, when giving instructions, to be zealous in teaching the faithful to take their part in the entire Mass especially on Sundays and holydays of obligation. 57. § 1. Concelebration, by which the unity of the priest-hood is appropriately manifested, has remained in use even up to the present time in both the East and the West. Hence, the Council has decided to extend the permission to concelebrate to the following cases: 1 ° a) On the Thursday of the Lord's Supper both at the Mass of Chrism and at the evening Mass; b) at Masses during councils, bishops' conferences, and synods; c) at the Mass for the blessing of an abbot. 2° Also, with the permission of the ordinary to whom it belongs to judge of the opportuneness of concelebra-tion: a) at conventual Mass and at the principal Mass in churches when the welfare of the faithful does not require the individual celebration of all the priests present; b) at Masses during any kind of meetings of priests, whether diocesan or regular. § 2, 1 ° It belongs to the bishop to regulate in his diocese the discipline of concelebration. 2° But each priest will always retain his right to cele-brate his Mass individually, but not at the same time and in the same church [of concelebration] nor on the Thurs-day of the Lord's Supper. 58. A new rite for concelebration is to be composed and inserted in the Pontifical and the Roman Missal. CHAPTER Ill THE OTHER SACRAMENTS AND THE ++ SACRAMENTALS ÷ 59. The purpose of the sacraments is to make men holy, to build up the Body of Christ, and finally to give worship Vatican Council REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 576 '*Twenty-first Session, July 16, 1562, Doctrine on Communion under Both Species and on the Communion of Children, cc. 1-3; Conciliura Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epistolarum, tracta-tuum nova collectio, ed. by the G6rres Society, t. 8 (Freiburg: Herder, 1919), pp. 698-9. to God; and because they are signs they also give instruc-tion. They not only presuppose faith, but by words and objects they also nourish, strengthen, and express it; hence, they are called sacraments of faith. They confer grace; but in addition the act of celebrating them very effectively disposes the faithful to receive that grace in a fruitful way, to worship God properly, and to practice charity. Hence, it is of the greatest importance that the faithful easily understand the sacramental signs and that they should frequent with the greatest eagerness those sacra-ments which were instituted to nourish the Christian life. 60. The Church, moreover, has instituted sacramentals. These are sacred signs having some resemblance to the sacraments by which effects, especially those of a spiritual nature, are signified and obtained through the Church's impetration. Through the sacramentals men are disposed to receive the chief effect of the sacraments, and the vari-ous occasions of life are sanctified. 61. Accordingly, in the case of the faithful who are well disposed, the liturgy of the sacraments and of the sacra-mentals brings it about that almost every event in life is made holy by the grace flowing from the paschal mystery of the passion, death, and resurrection of Christ from whom all the sacraments and the sacramentals derive their power; and there is scarcely no proper use of material things which cannot be directed to the purpose of making men holy and of praising God. 62. In the course of time, however, some things have crept into the rites of the sacraments and of the sacra-mentals by which their nature and purpose are obscured for our times. Hence, it is necessary that some things in them be accommodated to the needs of our age. Accord-ingly, the Council makes the following decrees with regard to their revision. 63. Since it can frequently be very advantageous to use the vernacular in the administration of the sacraments and of the sacramentals, a greater place should be allowed for this in accord with the following norms: a) In the administration o1: the sacraments and of the sacramentals, the vernacular can be used in accord with the norm of article 36. b) As soon as possible, the competent territorial ec-clesiastical authority mentioned in article 22, § 2 should prepare local rituals in accord with the new edition of the Roman Ritual but adapted to the needs of individual re-gions, including language needs; when these have been examined by the Apostolic See, they are to be used in the regions for which they were prepared. In composing these rituals or special collections of rites, there should not be omitted the instructions given in the Roman Ritual at Liturgy VOLUME 2~ 1964 ÷ ÷ ÷ Vatican Council II REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS the beginning of each rite, whether these be pastoral and rubrical or whether they have a special social import. 64. The catechumenate for adults divided into several distinct steps is to be restored and put into use at the dis-cretion of the local ordinary; in this way, the period of the catechumenate intended as it is to secure proper instruc-tion can be sanctified by sacred rites performed at succes-sive times. 65. In mission territories, to the elements contained in the Christian tradition there may also be added the initia-tion elements in use among each people to the extent that these can be adapted to the Christian rite and are in ac-cord with articles 37-40 of this Constitution. 66. Both rites for the baptism of adults are to be re-vised, not only the simpler one but also the more solemn one because of the restoration of the catechumenate; and a special Mass "For the Conferring of Baptism" is to be inserted in the Roman Missal. 67. The rite for the baptism of infants is to be revised and adapted to the actual condition of infants; the parts of the parents and of the godparents as well as their duties are to be brought out more clearly in the rite itself. 68. In the rite of baptism there should be included adaptations to be used at the discretion of the local ordi-nary when there is a large number to be baptized. There should also be drawn up a shorter Ordo which, in the absence of a priest or a deacon, can be used by catechists, especially in mission territories, and by the faithful gen-eraIIy when there is danger of death. 69. In place of the rite which is called the "Way of Supplying What Was Omitted in the Baptism of an In-fant," a new one should be made in which it is more clearly and suitably indicated that an infant baptized with the short rite has already been admitted into the Church. Similarly, for the case of converts to Catholicism who have already been validly baptized, there should be drawn up a new rite in which it is indicated that they are being admitted to communion with the Church. 70. Outside of paschal time, baptismal water can be blessed in the very rite of baptism by an approved, shorter form. 71. The rite of confirmation is also to be revised so that the intimate relationship of this sacrament with the whole of Christian initiation may appear in a clearer light; ac-cordingly, the renewal of the baptismal promises should fittingly precede the reception of this sacrament. When convenient, confirmation can be conferred during Mass; with regard to the rite outside of Mass, there should be prepared a formula to serve as an introduction. 72. The rite and formulas of penance should be re- vised in such a way that they bring out more clearly the nature and effect of the sacrament. 73. "Extreme unction," which may also and more fit-tingly be called the "anointing of the sick," is not a sacra-ment intended only for those who are at the point of death; hence, the appropriate time for receiving it is al-ready certainly present when anyone of the faithful begins to be in danger of death from sickness or old age. 74. In addition to separate rites for the anointing of the sick and for Viaticum, there should be drawn up a con-tinuous rite in which the anointing is given after confes-sion and before the reception of Viaticum. 75. The number of anointings should be accommo-dated to the occasion; and the prayers belonging to the rite of the anointing of the sick should be revised in such a way that they correspond to the varying conditions of the sick persons who receive the sacrament. 76. Both the ceremonies and the texts of the ordination rites are to be revised. The addresses given by the bishop at the beginning of each ordination or consecration can be made in the vernacular. At the consecration of a bishop the imposition of hands may be done by all the bishops present. 77. The rite for celebrating matrimony as it presently exists in the Roman .Ritual is to be revised and enriched so that the grace of the sacrament is more clearly indicated and the duties of the couple emphasized. "If any regions use other praiseworthy customs and ceremonies in the celebration of the sacrament of matri-mony, this Synod earnestly desires that they be re-tained." 41 Moreover, the competent territorial ecclesiastical au-thority mentioned in article 22, § 2 of this Constitution is free, in accord with the norm of article 63, to compose its own rite adapted to the usages of places and peoples; but the law should remain intact that the assisting priest should ask and obtain the consent of the contracting par-ties. 78. As a rule matrimony is to be celebrated during Mass after the reading of the Gospel and the homily but before the "prayer of the faithful." The prayer for the bride, which should be suitably amended to stress the equal obligation that both spouses have of mutual fidelity, can be said in the vernacular. If, however, the sacrament of matrimony is celebrated outside of Mass, the Epistle and the Gospel of the nuptial ,x Council of Trent, Twenty-fourth Session, November 11, 1563, On Reform, c. 1; Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, episto-larum, tractatuum nova collectio, ed. by the Gbrres Society, t. 9 (Frei-burg: Herder, 1924), p. 969. See also Rituale Romanum, tit. VIII, c. II, n. 6. Liturgy VOLUME 2.~, 1964 579 + ÷ ÷ Vatican Council 11 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 580 Mass are to be read at the beginning of the rite; and the blessing is always to be given to the spouses. 79. The sacramentals are to be revised, regard being had for the primary norm of an intelligent, active, and easy participation of the faithful and for the needs of our time. In the revision of rituals in accord with the norm of article 63, there may also be added new sacramentals as necessity may require. Reserved blessings should be very few in number and be made only in favoi- of bishops and ordinaries. Provision should be made that some sacramentals at least in special circumstances and at the discretion of the ordinary can be administered by qualified lay persons. 80. The rite of the consecration of virgins contained in the Roman Pontifical should be subjected to revision. Moreover, a rite for religious profession and for renewal of vows should be drawn up in order to achieve greater unity, moderation, and dignity; apart from any exception granted by particular law, this rite is to be used by those who make their profession or renewal of vows during Mass. Religious profession will laudably be made during Mass. 81. Funeral rites should give a clearer expression to the paschal quality of Christian death; they should also be better adapted---even from the viewpoint of the liturgical color used--to the circumstances and traditions of indi-vidual regions. 82. The rite for the burial of infants is to be revised and given a special Mass of its own. CHAPTER IV THE DIVINE OFFICE 83. When Christ Jesus, the High Priest of the new and eternal covenant, assumed human nature, He introduced into this earthly exile that hymn which is sung in the heavenly dwelling places throughout all the ages. By joining to Himself the entire human community, He as-sociates it with Himself in the singing of this divine song of praise. He continues this priestly work through His Church which ceaselessly praises the Lord and intercedes for the salvation of the entire world not only by celebrating the Eucharist but also in other ways, especially by praying the Divine Office. 84. As is known from ancient Christian tradition, the Divine Office is so arranged that the entire course of day and night is made holy by the praise of God. When this wonderful .song of praise is fittingly performed by priests and other persons deputed for this purpose by the Church's enactment or by the faithful praying together with the priest according to the approved form, then it is truly the voice of the Bride speaking to her Spouse; what is more, it is the prayer o[ Christ with His Body to the Father. 85. Hence, all those who carry out this work are [ul-filling a duty of the Church and share in the highest honor of the Bride of Christ, because as they offer these praises to God they stand before His throne in the name of the Church. 86. Priests engaged in the pastoral ministry will offer the praises of the Hours with greater [ervor i[ they have a more vivd realization that they must heed the warning of Paul: "Pray without ceasing" (1 Th 5:17); the work in which they are engaged is such that effectiveness and pro-ductiveness can be given it only by the Lord who said: "Without me you can do nothing" (Jn 15:5). It was for this reason that the Apostles, when instituting the deacons, said: "We shall devote ourselves completely to prayer and the ministry of the word" (Acts 6:4). 87. In order that the Divine Office be better and more per[ectly per[ormed by priests and other members of the Church, this Council, continuing the renewal so happily begun by the Apostolic See, has made the following decrees with regard to the Office of the Roman rite. 88. Since the purpose of the Office is to sanctify the day, the traditional sequence of the Hours is to be restored in such a way that as far as possible an actual time of day corresponds to the Hours; at the same time account must be taken of the circumstances of modern life which espe-cially affect those engaged in apostolic work. 89. Hence in the renewal of the Office, the following norms are to be observed: a) Since, according to the venerable tradition of the entire Church, Lauds, the prayer of morning, and Vespers, the prayer of evening, constitute the two hinges o[ the daily Otfice, they are to be regarded and celebrated as the principal Hours; b) Compline is to be so composed that it fits in with the end of the day; c) Matins, although in choir it is to retain the char-acter of night praise, is to be so adapted that it can be recited at any hour of the day; and it is to consist of fewer Psalms and longer Readings; d) The Hour of Prime is to be suppressed. e) In choir the Little Hours of Terce, Sext, and None are to be retained. Outside of choir it is permitted to choose the one of the three which best corresponds to the time o[ the day. 90. Furthermore, since the Divine Office as the public prayer of the Church is a source of holiness and a nourish-ment for personal prayer, priests and all others who take part in the Divine Office are earnestly exhorted in the Lord to attune their minds to the words they utter when ÷ ÷ ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 581 4. 4. 4. Vatican Council I1 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ~8~ performing it; to achieve this in a better way, they should secure for themselves a better background in the liturgy and the Bible, especially the Psalms. In continuing this renewal, the venerable treasures of the Roman Office are to be so adapted that those to whom it is entrusted can more easily draw greater profit from it. 91. In order that the sequence of Hours mentioned in article 89 can really be observed, the Psalms should no longer be spread throughout a single week but over a longer period of time. The work of revising the Psalter, already happily begun, should be finished as soon as possible and should take into account the style of Christian Latin, the liturgical use of the Psalms (chant included), and the entire tradition of the Latin Church. 92. The following are to be observed with regard to the Readings: a) Readings from Sacred Scripture are to be so ar-ranged that the riches of the divine word may be easily accessible in a more abundant way; b) Readings to be taken from the works of the fathers, doctors, and ecclesiastical writers should be better selected; c) Accounts of martyrdom and the lives of the saints are to be in accord with historical fact. 93. As far as it is useful, the hymns should be restored to their original form; and whatever savors of mythology or is unsuited to Christian attitudes should be removed. As occasion offers, other selections may be made from the treasury of hymns. 94. In order that the day may be truly sanctified and that the Hours themselves be recited to spiritual advan-tage, it is preferable that the Hours be recited at the time which best corresponds to each canonical Hour. 95. Communities obliged to choir, in addition to the conventual Mass, are bound to celebrate the Office each day in choir. In particular: a) Orders of canons, monks and nuns, and of other regulars bound to choir by law or by their constitutions must recite the entire Office; b) Cathedral or collegiate chapters must recite those parts to which they are bound by general or particular law; c) All members of the above communities who are either in major orders or solemnly professed (with the ex-ception of lay brothers) are bound to recite individually those canonical Hours which they do not pray in choir. 96. Clerics in major orders who are not bound to choir are obliged to recite the Office daily either in common or individually according to the norm of article 89. 97. The rubrics should specify those times when a litur-gical service may be fittingly substituted for the Divine Office. In individual cases and for a good reason, ordinaries can dispense their subjects, wholly or in part, from the obligation of reciting the Office or they can commute it. 98. Members of any institute of the state of perfection who recite any part of the Divine Office by reason of their constitutions are performing the public prayer of the Church. The public prayer of the Church is likewise performed by those who by reason of their constitutions recite any Short Office provided it is composed after the pattern of the Divine Office and has been duly approved. 99. Since the Divine Office is the voice of the Church, that is, of the whole Mystical Body, as it publicly praises God, it is recommended that clerics not bound to choir and especially priests who live together or when meeting together should pray in common at least some part of the Divine Office. All who pray the Office either in choir or in common should perform the task entrusted to them as perfectly as possible with regard both to internal devotion of soul and to their external way of acting. Moreover, it is better that the Office when done in choir or in common be sung, according to the possibility o~ the occasion. 100. Pastors of souls are to see toit that the principal Hours, especially Vespers, are celebrated in common in churches on Sundays and the more solemn feast days. It is recommended that lay persons also recite the Divine Office, either with priests or in common by themselves or individually. 101. § 1. According to the age-long tradition of the Latin rite, the Latin language is to be retained by clerics in the Divine Office. But power is given to the ordinary to allow in individual cases the use of a vernacular trans-lation (made according to the norm 6f article 36) to those clerics [or whom the use of the Latin language is a serious hindrance to a worthy praying o[ the Office. § 2. In the celebration of the Divine Office even in choir, nuns and members (whether non-clerical or women) of institutes of the states of perfection can be granted by the competent superior the use of the vernacular provided that the translation is an approved one. § 3. Provided that the translation is an approved one, any cleric bound to the Divine Office fulfills his obligation if he recites it in the vernacular with a group of the faith-ful or with those mentioned directly above in § 2. + ÷ ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 583 + + Vatican Council H REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS CHAPTER V THE LITURGICAL YEAR 102. The Church regards it as her duty to celebrate the saving work of her divine Spouse by devoutly recalling it on certain days throughout the year. Each week on the day she has called the Lord's Day, she keeps the memory of the Lord's Resurrection which, together with His Pas-sion, she also celebrates once a year by the great solemnity of Easter. Moreover, during the cycle of the year she unfolds the entire mystery of Christ from His incarnation and birth to His ascension and the day of Pentecost and to the awaited day of fulfilled hope and of the coming of the Lord. By thus recalling the mysteries of the redemption, she opens up to the faithful the riches of her Lord's power and merits. In some way they thus become present at all times, and the faithful, by contact with them, are filled with grace. 103. In this annual cycle of the mysteries of Christ, the Church gives special honor and love to Blessed Mary, the Mother of God, who is joined by an inseparable bond to the saving work of her Son; in her the Church admires and extols the surpassing fruit of the redemption and joyfully contemplates, as in a faultless image, what she herself de-sires and hopes wholly to be. 10a,. In the annual cycle the Church has also inserted commemorations of the martyrs and of other saints who, having been brought to perfection by the multiform grace of God, have already reached everlasting salvation in heaven where they hymn the perfect praise of God and intercede for us. In celebrating the entrance of the saints into eternal salvation, the Church proclaims the paschal mystery as it is achieved in these holy persons who have suffered and been glorified with Christ. She proposes the saints to the faithful as examples who draw all men to come to the .Father through Christ, and through their merits she pleads for God's benefits. 105. Finally, during the different times of the year ac-cording to her traditional discipline, the Church com-pletes the formation of the faithful by means of pious practices for both soul and body and by instruction, prayer, and works of penance and mercy. Wherefore, this Council has decided to make the follow-ing decrees. 106. By an apostolic tradition that took its origin from the very day of the Resurrection of Christ, the paschal mystery is celebrated by the Church on every eighth day. This day is rightly called the Lord's Day or Sunday; for on it the faithful should come together in a body to hear the word of God, to share in the Eucharist, to recall the passion, resurrection, and glory of the Lord Jesus, and to give thanks to God by whom they have been "born again into a life of real hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead" (1 Pt 1:3). Hence, Sunday is the original feast day which is to be proposed and emphasized to the faithful in such a way that it may become in reality a day of joy and of freedom from work. Other celebrations, unless they truly be of the greatest importance, are not to have precedence over Sunday, for the latter is the founda-tion and center core of the entire liturgical year. 107. The liturgical year is to be revised so that the tra-ditional customs and discipline of the sacred seasons are preserved or restored in accord with the conditions of our times. Their characteristic quality is to be retained in or-der to give the proper nourishment to the piety of the faithful as they celebrate the mysteries of the Christian redemption, especially the paschal mystery. In cases where adaptations are needed because of local conditions, these should be made according to the norm given in articles 39 and 40. 108. The minds of the faithful should be directed pri-marily to the feast days of our Lord in which the mysteries of salvation are celebrated throughout the year. Accord-ingly, the Proper of the Time is to retain its rightful prece-dence over the feasts of the saints so that the entire cycle of the mysteries of salvation may be duly recalled. 109. Both in the liturgy and in liturgical instructions, greater consideration is to be given to the twofold nature of the season of Lent which, by recalling or preparing for baptism and by penance, disposes the faithful for the cele-bration of the paschal mystery by having them devote themselves more earnestly to the hearing of the word of God to prayer. Accordingly: a) The characteristic baptismal elements of the Lenten liturgy are to be used to a greater degree; certain of these which come from an earlier tradition are to be restored as may seem good. b) The same thing is true with regard to the peni-tential elements. In instructions, besides pointing out the social consequences of sin, there is to be impressed on the minds of the faithful the proper nature of penance which detests sin as an offense against God; the place of the Church in penitential activity is not to be neglected, and prayer for sinners should be insisted on. 110. The penance of the season of Lent should not only be internal and individual but also external and social. The authorities mentioned in article 22 should encourage and recommend penitential practices in accord with what is possible in our times and in different regions and with the circumstances of the faithful. But the paschal fast is to be kept sacred and is to be ÷ ÷ ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 585 ÷ ÷ ÷ Vatican Council II REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 586 celebrated everywhere on Good Friday and extended, where possible, to Holy Saturday so that the joys of Easter Sunday may be attained with an uplifted and clear mind. 111. According to the tradition in the Church the saints are honored and their authentic relics and images are held in veneration. The feasts of the saints proclaim the wonderful works of Christ in His servants, and they pro-vide the faithful with fitting examples for imitation. Lest the feasts of saints take precedence over the feasts which recall the mysteries of salvation, many of them should be left to be celebrated by individual churches, nations, or religious families; and only those feasts should be extended to the entire Church which commemorate saints who can truly be said to be of universal importance. CHAPTER VI SACRED MUSIC 112. The musical tradition of the universal Church con-stitutes a precious treasure which is greater than the ex-pressions of the other arts chiefly because sacred song, since it is joined to words, forms a necessary or integral part of the solemn liturgy. Indeed, the greatness of sacred song has been praised by Sacred Scripture42 and by the holy fathers and the Roman Pontiffs who in recent times, beginning with Pius X, have clearly explained the functional role of sacred music in the service of the Lord. Accordingly, the holier will sacred music be, the more closely it is linked with lit.urgical action, whether by adding delight to prayer or by fostering unity of minds or by enriching the sacred rites with a greater solemnity. Moreover, the Church approves all forms of true art which have the required qualities and admits them into divine worship. Hence, keeping in mind the norms and precepts of ec-clesiastical tradition and discipline and considering the purpose of sacred music which is the glory of God and the sanctification of men, this Council has made the following enactments. ll3. Liturgical action receives a nobler form when the divine functions are solemnly celebrated with song and with the assistance of sacred ministers and the active par-ticipation of the faithful. With regard to the language to be used, the provisions of article 36 are to be observed; with regard to Mass, those of article 54; with regard to the sacraments, those of article 63; and with regard to the Divine Office, those of article 101. 114. Great care is to be taken to guard and increase the 4-"See Eph 5:19; Col 3:16. riches of sacred music. Choirs should be tirelessly pro-moted, especially in cathedral churches. Bishops and other pastors of souls should zealously see to it that when a sacred action is to be performed with song the entire con-gregation of the faithful is able to contribute their proper active participation in accord with the norm of articles 28 and 30. 115. Great importance is to be attached to the teaching and practice of music in seminaries, in novitiates and houses of studies of both men and women religious, as well as in other Catholic institutions and schools; to achieve this formation, the teachers in charge of teaching sacred music are to be carefully trained. It is recommended that higher institutes for sacred mu-sic be established as the opportunity offers. Composers and singers, especially boys, are also to be given a truly liturgical formation. llfi. The Church recognizes Gregorian chant as spe-cially suited to the Roman liturgy; accordingly, other things being equal, it should be given the principal place in liturgical ceremonies. However, other kinds of sacred music, especially polyph-ony, are in no way excluded from the celebration of the divine functions so long as they are in harmony with the spirit of liturgical action according to the norm given in article 30. 117. The normative edition of the books of Gregorian chant is to be completed; moreover, there should be pre-pared more critical editions of the books already published since the restoration of St. Pius X. It is also desirable that an edition be prepared consisting of simpler melodies for use in smaller churches. 118. Religious singing by the people is to be encouraged in an intelligent way so that the voices of the faithful can ring out in sacred and devotional services as well as in liturgical actions according to the norms and precepts of the rubrics. 119. Since in certain regions, especially in mission terri-tory, there are people who have their own characteristic musical tradition which is of greatlimportance in their re-ligious and social life, due esteerri is to be given to this musac and a statable place ,s to be g, ven to ~t both m shap-ing their religious outlook as welllas in adapting worship to their native genius as indicatedl!n articles 39 and 40. Hence, diligent care should be t.aken in the musical for-mation of missionaries so that, as far as possible, they will be able to foster the traditions of music of their people both in the schools and in the sacred services. 120. In the Latin church the pipe organ is to be held in high esteem as the traditional musical instrument, the music of which is able to add notable distinction to the Liturffy VOLUME ~87 Vatican Council H REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Church's ser¢ices and to be a powerful means of raising men's minds to God and higher things. But at the discretion and consent of the competent ter-ritorial authority as stipulated in articles 22, § 2; 37; and 40, others instruments may be permitted in divine worship insofar as they are or can be made suitable for sacred use, are in harmony with the dignity of churches, and really contribute to the edification of the faithful. 121. Musical composers who are imbued with the Christian spirit should regard themselves as called to cul-tivate sacred music and to increase its riches. They should, however, produce compositions which have the qualities of genuine sacred music, which can be sung not only by large choirs but also by smaller ones, and which encourage the active participation of the whole con-gregation of the faithful. The texts intended to be sung are to be conformed to Catholic doctrine and for the most part are to be drawn from Sacred Scripture and from liturgical sources. CHAPTER. VII SACRED ART AND SACRED FURNISHINGS 122. The fine arts are rightly ranked among the noblest activities of human genius; this is especially true with re-gard to religious art and its highest form which is sacred art. These arts of their nature are directed to the infinite divine beauty to he expressed in some way by human works. They are the more closely bound to God and His praise and glory to the extent that their only intent is to achieve the aim of helping men to turn thir minds de-voutly to God. Accordingly, the Church has always been a friend of the fine arts; she has consistently sought their noble service and has trained artists for the special objective that the things pertaining to divine worship, as signs and symbols of supernatural realities, might be truly worthy, becoming, and beautiful. Moreover, the Church has always regarded herself as a judge of the arts, discerning among the works of artists those which were in harmony with faith, devo-tion, and traditional religious norms and were to be con-sidered as suitable for sacred use. The Church has been particularly careful that the sacred furnishings should serve the dignity of worship in a worthy and beautiful way. She has admitted the changes in material, style, and ornamentation which were intro-duced in the course of time by the progress of technical art. Hence it has pleased the fathers to make the following decrees concerning these matters. 123. The Church has not regarded any one style of art as peculiarly its one, but has admitted the styles of all ages according to the natural talents and circumstances of peoples and the needs of various rites; and thus she has created through the course of centuries a treasury of art which must be preserved with great care. The art of our times and of all peoples is also to have free exercise in the Church on condition that it provides the sacred buildings and ceremonies with due reverence and honor. In this way it will be able to add its voice to that admirable chorus of praise sung in honor of the Catholic faith by great men of past ages. 124. Ordinaries should take care that in their fostering and encouragement of a truly sacred art, they seek for noble beauty rather than for sumptuous display. This also holds true with regard to sacred vestments and ornaments. Bishops should take care that the house of God and other holy places are kept free from the works of artists which are contrary to Christian faith, morality, and devo-tion and which offend the religious sense either because of their .depraved forms or because of the insufficiency, me-diocrity, or pretence of their art. When churches are built, diligent care should be taken that they are suitable for the celebration of the liturgical ceremonies and for the active participation of the faithful. 125. The practice should be maintained of placing sa-cred images in churches for the veneration of the faithful; nevertheless, their number should be moderate and they should be positioned in a fitting order so that they do not disturb the faithful nor foster devotion of doubtful ortho-doxy. 126. In judging works of art, local ordinaries should hear the opinion of the diocesan commission for sacred art and, if necessary, that of others who are experts as well as that of the commissions mentioned in articles 44, 45, and 46. Ordinaries should be vigilant to see that the sacred fur-nishings and valuable pieces of work are not alienated or destroyed, for they are the ornaments of the house ol~ God. 127. Bishops, either personally or through suitable priests gifted with a knowledge and love of art, should see to it that artists are imbued with the spirit of sacred art and of the sacred liturgy. It is also recommended that schools or academies of sacred art for the training of artists be established in those regions where it seems practical. All artists who, prompted by their talents, wish to serve the glory of God in the Church should always remember that they are engaged in a kind of sacred imitation of God the Creator for the edification of the faithful, for their piety, and for their religious formation. 128. Along with the revision of the liturgical books ÷ ÷ ÷ Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 589 Vatican Council H REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ~90 mentioned in article 25, there should also be, as soon as possible, a revision of the canons and ecclesiastical statutes concerned with the external things pertaining to sacred worship, especially those which treat of the fitting and well-pl.anned construction of churches; the form and con-struction of altars; the dignity, placement, and safety of the Eucharistic tabernacle; and the suitability of sacred images, embellishments, and decorations. Whatever fits in less well with the liturgical renewal should be amended or abolished; whatever favors it should be retained or intro-duced. In this matter, especially with regard to the material and form of sacred furnishings and vestments, power is given to territorial conferences of bishops in accord with the norm of article 22 of this Constitution to adapt matters to local necessities and customs. 129. During their philosophical and theological studies clerics are to be given training in the history and evolu-tion of sacred art as well as in the sound principles on which works of sacred art should be based; in this way they will be able to appreciate and preserve the Church's venerable monuments and to give advice to artists who are producing works of art. 130. It is fitting that the use of pontificals be reserved to those ecclesiastics who have episcopal rank or have some special jurisdiction. APPENDIX DECLARATION OF THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL ON CALENDAR REFORM This, the Second Vatican Council, recognizing the im-portance of the desire that many have to assign the feast of Easter to a fixed Sunday and to have an unchanging calendar, has carefully considered the results which could follow from the introduction of a new calendar and now makes the following declaration: 1. This Council is not opposed to assigning the feast of Easter to a fixed Sunday of the Gregorian calendar pro-vided those whom it concerns give their assent, especially the brethren who are not in communion with the Apos-tolic See. 2. This Council likewise declares that it does not oppose the projects directed toward introducing a perpetual cal-endar into civil society. However, of the various systems which are being elabo-rated for the establishment of a perpetual calendar and its introduction into civil society, only those are unop-posed by the Church which retain and safeguard a seven-day week with Sunday and without the introduction of any days outside the week so that the succession of weeks is kept intact, unless in the judgment of the Apostolic See there are extremely weighty reasons to the contrary. Each and every one ol the matters contained in this Con-stitution was decided by the lathers of this Council. And We, by the apostolic power given to Us by Christ, together with the venerable fathers, approve in the Holy Spirit, decree, enact, and order to be promulgated what has been decided in this Synod for the glory of God. Given at St. Peter's on December 4, 1963. 4- 4- 4- Liturgy VOLUME 23~ 1964 591 PAUL VI .Concerning the Constitu-, tion on the Liturgy ÷ ÷ ÷ Paul VI REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 592 APOSTOLIC LETTER GIVEN ON OUR OWN INITIATIVE DECREEING THAT CERTAIN PRESCRIPTIONS OF THE CONSTI-TUTION ON THE SACRED LITURGY APPROVED BY THE SECOND VATICAN COUNCIL SHOULD BEGIN TO TAKE EFFECT. The* sacred liturgy and its diligent preservation, pro-motion, and, when necessary, renewal have always been a matter of great concern to the supreme pontiffs who have been Our predecessors, to Ourselves, and to the pastors of the Church. This is shown both by the great number of well-known documents that have already been published and by the Constitution on the matter which was unani-mously approved by the Second Vatican Council in a sol-emn session held on December 4 of the previous year and which We have ordered to be promulgated. This concern for the liturgy flows from this considera-tion: "In the liturgy of this earth we share in a foretaste of' that heavenly liturgy which is celebrated in the holy city of Jerusalem towards which we pilgrims are journeying and where Christ sits at the right hand of God as the minister of the holy things and of the true tabernacle; to-gether with all the troops of the heavenly army we sing a hymn of glory to the Lord; when we honor the memory of the saints, we hope for a share in fellowship with them; we wait for the Savior, our Lord Jesus Christ, until He our life will appear and we in turn will appear with Him in glory." 1 And so it happens that as the souls of the faithful give this worship to God, the principle and source of all holi-ness, they are drawn and as it were impelled to acquire ¯ The original Latin text, entitled Sacrara liturgiara, is given in dcta dpostolicae Sedis, v. 56 (1964), pp. 139--44. ¯ Constitution on the Liturgy, article 8. this holiness, thereby becoming during tiffs earthly pil-grimage "emulators of the heavenly Sion." -~ Hence, it is easy to see that in this matter there is noth-ing We desire more than that the faithful and especially priests should first make a profound study of the Consti-tution We have already mentioned and then form a firm resolution to carry out its prescriptions in a fully con-scientious way as soon as they go into effect. Since~ there-fore, from the nature of things the knowledge and divulga-tion of liturgical laws is a matter which should begin at once, We strongly exhort the heads of dioceses together with their sacred ministers, those dispensers of the mys-teries of God,z not to delay in seeing to it that the faithful entrusted to them, each according to his age, state of life, talent, and education, should come to realize the inner strength and power of the sacred liturgy and should de-voutly take part, both internally and externally, in the Church's rites.4 As is evident, there are many prescriptions of the Con-stitution that cannot be put into effect in a short time since before that can be done ceremonies must be revised and new liturgical books prepared. In order that this work may be done with the required intelligence and care, We are establishing a commission whose principal work will be to see to it that the prescriptions of the Co~stitution on the Liturgy are perfectly carried out. Nevertheless, among the norms of the Constitution there are some which can be made effective even now; it is Our wish, therefore, that they be put into execution without delay so that the souls of the faithful may not be further deprived ol~ the fruits of grace to be expected there-from. Therefore, by Our apostolic authority and on Our own initiative, We order and decree that from the coming First Sunday of Lent, that is, from February 16, of this year of 1964, the following matters are effective, the usual suspension period being waived. I) With regard to the prescriptions of articles 15, 16, and 17 concerning liturgical formation in seminaries, in schools of religious communities, and in theological facul-ties, We desire that programs of studies for these institu-tions be drawn up at once so that beginning with the com-ing academic year these prescriptions will be carried out in an orderly and careful way. II) We also decree thatin accord with the prescriptions of articles 45 and 46, there should be set up in each dio-cese a commission which under the supervision of the Hymn for Lauds on the feast of the dedication of a church. aSee 1 Cor 4:1. See the Constitution on the Liturgy, article 19, + + ÷ The Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 593 ÷ ÷ ÷ Pbul VI REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 594 bishop will have the task of increasing knowledge of the liturgy and of protnoting it. With regard to this point, it will sometimes be desirable that several dioceses have a common commission. Furthermore, insofar as it is possible, every diocese should have two other commissions, one for sacred music, the other for sacred art. It will frequently be desirable in individual dioceses to unite these three commissions into a single one. III) We also put into effect from the date given above the obligation according to article 52 of having a homily at Mass on Sundays and holydays of obligation. IV) We prescribe that there should be put into immedi-ate effect that part of article 71 according to which the sacrament of confirmation, if desired, can be conferred within Mass after the reading of the Gospel and after the homily. V) With regard to article 78, the sacrament of matri-mony is ordinarily to be celebrated within Mass after the reading of the Gospel and the giving of the homily. If matrimony is celebrated outside of Mass, the follow-ing points are to be observed until a completely new cere-mony has been drawn up: at the beginning of this sacred rite, after a brief exhortation,'~ the Epistle and the Gospel of the nuptial Mass are to be read; then there should be given to the couple the blessing which is found in the Roman Ritual under Title 8, Chapter 3. VI) Although the Divine Office has not yet been re-vised and renewed in accordance with article 89, still to those who are not bound to choir We give permission, ef-fective without the usual waiting period, to omit the Hour of Prime and to choose from the Small Hours the one that best fits the time of day. While granting this, We are fully confident that the ministers of sacred things will not in any way relax their inner devotion; hence, if they diligently carry out the duties of their priestly office out of love for God alone, they can rightly be considered as spending the entire day with their minds joined to Him. VII) Also with regard to the Divine Office, in indi-vidual cases and for an adequate reason, ordinaries can dispense their subjects, wholly or in part, from the ob-ligation of reciting the Office or they can commute the obligation to another.6 VIII)-Once more with regard to the praying of the Di. vine Office, We declare that the members of any institute of religious perfection who .by reason ol~ their laws recite, any part of the Divine Office or a Short Office that is See the Constitution on the Liturgy, article 35, § 3. See the Constitution on the Liturgy, article 97. modeled on the Divine Office and has been duly approved are to be considered as publicly praying with the Church.~ IX) Since according to article 101 of the Constitution those who are bound to recite the Divine Office may be allowed in various ways permission to use the vernacular instead of Latin, We think it good to specify that the various vernacular translations are to be prepared and approved by the competent territorial ecclesiastical au-thority in accord with the norm of article 36, §§ 3 and 4; what is done by this authority must be duly appi'oved or confirmed by the Apostolic See in accord with the same article 36, § 3. And We prescribe that this is always to be observed whenever a liturgical Latin text is translated into the vernacular by the legitimate authority We have already mentioned. X) Since according to the Constitution (article 22, § 2) the supervision of liturgical matters, within established limits, comes under the competency of various kinds of legitimately constituted territorial groupings of bishops, We decree that for the time being these are to be national groupings. In addition to residential bishops, all who are men-tioned in canon 292 of the Code of Canon Law have the right to be present and to vote at these national confer-ences; coadjutors and auxiliary bishops may also be called to them. In these conferences, legitimate passing of decrees re-quires a two-thirds majority of a secret vote. XI) Leaving now the matters pertaining to the liturgy which We have changed in this apostolic letter or have ordered to be done before the usual waiting period, We wish to note in conclusion that the direction of the sacred liturgy is within the competency of the Church alone; that is, within the competency of this Apostolic See, and, in accord with the norm of the law, of the bishops. Hence, no one else, not even a priest, is permitted to add, remove, or change anything with regard to liturgical matters,s We order that everything We have decreed in this motu proprio letter be held as valid and legal, all contrary things notwithstanding. Given in Rome at St. Peter's on January 25, 1964, the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul, in the first year of Our Pontificate. PAUL VI See the Constitution on the Liturgy, article 98. See the Constitution on the Liturgy, article 22, § 1, and article 2~,§ ~. The Liturgy VOLUME 23, 1964 595 PAUL J. BERNADICOU, s.j. Persons and the Religious Life Paul J. Bernadi-cou, S.J., is a mem-ber of Regis Col-lege; 3425 Bayview Avenue; Willow-dale, Ontario; Can-ada. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS If we come to understand the role 6f persons in Chris-tianity, we will be in a position to assess their role in the spirituality which underlies and motivates the religious life. For religious life is basically an intensified living of Christian spirituality. As such, it takes its shape and model--no matter what the varying emphases of the dif-ferent institutes--from the life and teaching of Christ our Lord. From authentic spirituality based on the teaching of Christ, therefore, we derive the charter for the proper place of persons in the life of a religious. The necessity to clarify so central a theme in the Christian life as the role of persons manifests the easy confusion to which man~ falls prey. Even in religious life, a life of the counsels dedi-cated to the closest possible following of Christ's own program ahd pattern of life, we can easily mistake the means for the end; we can forget to love persons in our endeavor to purify our love. Religious can become the victims of their formation and purification and as a result find themselves caught in a multiplicity of detailed rules and in an exactness of observance that deprive them of a clear view of the desired end of their way of life: to love people deeply, truly, and universally. We can too easily substitute our initial concern to apply the means and never arrive at the end. In a life as authority-centered and regulated as is that of a religious, scrupulous care for the disciplinary rules of the institute and a desire to please the ever-present superior may absorb the forefront of attention; we forget to relate and justify these means in the larger context of Christian spirituality: the love of persons. Or perhaps the needed purification by means of the self-imposed suffering of mortification and abnegation--now discovered for the first time--too fully occupies the mind! of a young religious: the stress on what he can and must do here and now to correct and improve his conduct as a professional Christian (that is, a religious). This together with a certain diffidence on the topic of love can become too permanent a state of mind. So a time of reevaluation must occur. The indoctrination in and emphasis on penance and prayer during the formative years are meant to lead one to a fuller and truer Christian love; they interiorize and actualize the life and vision of hith by helping one transcend his thoughtless and selfish fixation. But they are not ends in themselves: we must love persons--actually and genuinely--or cease to be our .vital, integral, devel-oping selves. And so the central role of persons and the topic of love, which in the early stages of one's formation are frequently considered too fraught with the possibility of self-deception and of a casual approach to celibacy, must be reinvestigated, then reintegrated into the domi-nant focus of spirituality. The New Testament, the authoritative document for Christian spirituality, attests the indispensable role of persons in the Christian life. From beginning to end, the New Testament unites the two commandments of the Old Law (love of God and love of neighbor) into the single commandment of the New Law: love for the hu-man person. This in fact is the form of the new command-ment given us by Christ. Thus St. Paul makes love of one's fellowman--bearing "the burdens of one another's fail-ing"-- the fulfillment of the law of Christ (Gal 6:9). And for St. John charity--love one for another--is the unique command given us by the Lord (2 Jn 5). In the Christian scheme of life, "If a man boasts of loving God, while he hates his own brother, he is a liar. He has seen his brother, and has no love for him; what love can he have for the God he has never seen?" (1 Jn 4:20). In the New Law, hu-man persons and interpersonal concern take on an in-estimably richer, supernatural significance for man. When Christ united the two commandments of the Old Law and placed their full realization in our super-natural love for human persons, He did not remove "one jot or flourish" from that law (Mt. 5:18). His new com-mandment is not a deletion or betrayal, it is a fulfillment (Mr 5:7 ft.). For He came as the truth teaching us more surely the way to the more abundant life (Jn 14:6; 10:10). In this respect, He has inaugurated a new age and a new covenant merited for us by His sacrifice on our behalf (2 Cor 5:15 ft.). His sacrificial death has founded the new community foretold by the prophets (Rom 1:2 ft.). This new community born in the Spirit raises the human per-son and human dialogue to a participation in God's own life and supernatural creativity (see 1 Cor 2 and 12). The new, undeserved, incomparably richer dignity ~rso~s VOLUME 2)~ 1964 ÷ ÷ ÷ P. ]. Bemadicou, S. 1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS which Christ has won for the human person was the wofl~ of His love-motivated incarnation (Phil 2:5 ft.). In this mystery of love which we will never fully fathom or sui[i-ciently appreciate, Christ joined both God and man and thus made feasible the fusion in His person of ~the two commandments of the Old Law. For He has told us that if we know Him, we also know and love the Father (Jn 14:7 ft.). And Christ we tome to know and love in our brother. In an unsearchable depth of wisdom and love that is His as the Son of God, Christ has chosen to identify Himself with the human person of our fellowman, par-ticularly if he be in need: "Believe me, when you did it to one of the least of my brethren here, you did it to me" (Mr 25:40). Precisely in this mysterious union of man and God we discover the awesome dignity of the human person: each person mediates Christ to us. This is a focal revelation in the new age founded by Christ. It is, therefore, by loving our fellowman--so Christ has willed-that we respond to the love of the God who has first loved us (1 Jn 3:16; 4:19). Appropriately, we return God's love by loving our neighbor in need. In our empti-ness, in our very non-existence, it was through our fellow, man that God first called us into existence and expressed His intent to love us forever. Through our family and larger social ties, God brought us into life, cared for us, raised us to the stature of men, and even presently in., structs and exercises us in His mysteries of love whicix are the earthly foreshadow of our heavenly glory. In par-ent, teacher, priest, friend, associates, and superior, God. daily expresses His love and leads us to Himself and the happiness of total friendship. By our most intimate hu-man contacts and friendships, God would entice us to the depth and durability of His friendship. We Christians and especially we religious are a chosen people--not of course by our own merit since He chose~ us before ever we chose Him (Jn 15:16). We have received the very best our fellowman could give us--the good news of Jesus Christ in its entirety. However inadequately we may have been taught or loved, we are the undeserving recipients of an insight into the ways of God and into the glorious destiny of the human person. And we have re-ceived these greatest of earthly gifts through the instru-mentality of our fellowman. Fittingly do we make our return of love for this great largess by our recognition of God's presence in the human family which has conveyed it to us. Beyond our most wishful dream or expectation, the human person is the giver of life to us. And so the unique dignity and inmost reality of each person is that he is Christ for us. Our habitual capacity to live this insight--though we cannot hope to fully com-prehend its rich import--is the measure of the Christian conviction within us. It is, in fact, according to this stand-ard that Christ our exemplar will judge us: When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, he will sit down upon the throne of his glory., and he will divide men one from the other . Then the king will say to those on his right hand, 'Come, you that have received a blessing from my Father, take possession of the kingdom which has been prepared for you since the foundation of the world. For I was hungry, and you gave me food, thirsty, and you gave me drink; I was a stranger, and you brought me home, naked, and you clothed me, sick, and you cared for me, a prisoner, and you came to me' (Mt 25:31-6). If we take Christ as seriously and committedly as He means to be taken, we will endeavor to increase our re-spect and reverence for each person since each has the potential to be an unique epiphany of Christ among us. Our hope and effort as representatives of Christ's causeb no matter what the form of our apostolate, whether con-templative or active--will be directed towards encour-aging each person we meet to achieve his full stature and self as a person: to mirror forth his never-to-be-repeated image and trait of Christ. We love each person not merely from a motive of loving Christ or His law, as if the true worth of a human person were found in a consideration extrinsic to his real sell:. No. In each person we love or would love the quality, the mark of his deepest, most genuine self: his capacity to show forth Christ in a way that no other can. In the Christian view of man, this is the authentic self of the hu-man person; for we live in the new age of the Spirit merited for us by Christ in which man has the inestimable call to be a member of His Mystical Body. The effect of our love enters more deeply into another than mutual encouragement and kindness. It is stronger and more curative than any balm we might pour into the wounds of our stricken neighbor, for we do not cause goodness to grow in each other simply by reason of a kindness adminstered and appreciated. Our love is much, much more profound: similar to and more intensive than parenthood in the natural order, our love actually fath-ers forth the Christness in another. Our Lord has told us: "I have a new commandment to give you, that you are to love one another; that your love for one another is to be like the love I have borne you" (Jn 13:34; also Jn 15:12; 17:11; 1 Jn 3:11). He means these words more surely and effectively than we generally allow ourselves to realize. Christ has actually chosen to express His love through that of His disciples: "Believe me when I tell you this; the man who welcomes one whom I send, welcomes me; and the man who welcomes me, welcomes him who sent me" (Jn 13:20; see also Mt 10:40). Our love thus reaches ÷ ÷ ÷ VOLUME 23, 1964 ,599 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 6O0 down into the inmost recesses of each other and-in a way we cannot fully understand---actually causes the very Godlife within another. We are father to the Christ in each other. Our supreme human privilege and responsi-bility as members of Christ's body, the Church, is to bring each other to life in the Spirit. God's people, the com-munity of the faithful, live in and communicate the Spirit to each other. Perhaps we best grasp the nature and function of our supernatural community in the Spirit if we compare it to the natural level of our incorporation into society. At this natural level, it is our association in the society of man that permits us to become real, vibrant, and human. It is only by reason of multiple and diverse interpersonal relations that we come into the world at all, are nourished, trained, and educated in the ways and values of human culture and civilization. We are very much the product of our mutual dependence in the natural sphere; this interdependence is the necessary avenue to our becoming a man and sharing in the goods of man. With the new life in the Spirit which follows upon our baptism into the Church of Christ, the function of inter-personal dependence takes on a new depth and fullness. We are custodians of the Spirit and bear it each to each. Because we live in the new age won by Christ, our human exchange of love prepares and disposes us and actually effects our entry into the life of total happiness in the fullest friendship we are capable of--the love of God Himself. The purpose of human love and friendship in this new community of the Spirit--most especially one would think of a religious community--is to witness and glimpse that complete love which is to come when the Spirit lives fully among us. Our love one for another awakens us to the love of God Himself. Assuredly, the supernatural efficacy of our love is pos-sible only because God works through those who live in His Spirit. If our love is like that of the heavenly Father (Lk fi:3fi), it is because we have learned how to love from God Himself (1 Th 4:9). And we have come to recognize the love of God for us only because the Spirit, sent us by Christ, opened our hearts to God's love (Rom 5:5; 15:30). He loves us because He has taken us as His sons: "Beloved, let us love one another; love springs from God; no one can love without being born of God and knowing God" (I Jn 4:7). And we return our filial love for the Father who has first loved us in our concern for our brother with whom Christ has identified Himself (Mt 25:40); for all of us together form the Body of Christ (Rom 12:5-10; 1 Cot 12:12-27): "And you are Christ's body, organs of it depending upon each other." Since the love of the Father is in us as a result of our new life in the Spirit, we are expected to imitate the works of His love. We may be indifferent to no man; as far as with God's grace we are able, we are to be perfect as the heavenly Father is perfect (Mr 5:48). With Christian con-viction we acknowledge and revere the potential Christ in each---especially in the needy and distressed who by Christ's own choice are more closely configured to Him. Christ's command of love goes even further: "But I tell you, love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, pray for those who persecute and insult you, that so you may be true sons of your Father in heaven, who makes his sun shine on the evil and equally on the good, his rain fall on the just and equally on the unjust" (Mt 5:43-48). Christ expects our love to go beyond that of good pagans who love those who love them. Because we have faith in Christ's mysterious words, we transcend our superficial impression of another even though we die to self. In fact, our radical capacity to transcend selfish interest and mere natural insight and inclination is the index of the depth of our faith in Christ and His good news. The measure of our love for the human person in need--even though he be our enemy--is the sure yardstick of our love for Christ; it bears absolute testimony to our sincere persuasion of His truth. The central role of human persons, the indispensable role for human love in the life of a Christian must give us pause. Is our religious dedication leading us where we will most surely find Christ? Do we honestly look for Him in an outgoing love and concern for our fellowman in need: in our readiness to help and cheer the less gifted or suffering members of our religious family; in our thirst for racial justice; in our efforts to help those who can most use our apostolic presence; in our prayers and penance for the world's poor and oppressed; in our par-ental concern for the young entrusted to our care; and in all the other multiple contacts with human need and misery that call forth our Christian love for the dignity of the human person. Is ours an authentic witness to Christ in a clear love of and dedication to the world of persons and community? A Christian love for people is the only adequate motive for our use of the means religious life provides. In this perspective, penance and prayer are desirable curbs on selfishness and a needed pruning for a more abundant harvest of love. Each institute and every individual in an institute decides under the guidance of the Spirit and proper authority on the measure of prayer and penance, of action and contemplation appropriate to their form of apostolate. But a clear perception of the goal--a deeper and truer love--acts as a constant corrective to an im-mature or excessive reliance on means. Separation, silence, + + + VOLUME 2.~, 1964 60! + ÷ ÷ P. ]. Bernadicou, S.]. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS recollection, and self-denial would be perverted from their function if we were to think we might by reason of. them love God directly in a total isolation from His iden-tity with human persons--as if He were an abstract prin-ciple or remote authority whose only wish is that we serve Him in an exact observance of impersonal rules and o1~ our own scrupulosity. If we esteem the unique value of hu-man persons in our spirituality, we assure a touchstone of orthodoxy and authenticity--more than this, of a healthy balance, sanity, and integration of personality. Suffering surely has a place in the Christian economy. Whether accepted in its received forms or self-imposed: it has value as a means to the end of loving Christ in all, especially the needy. To take up our cross daily and fol-low Christ means sloughing--and it is painful--our worldly views and values in order to love human persons as Christ loves them. This is undeniably difficult; it is a light cross only for those who have made it habitual and who consequently raise it with conviction; then it cer-tainly brings the peace of Christ and the only genuine suc-cess of the human person. Never should suffering take the form of a stop in love-- this is the only pointless suffering and it is the suffering of hell. However unintelligible in its experienced presence, suffering is an aid to greater love, to a love that is deeper, truer, and more universal. It is meaningful because it can force us out of ourselves to a compassion and communion with human persons and on to a total absorption in the person of God, our final and fully satisfying love. The most cloistered religious knows he can find God only by loving mankind. The sequestered life of the contemplative is not a frustrated attempt to escape humanity, much less a guilt-driven attack on self; it is, rather, an intense apostolic life of prayer and penance out of love for one's fellowman. The Church has therefore named St. Teresa of Lisieux as the foremost patroness of the missions be-cause hers was a genuine Christian spirituality of dedi-cated concern for the human person in need. An appreciation of the role of persons and human love is also the essential basis for any adequate theory of a Christian humanism. Our apostolic involvement in the world of the temporal community takes its ground in the realization that Christ has strengthened and elevated man's community to a participation in the very family of God. The Christian apostle cannot overlook the social, cultural, and political substratum which makes it possible for him to forge the interpersonal dialogue by means of which the members of Christ's people communicate the Spirit to each other. Christianity does not set a damp on our natural desire for love and happiness; it is our completion and sublime exaltation into the higher world of community in the Spirit. By our honest and earnest attempt to live and love in the Spirit, we come to share in the hundred-fold and the foretaste of heaven. In this earthly consolation alone--freely given and undeserved--is the hard-won reward of the mature religious and the greatest triumph of the human person. In an active love for the human per-son we already share on earth in the eternity of love and friendship. 4. 4. Persons VOLUME 23, 1964 SISTER M. JUDITH, O.S.B. Work: A Becoming Process Sister Mary Ju-dith, O.S.B., writes from St. Joseph's Convent; 2200 South Lewis; Tulsa, Okla-homa 74114. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 604 Man must become. How many complications, mistakes, frettings could be avoided if man could simply be; it is this business of becoming that touches the mainspring o[ man's set of human problems. Despite some medieval superstition that sisters, by vir-tue of some grace of state, simply and miraculously are, the fact remains that they must suffer their share of becoming. What should they strive to become? Each, according to her unique potential, should become a person, whole and holy. There exists no scarcity of directives for her becom-ing process: writers, preachers, lecturers bombard her with a dizzying abundance o[ books, articles, sermons, and speeches about humility, obedience, maturity, and allied virtues. Development of these traits, however, is not ac-complished in some chaste vacuum or by some mysterious process of intellection; it rather takes place as the sister peels away the days of her life. Unromantic as the fact may seem, over one half of the waking hours of these days is spent in work. Therefore, it is in her work that the virtues take root and grow; it is largely in work that she will become. Other situations of her life--like making vows, forming a meaningful rela-tionship, experiencing the death of a loved one--may pro-duce more highly colored experiences; but the continuity and stability which must underlie the development of ma-turity are found chiefly in her workaday world. And so that part of her life should not be divorced from her "re-ligious" life. Nor is it enough to dismiss it with the pietism: "Make your work a prayer." That part of a sister's life which drains her talents, her physical and psychic energies, which fills most of her waking hours, lays claim to a pene-trating investigation; for "work environment will color a man's thoughts, determine his habits, crystallize his atti-tudes, facilitate or inhibit physical and mental health, and increase or decrease the effectiveness of his general social adjustment." 1 If worka is to be a significant means of becoming, two aspects must be recognized: the bbjective reality and the subjective reality. And two definitive actions must be taken: the initial choice and its accomplishment. The objective reality is that vast block of work to be done, the unceasing needs of society and of the Church: the needs, in other words, of the here-and-now Body of Christ which is ignorant, hurt, sad, lo~t; disfigured. Facing this overwhelming objective reality, the Christian sister (the adjective is employed advisedly) approaches with the subjective reality of her pittance of energy and talent, her temperament, background, and natural interests. With this unique outfit of characteristics, she will advance to teach, cure, comfort, lead, and make beautiful. In this approach is made the first definitive action: choice. Two persons are involved in such choice: the in-dividual person and the moral person or community. First, the individual person. Too often, a sister is re-luctant to make a choice; part of the so-called security of religious life resides in a form of irresponsibility that pa-rades as docility or obedience. Sometimes, too, a sister in misinformed piety subscribes to a yesteryear's theory that misery is the gauge of merit, that the more miserable one is in her work of obedience the more meritorious that work is. In neither case is the sister involved in the action of choosing, which action admittedly includes risk but which is imperative in becoming. The sister who realizes that grace builds on nature chooses. She knows that "each soul is intended to animate a particular body . [that] each soul has or is a substantial relation to a particular body." ~ This sister realizes, then, that she must exercise that faculty of soul called will or choice so that her soul can animate her body. A soul cannot enliven a non-think-ing, non-willing set of fleshed bones. She must determine where God expects her to use His gifts to her, not wait un-til a superior dictates a position for which the sister might or might not have suitable abilities. The sister who wills faces an almost unequaled demand for exercising honesty. Honesty, or humility, hard come by for most persons, is particularly difficult for women, sisters not excepted. Yet is it other than to humbly desire "to serve Him by means of the gifts He has entrusted to 1S. N. Stevens, American Management Association, Prod. Series, No. 119. u Although the principles expressed in this paper may be applica-ble to manual, social, and intellectual work, this study is geared to a consideration of professional or semi-professional work. a Jacques Maritain, The Person and the Common Good (New York: Scribners, 1947), p. 22. ÷ ÷ ÷ Work VOLUME 23, 1964 605 Sister M. Judith, O.S.B. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 60g [her]?" Arid can one serve without a previous admission of those gifts? The tested proof of honesty comes in such evaluation and admission. Ability and interest tests, though possibly an aid in determining one's area of con-tribution, remain impersonal and surface. One may, for example, possess a genius for organization but lack the "toughness" to withstand the censure inevitably laid against one in authority. Tests cannot illustrate this. Or she may love children singly but be unequipped physically to handle them en masse in a six-hour day classroom situ-ation. One thing balances against another. And, too, al-lowance must be made for acquiring traits. For example~ other things being equal, a sister may be able to learn fac. tual content, to perfect a method, to acquire patience. Tests cannot indicate such potential. In the final analysis, then, in the honest act of choosing, the sister must go into her own heart, close the door, and! confer with her Self. No breast-beating or confessing of faults can call forth honesty equal to that demanded in, the inventory experience of admitting and declaring the gifts of God which one bears in one's Self. How painful it can be, say, for a sister to announce that, yes, she does think she is equipped to be a superiorl Or that, no, she really is not suited to administrate the hospital, thank yOU. Willing such as this rescues the sister from anonymity, that menace which currently terrifies the world and which, if anything, is a more urgent threat to sisters whose very routine and habit can become allies to anonymity. While her choice, therefore, establishes her independence as a person with a unique contribution, it at the same time diminishes her "separateness" insofar as it enables her to share the cream of her talents in the total work of the community.4 To feel and to have others feel that one is important and that the traits one possesses are valuable is a basic human need. If such recognition in any group is important, how much more so is acceptance in a religious community. The primary significance of a religious com-munity is that it is an eschatological sign of heaven insofar as it is a group of persons living together in love. Not toleration but acceptance and approval precede love. "No more fiendish punishment could be devised," claimed Wil-liam James, "than that one should be turned loose in so-ciety and remain absolutely unnoticed by all the members thereof." ~ In fact, the reasons that a person, as person, ¯ ~ W. W. Marston in Emotions o! Normal People says that one of the nearest things to a person (in the case of consciousness) is his "poor outfit of powers and virtues. In naked isolation, they seem small and cheap. To be idle is to shut these poor powers in; to work is to open them up, to unite them with greater powers' and a cause." * William James, Principles o] Psychology, Vol. 1 (New York: Holt, 18g0), p. 2g~t. seeks to live in community are first that she feels the "inner urge to the communications of knowledge and love which require relationship with other persons," and that, sec-ondly, she needs the help which "she ought to be given to do the work of reason and virtue, which responds to the specific feature of [her] being." 6 Therefore, the exercise in becorning that stems from evaluating one's potential and choosing to some degree its actuation does not result merely in a better-mileage-per- hour program; it also results in a more-love-per-person community. This brings a consideration of the role of the second person, the community. It will produce nothing but frus-tration for an individual sister to decide how she can best serve Christ's Body unless the community provides free-dom for and approval of such action. There must be a free exchange between a community and its individual members. On the one hand, the sister is bound to the com-munity because, in a certain fashion, that whole provides the framework in which she is enabled to become a person. In fact, Maritain maintains that "the person is duty-bound, in justice, to risk its own existence for the salvation of the whole when the whole is imperilled.''7 The sister should not, then, act as a spoiled child, demanding that her ambitions be satisfied at any cost. Between the individ-ual and the community there must be a mutuality of ex-change and benefit. Even in the mathematical order, six is not the same as three and three. One is always part of two; wholes are made up of wholes. So the whole com-munity is made up of whole individuals. "It presupposes the persons and flows back upon them, and, in this sense, is achieved in them." Without this flow, there is no community. If a commu-nity refuses to redistribute human goods (one of which is wholeness) and just "takes in," it will achieve, insists Maritain, no emancipation except that of the "collective man." And that is communism. There must be commu-nity, not communism. There must be individual persons, not a "collective sister." Granted this, what, exactly, is expected of the commu-nity? Basically, to recognize the rights of the individual sister to know and to become herself, and to loosen, if necessary, the structure to permit the sister to make her choice and live it out. Even in communities strictly geared to one specific work like, say, teaching, there is room for the functioning of various sets of talents. Even in that narrow area there may be classroom teaching, supervising, administrating, researching, professional writing, special-ized teaching. e Maritain, The Person, p. 37-8. 7 Maritain, The Person, p, 59. 4- 4- 4" Work VOLUME 221, 1964 607 ÷ ÷ ÷ Sister M. ~ludith, O.S.B. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Important as choice making is, however, the test of be. coming inheres in the continuity of the work. If the sister accepts the risky right of choosing, she must also take on the burden of making sure that the accomplishment of the work is also an accomplishment of her Self as a person, as a religious woman. As a person, she must be able to exercise her unique gifts, talents, energies and to make a contribution in gen-eral to society and in particular to her relatively small world of work and love, her community. As a woman, she must be able to bring up to conscious-ness her masculine qualities and to bring to full play her own set of feminine qualities. For if any human being is to reach full maturity, there must be a synthesis of both masculine (animus) and feminine (anima) traits. Who is unacquainted with the woman who is too "fe-male"? Feelings govern her decisions, spontaneous reac-tion supersedes human response, tears come easily as do fits of temper and flights of fancy. And who has not found sisters in this category? On the other hand, as communities of religious women are presently organized, a woman must take on some duties ordinarily staffed by a man. This may wrench the sister's masculine traits into an undisciplined development. Who has not witnessed the woman in whom dependability has turned to scrupulosity, courage to self-martyrdom, impartiality to unfeelingness, justice to cru-elty? Even without statistical support, it would be safe to calculate that the incidence of such virtue-run-amuck is high among sisters. G. G. Jung claims "that no one can evade the fact, that in taking up a masculine calling, studying, and working in a man's way, woman is doing something not wholly in agreement with, if not directly injurious to, her feminine nature." Threats to a woman's anima balance vary, of course, not only according to the work but also according to the per-son involved. In, say, certain administrative jobs, there exists, objectively speaking, a definite threat to the best. part of womanliness. Perhaps a conscious or unconscious realization of this fact is responsible for the growing trend in religious communities of working with men. Men school principals, lay advisory boards, male hospital administra-tors promise to become the rule rather than the exception. Some sisters, however, can function even in these positions without hurt to their feminine natures. No outside force, system, or test can predict the effect of certain jobs on cer-tain personalities; the individual sister must face these threats to mature personality-synthesis. She alone will know if a work is thus suited to her, if it allows for her Self's becoming a person who is a religious woman. On the other hand, most of the work sisters are in-volved in provides ideal situations for combining anima and animus traits. Teaching, nursing, doing social work summon her feminine traits of subjectivity, sympathy, tenderness, and understanding. These same works also require, in "varying degrees, exercise of her masculine traits of objectivity, courage, cooperation, dependability, justice. Therefore, most sisters should be able to discover a work suited to development of self. Only if she is able to accomplish becoming in her work will she be able to withstand the onslaught she opens up upon herself by her initial choice. She approaches her work with a fund of sympathy. She tri~s to relate herself to the sorrows of Christ's Body in the world by her feeling. But suffering, ignorance, ugliness are seemingly endless. She helps cure a patient today, and tomorrow his bed is occupied by another. She teaches English to forty students this year, and the next year forty-one file to replace them. She dismisses one unwed motherand must hold open the door to the next one trudging up the walk with the old story, the old weight. Year after year. It's like seeing one's self poured out into a sieve. In the face of this, a woman whose animus traits remain suppressed will likely resort to various neuroses or con-stantly seek different work in the futile hope that she can some place effect a lasting contribution. A woman whose anima traits are overpowered by the fury of overdeveloped masculine traits will, perhaps, react by developing a pro-tective hardness. It is the woman who has achieved, or is achieving, a personality synthesis who can make a real, conscious adaptation to such realities. It is she who is natu-rally equipped, too, for deep faith; she perceives that God provides, that the Body of Christ will be transformed, that God wills her to spend herself toward this omega point of creation in His plan. This is the faith the sister, in be-coming a whole person, must live by in meeting the ostensi-bly insurmountable suffering in the world,s To assume choice and accomplishment of work is to as-sume a weighty burden. It is, in fact, impossible to carry withottt aid. Evaluatory support comes to the individual in a process known as feedback. Moral aid comes in a system of living together known as community. Developed originally in connection with electronic com-puters and other servomechanisms, feedback has since been applied by psychologists to human beings. The im-portant feedback feature is its loop pattern: it loops back or feeds bacl~ to its starting point. For example, energy, starting from a person, is directed outward to some work. 8 Esther Harding in The Way o! All Women discusses this effec-tively. Although she finds psychological or anthropological answers to most problems, she admits that the overwhelming amount of sor-row a woman meets can be met "only by something which we must call a 'religious attitude.' " ÷ ÷ ÷ Work VOLUME 23, 1964 6O9 + + Sister M. Judith, O.S.B. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 610 Some indication of progress is then fed back to the person. Perception of this progress then increases or diminishes the amount of energy the person can again direct outward to that work. Feedback, if convergent (favorable), increases energy; if divergent (unfavorable), it decreases both psy-chic and physical energy. "Nothing succeeds like success" describes the effect of convergent feedback. If, say, a teaching sister recognizes from student response, peer respect, and principal com-mendation that she is successful in her work, she will in-crease her efforts. The convergent feedback creates more energy. It alleviates anxiety, builds self-confidence, and leads to accelerated effort. This is a simple, psychological fact. To desire to work without recognition is neither natural nor virtuous. There is a difference, however, in the favorable feedback needs of an immature and a ma-ture sister. The immature sister depends too constantly and too heavily on spoken or written approval. Her need becomes insatiable; and, with a pause in
In: Library of Selected Cases from the Chinese Court
Chapter 1: Lianqi Development Co., Ltd. v. Shanghai Baoye Group Corp., Ltd., Sakai SIO International(Guangzhou)Co., Ltd. et al. (Appeal against Jurisdictional Objection in Dispute over Infringement of Patent for Invention): The Principle of "Two Conveniences" and the Mechanism of Leapfrog Appeal shall be Fully Considered when Confirming the Jurisdiction of Non-infringement and Infringement of Patent -- Chapter 2: Shanxi Coal International Energy Group Jincheng Co., Ltd. v. China CITIC Bank Co., Ltd. Xi'an Branch, Shaanxi Petroleum & Chemical Corporation Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Contract): In a Confirming Warehouse Transaction Without Real Trade Background, the Real Legal Relationship Among the Buyer, Seller, and the Bank Shall be Found to be the Relationship of Loan and Guaranty Contract -- Chapter 3: Xinjiang Longmei Energy Co. Ltd. v. Zheng X (Dispute over Equity Transfer Contract): Changed Circumstances Shall not Be Claimed to Rescind the Contract Concluded When a Party Clearly Knowing the Risk -- Chapter 4: Ping An Bank Co., Ltd. Beijing Branch, and Beijing Gold Exchange Co., Ltd. et al v. Hainan Jinfenghuang Hotspring Resort Co., Ltd., Beijing Xinyupeng Mechanical & Electrical Engineering Co., Ltd. et al (Dispute over Loan Contract): The Effect of Issuing a Blank Guaranty Contract Stamped with the Official Seal, and the Issue That a Guaranty Provider May Be Exempted Within the Scope of the Pledge Waived by Its Pledgee -- Chapter 5: China Nonferrous Metal Industry's Construction Co., Ltd. v. Hengfeng Bank Co., Ltd. Ningbo Branch and defendants in the first instance, Ningbo Zhong Ren Hong Electronics Co., Ltd. and Ningbo Gang Di Trade Co., Ltd. et al. (Disputes over the Issuing of Letter of Credit and the Right of Recourse) : Instruments Debtors Shall not Protest Against the Pledgee on the Ground of Protesting Against the Pledgor -- Chapter 6: Xinjiang Hua Cheng An Ju Real Estate Development Co., Ltd. v. China Railway Construction Bridge Engineering Bureau Group Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Contract for the Undertaking of Construction Projects): on Application of Good Faith Principle in Finding the Validity of Contract -- Chapter 7: LC Securities Co., Ltd. and Eastern Gold Jade Co., Ltd. v. Yunnan Xinglong Industry Co., Ltd. and Zhao X et al. (Dispute over a Suretyship Contract): The Scope of Security Liability Assumed by the Security Provider Shall be Limited to the Scope of the Principal Obligation -- Chapter 8: Bank of DaLian Co., Ltd. v. Dalian Branch of China Railway Modern Logistics Technology Co., Ltd. and Jinzhou Zuoyuan Sugar Foods Co., Ltd. et al. (Dispute over a Loan Contract): Pledge in Movable Property May not be Created by Possession Reformulation -- Chapter 9: Sichuan Zhongding Construction Engineering Co., Ltd. v. Zhu X and Natural Resources Bureau of Wulan County (Dispute over Contract for the Undertaking of Construction Projects): In a De Facto Juristic Relation, the Actual Builder May Claim Project Payments Directly with the Party Offering the Contract -- Chapter 10: Fujian Tinghu Real Estate Group Co., Ltd. v. Natural Resources Bureau of Xianyou County (Dispute over a Contract for Transfer of State-owned Construction Land Use Right): In Case of Breach of Contract due to Objective Reasons, the Liquidated Damages Clause Shall be Applied Primarily to Cover the Loss -- Chapter 11: Wang X V. Bazhou Sairui Machinery & Equipment Installation Co., Cao X(A) (Dispute over Change of Registration): The Claim of the Resigned Legal Representative for the Registration of the Change of the Legal Representative of Company Shall, Absent Other Remedies, Be Accepted by the Court -- Chapter 12: Peng X V. Chengdu Rural Commercial Bank Co., Ltd. Cuqiao Subbranch, Chen X, et al. (Dispute over Suretyship agreement): Impact on the Liability of Other Guarantors Involved of Creditor's Waiver in Mixed Security of Security in Rem as Provided by Debtor -- Chapter 13: Hubei YAS Commercial Chain Co., Ltd. V. Danyang Yongsheng Motor Transport Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Tort Liability): Criteria for the Determination of Erroneous Application for Property Preservation -- Chapter 14: Jiang X, Chen X, el al. V. Lin X, Weng X(A)., et al. (Dispute over Objection to the Enforcement of Judgment): Determination on the Time When the Seizure Ruling and the Notice of Assistance in Execution Take Effect -- Chapter 15: Huang X V. Xiamen Shuangrun Investment Management Co., Fenghe (China) Co. (the third party in the first instance), Hui'an County Rural Credit Cooperative (Dispute over the Objection by an Outsider to the Enforcement): The Requirements for the Valid Objection to the Execution by the Transferee of Equity -- Chapter 16: Guilin Zhangtai Industry Group Co., Ltd., Guangxi Lichengdong Investment Co., Ltd. et al (Enforcement Reconsideration of Dispute over Recovery of Financial Distressed Debt): Identification of Interest in Cases of Enforcement against Dispute over Recovery of Financial Distressed Debt -- Chapter 17: Zhou X v. Xiamen Baixiang Shouli E-Business Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Online Shopping Contract): Determination of the Basis for the Adjustment of Agreed Punitive Liquidated Damages. - Chapter 18: Yunnan Copper Co., Ltd. v. Kunming Wanbao Jiyuan Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Yunnan Zhongheng Innovation Investment Co., Ltd. etc (Dispute over Sale Contract): Identification of the Nature and Validity of Closed-loop Sale Contracts -- Chapter 19: Zhongkong Guorong New Energy Development Co., Ltd. v. Fuzhou Dade Industry Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Sale Contract): Determination and Application of Deposit-related Penalty Rules for Partial Performance of Contracts -- Chapter 20: Zhongrong Hengsheng Wood Industry Co., Ltd.(Beijing)v. Crosplus (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. and Nanjing Mengyang Furniture Sales Center (Dispute over Copyright Infringement): Elements for Copyright Protection of Works of Applied Art -- Chapter 21: JDB (China) Co., Ltd. v. Guangzhou Wanglaoji Health Industry Co., Ltd. (Dispute over False Advertising): Identification of False Advertising -- Chapter 22: Shandong Bittel Intelligent Technology Co., Ltd (Bittel) v. Jiangsu Zhongxun Digital Electronics Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Tortious Liability for Damages Arising from Malicious Prosecution in Intellectual Property Litigation): Standard for Assessing the Subjective Fault in Disputes over Damages Arising from Malicious Prosecution in Intellectual Property Litigation -- Chapter 23: Lacoste Company Limited v. Cartelo Pty Ltd. and Trademark Review and Adjudication Board of State Administration for Industry and Commerce of the People's Republic of China (Administrative Dispute over Trademark Disputes): Impact of Offshore Co-existence Agreements on Determining the Trademark Similarity -- Chapter 24: Xiamen Meetyou Co., Ltd. v. Beijing Kangzhilesi Network Technology Co., Ltd. and China National Intellectual Property Administration (Administrative Dispute over Request for Declaration of Trademark Invalidity): Whether the Trademark at Issue is the Sign "Not to be Used as Trademark" Falls within the Jurisdiction of People's Court to Review the Administrative Act or Conduct in Affirming and Authorizing the Trademark -- Chapter 25: Xiao X v. Seno LED Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Infringement of Patent for Invention): The Role of Interpretations of the Recorded Technical Effect upon the Patent Claims and Impact on the Principle of Equivalence -- Chapter 26: Medacor (Tianjin) Technology Co., Ltd. v. Sunshine (Tianjin) Group Co., Ltd., and Defendants in the First Instance, Wang A, Zhang A, et al. (Dispute over Infringement of Trade Secrets): How to Determine whether the Customer List Constitutes the Trade Secrets -- Chapter 27: Ningbo Beworth Textile Machinery Co., Ltd. v. Ningbo Cixing Company Limited (Dispute over License Contract for Technological Secrets): Handling of Cases involved both Criminal and Civil Proceedings related to Trade Secrets -- Chapter 28: VMI Holland B.V. and Cooper (Kunshan) Tire Co., Ltd. v. Safe-run Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Confirmation of Patent Non-infringement): Prerequisites for Confirming Patent Non-infringement -- Chapter 29: Alfa Laval Corporate A B v. China National Intellectual Property Administration and SWEP International A B (the Third Party in the First Instance) (Administrative Dispute over Invalid Patent for Invention): Determination of Modification of Patent Claims beyond Scope in Invalidity Declaration Proceedings -- Chapter 30: Shimano v. Sensah Smart Sports Equipment Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Infringement of Patent for Invention): Determination of Protection Scope of Functional Features -- Chapter 31: Shenzhen Jiedian Technology Co., Ltd. v. Shenzhen Laidian Technology Co., Ltd. and Anker Innovations Technology Co., Ltd. (Dispute over Infringement of Patent for Utility Models): Classification and Identification Standards of Technical Features in Patent Claims -- Chapter 32: Wartsila Finland Oy and Spliethoff's Bevrachtingskantoor B.V. v. Rongcheng Xixiakou Shipbuilding Co., Ltd. and Yingqin Engine (Shanghai) Co., Ltd. (Tort dispute over the sale and purchase of marine equipment): Mere interest in the performance of a contract does not in principle fall within the scope of application of the law of tort liability -- Chapter 33: Shanghai Salvage Company under the Ministry of Transport v. Provence Shipowner 2008-1 Ltd, CMA CGM SA, et. al (Dispute over salvage at sea and ship pollution damage liabilities): How to distinguish the costs of preventive measures and the costs of salvage measures, determine the subject avoiding liability in ship collision and oil spill pollution incidents, and identify restricted and unrestricted maritime compensation claims -- Chapter 34: Bank of China Limited, Henan Branch v. UBAF (Hong Kong) Ltd. (Dispute over independent guarantee): How to determine independent guarantee fraud by a prima facie complying demand due to abuse of claim for payment -- Chapter 35: Evergreen Marine (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. v. .
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Part 1. Global -- 1. International Boundaries, Biological Borders, and the Public Governance of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Are we Entering a Whole New Era? (Emmanuel Brunet-Jailly) -- 2. Pandemic Geopolitics in the Anthropocene (Simon Dalby) -- 3. COVID-19 and the Science of where (Michael F. Goodchild) -- 4. Coronavirus and Conservation: Environmental Repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic (Helen D. Hazen) -- 5. Pandemic Geopolitics and the Bordering of COVID-19: Academic and Lay Geographies of the Pandemic and Policies to Contain and Mitigate the Novel Coronavirus (Virginie Mamadouh) -- 6. Rethinking Distance and Presence Conceptions in Times of COVID-19 and post-COVID-19: The Search for a New Educational Literacy (Paulo Quadros) -- Part 2. States, Cities and COVID-19 -- 7. The Swedish COVID-19 Enigma/Exception (Sebastian Abrahamsson and Richard Ek) -- 8. Insularity in a Connected World? The COVID-19 Pandemic in Iceland (Karl Benediktsson, Benjamin D. Hennig, Anne-Cécile Mermet, and Sigríður Haraldsdóttir) -- 9. Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on a Small Island: The Isle of Man Case Study (Sharon C. Cobb) -- 10. Medical Philately and the World of COVID-19 Postage Stamps: Issues of Truth, Health and Wealth (Stanley D. Brunn) -- 11. The COVID-19 Pandemic in Ukraine: A Mosaic of Regional Patterns and Voices of Social Disparity (Eugenia Maruniak and Olena Dronova) -- 12. COVID-19 Policy in Uzbekistan: Slipping Back Toward Authoritarianism? (Reuel Hanks and Dilshod Achilov) -- 13. The Pandemic in Belarus in 2020-21: COVID-19 in the Shadow of Politics (Ales Kirkevich and Alena Makouskaya) -- 14. COVID-19, the Stay-Home Discourse and a 'New' Geographic Haven (Mohamed Salah Eddine Madiou) -- 15. COVID-19 Geopolitics in Southeast Asia: Regional and National Health (in)Securities in Times of Pandemic (Carl Grundy-Warr) -- 16. Three Challenges Facing Guatemala's COVID-19 Crisis: Mobility, Violence and Governance (Trudy Mercadal) -- 17. COVID-19 Waves and Politics in Costa Rica (Ivan Molina) -- 18. Societal Perceptions of the Saudi Government's Response to the Coronavirus Pandemic (Mark C. Thompson) -- 19. Tackling Challenges of COVID-19: An Assessment of the Convergence-Divergence Debates from the Global South-India (M. Satish Kumar and Aditya Singh) -- 20. Health Geography of COVID-19: An Exploratory Analysis of the Pandemic During its First Phase in the Compact Cities of Barcelona and Madrid, Spain (Montserrat Pallares-Barbera, Simón Sánchez-Moral, Rafael Vicente-Salar, and Alfonso Arellano) -- 21. Three impacts of COVID-19 in Pakistan society: Home Confinement, Social Survey Data and Maps Showing Diffusion (Tahir Awan, Tehreem Raza Ch, and Mavia Mumtaz) -- Part 3. Political impacts: Laws, Borders, Diplomacy, Elections, Peacekeeping -- 22. Peacekeeping Operations: Challenges and Opportunities in the Midst of Health Crises (Jessica Di Salvatore) -- 23. Travel Restrictions and Border Security Measures on the Canada–U.S. Border During the COVID-19 Pandemic—Does Law Matter in a Crisis? (Roger S. Fisher) -- 24. Forgotten Ones: Rhetoric of Migration and Tourism Governance in South Africa in the Sedentary Epoch of COVID-19 (Samuel Umoh Uwem and Oyewo Adetola Elizabeth) -- 25. From European Union Student Mobility to Lockdown: "Virtual Study Mobility" in the COVID-19 Era and a Case Study of Transnational Law in an International Classroom Delivered Online (Cherry James, John Koo, and Emmanouela Mylonaki) -- 26. Vaccination Nation: Vaccine Diplomacy and the U.S. Vaccine Rollout (Shaun J. Johnson) -- 27. Changing COVID-19 Border Restrictions and Borderland Resilience: The Finnish-Swedish Border Case (Eeva-Kaisa Prokkola and Juha Ridanpää) -- 28. Free Movement of Persons and Goods in the European Union During COVID-19 (Lehte Roots) -- 29. Intertwined Geographies of the Pandemic and the U.S. Presidential Election of 2020: COVID-19 Prevalence and Donald Trump (Ryan Weichelt, J. Clark Archer, Robert Shepard, Robert Watrel, and Jill Archer) -- Part 4. Communication, Branding and the Media -- 30. Affective Immediately: Reading the Semiotic Landscape of COVID-19 in Lincoln, Nebraska (James E. Baker) -- 31. Local Newspaper Coverage of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Two Major Texas Cities: A Visual Comparison of Houston and El Paso (Sarah A. Blue and Mary Stycos) -- 32. COVID-19 as the Great (un)equalizer: The Framing of Women in Media Coverage in China, the Middle East, and the U.S. (Mari A. DeWees and Amy C. Miller) -- 33. Place-Branding for Immigrant and Refugee Integration and Receptivity Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: Responses of U.S. Cities in the "Welcoming America" Network (Paul N. McDaniel, Rajit H. Das, and Darlene Xiomara Rodriguez) -- 34. Lost in Translation: Reporting About COVID-19 Pandemic by Community Vernacular Radio Stations in Rural Kenya (Lilliane Atieno Oloo and Daniel Ochieng' Orwenjo) -- 35. Examining Effective Communication during COVID-19 Through Prime Minister's Speeches: The Case of Malaysia (Teresa Wai See Ong) -- 36. Trump and the Coronavirus: The Triumph of Incompetence (Barney Warf) -- Part 5. Communications: Websites, Social Media -- 37. Presenting, Representing, and Misrepresenting COVID-19 in the five Central Asian States: The Political Underpinnings of Official State Coronavirus Websites in Authoritarian Regimes (Ryan P. Cabana) -- 38. The Role of User-Generated Content Data for Collaborative Learning: Identifying Tourism Hot Topics During the Pandemic (Nuria Recuero Virto) -- 39. The Impact of COVID-19 and use of Geo-Tagged User Data in Territories without Planning: The Case of São Tomé and Príncipe (Nagayamma Aragão and Carlos Smaniotto Costa) -- 40. Social Distancing and Politeness: Hungarian Emailing Practices During the Coronavirus Epidemic (Ágnes Domonkosi and Zsófia Ludányi) -- 41. Application of GIS in Vaccine Distribution During COVID-19 (Jing Wu) -- Part 6. Cartoons and Cartooning -- 42. More than a Message: Public Health Advocacy, Political Cartooning and COVID-19 Challenges in Pakistan (Ayesha Ashfaq and Joseph Russomanno) -- 43. What's so Funny about COVID-19? How some Comic Strip Artists have Approached or Avoided a Sensitive Subject (Thomas L. Bell) -- 44. Visualizing the Unspeakable in Thought: A Multi-Model Discourse Analysis of Cartoons as a Device for Communicating (Maxwell Mpotsiah) -- Part 7. Maps and Mapping -- 45. One Year of COVID-19: Mapping the Spread of a Global Pandemic (Benjamin D. Hennig) -- 46. Mapping Silenced Spaces During Increased Overdose and COVID-19: Opportunities for Danger and Harm Reduction in Southern Appalachia (Lesly-Marie Buer, Bayla Ostrach, Sam Armbruster, and Erin Major) -- 47. COVID-19 in Tunisia: Mapping and Documenting the Impacts on those on the Margins (Betty Rouland and Marouen Taleb) -- 48. Mapping the COVID-19 Spatial Behaviors and Narratives of Women in an Architecture School in the Midwest USA" (Mania T. Taher) -- 49. Increased use of Maps During the COVID-19 pandemic: An example from Morocco (Abdallah Zouhauri) -- Part 7. Cultures: Diffusion and Social Well-Being) -- 50. The Way from the Leading Position to the Last: Geodemographic Analysis of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Czechia (Dagmar Dzúrová, Klára Hulíková Tesárková, Pavlína Netrdová, and Lukáš Brůha) -- 51. COVID-19 Deaths in México: A Spatiotemporal Analysis (Oscar Gerardo Hernández-Lara, José R. Díaz-Garayúa, and Kevin A. Butler) -- 52. Impacts of COVID-19 on Nigerian Culture (Ibrahim Badamasi Lambu) -- 53. Research Frontiers on COVID-19 Issues in Brazilian Context (Paulo Quadros) -- 54. Geography, Factors and Consequences of COVID-19 Diffusion in Russia (Stepan Zemtsov and Vyacheslav Baburin) -- Part 9. Mobility and Immobility -- 55. Effects of COVID-19 on Urban Mobility and Public Space use in Kumasi, Ghana (Clifford Amoako, Kwasi Kwafo Adarkwa, and Michael Poku-Boansi) -- 56. Impact of COVID-19 on Nepal's Labour Migration (Sadikshya Bhattarai and Jeevan Baniya) -- 57. Voting with their Feet: Coronavirus Pandemic Refugees and the Future of American Cities (James H. Johnson, Jr.) -- 58. Exploring Human Mobilities in the COVID-19 Era in Urban and Rural Canada (K. Bruce Newbold, Curtis Towle, and Kaylah Vrabic) -- 59. Rearranging Mobilities and Immobilities and Placeremaking During COVID-19: Governing the Pandemic Situation through (im)mobilities in South Korea (HaeRan Shin) -- Part 10. Inequalities and Divides) -- 60. Pandemic and Education: Persistent Deepening of Educational Inequalities in Argentina as a Consequence of COVID-19 (Gustavo Javier Annessi and Paola Demirta) -- 61. COVID-19 and the Comorbidities of Spatial Inequality and Colonial Legacy: Two Caribbean Cases – Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago (April K. Baptiste and Hubert Devonish) -- 62. Digital Inequalities in Times of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Israel and Germany (Elisabeth Sommerlad and Yossi David) -- Part 11. Marginalized Groups: Refugees, Silences, Gender, Racism, Survival -- 63. Beyond the Ecumene: Roma Genesis, Community and Survival in the COVID-19 World (Krasimir Asenov) -- 64. Ethnic Minorities in Poland in the Face of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Threats, Stigma and Forms of (in)visibility (Bartłomiej Chromik, Joanna Maryniak, and Justyna Olko) -- 65. Everyday Morbid Geography: Street life and COVID-19 State Regulation in Manila and Hanoi (José Edgardo A. Gomez, Jr., Redento B. Recio, Ha Minh Hai Thai, and Phuong Thu Nguyen) -- 66. Undocumented Migrants and the COVID-19 Pandemic: Similar and Dissimilar COVID-19 Stories Comparing Finland and Iran (Jussi S. Jauhiainen and Davood Eyvazlu) -- 67. 'If I don't Sell Food, How Would I eat?' Negotiating Street Vendor Livelihoods in the Context of COVID-19 Lockdowns in Urban Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos (Jennifer C. Langill, Binh N. Nguyen, and Sarah Turner) -- 68. Impact of COVID-19 on Local Planning Practices: Focusing on Tactical Urbanism, Slow Streets and low-Income Communities in Oakland, Los Angeles, San Francis.
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Public interest litigation is a mechanism of intervention in a matter that concerns the public. It could be about human rights, government policy, or some other issue that could present a challenge to public life. Public interest litigation is important because it presents hope to the powerless and offers justice where there might not previously have been the opportunity. The aim of public interest litigation is to recognise injustice and give a voice to the concerns of members of society who might not have the means to articulate them. In Nigeria there is a high tendency for people of low socioeconomic status to experience police brutality, or even become victims of extra-judicial killing. In this article, it was argued that although public interest litigation is a good strategy to engage the injustice of extra-judicial killings, the recurrence shows that the solution lies more in addressing a systemic problem. ; Dorcas A. 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ABSTRAKPertumbuhan ekonomi memegang peranan penting dalam menentukan keberhasilan pembangunan sebuah negara, oleh karena itu setiap negara selalu menetapkan target pertumbuhan ekonomi yang stabil dalam tujuan pembangunan. Dalam prosesnya pertumbuhan ekonomi dipengaruhi oleh berbagai factor yang dapat mendorong atau bahkan menghambat laju pertumbuhan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pertumbuhan penduduk, keterbukaan perdagangan, inflasi, nilai tukar dan investasi terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi 40 negara anggota Organisasi Kerjasama Islam (OKI) pada tahun 2005-2019 menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan teknik analisis regresi data panel fixed effect model dan menggunakan aplikasi Eviews 11dalam mengelola data penelitian. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa variabel pertumbuhan penduduk dan nilai tukar memiliki hubungan signifikan dan negatif terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi, sedangkan keterbukaan perdagangan dan investasi berpengaruh signifikan dan positif. Sedangkan investasi tidak berpengaruh signifikan pada pertumbuhan ekonomi di Negara OKI. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini pemerintah dan pihak terkait diharapkan dapat mengendalikan tingkat pertumbuhan penduduknya serta mendorong sektor perdagangan internasional untuk meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi mengingat tingkat keterbukaan perdagangan di Negara OKI masih dibawah potensinya.Kata Kunci: Pertumbuhan Ekonomi, Pertumbuhan Penduduk, Keterbukaan Perdagangan, Organisasi Kerjasama Islam. ABSTRACTEconomic growth plays an important role in determining the success of a country's development; therefore, each country always sets a target for stable economic growth in its development goals. In the process, economic growth is influenced by various factors that can encourage or even hinder the growth rate. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of population growth, trade openness, inflation, exchange rates and investment on the economic growth of 40 member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in 2005-2019 using a quantitative approach with a fixed effect model panel data regression analysis technique and using the Eviews application. 11 in managing research data. The results of this study indicate that the variables of population growth and exchange rates have a significant and negative relationship to economic growth, while trade openness and investment have a significant and positive effect. Meanwhile, investment has no significant effect on economic growth in the OIC Country. 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Milk adulteration is a serious concern in developing country Nepal and is at higher risk due to lack of government policies. Milk is almost a complete food containing essential nutrients required for growth and maintenance of the body. Milk is a high-risk commodity that can be adulterated in numerous ways and turn affects milk quality. The quality and safe milk production are one of the biggest problems faced by developing countries, and Nepal is one of them. The reason behind the milk adulteration is more for economic concerns, but the root cause of adulteration is to increase milk demand during the lean season in developing countries and the existing supply chain. Water being cheap is the most common adulterant added in the milk that decreases the nutrient content of milk. Milk producer also adds the preservatives to increase the shelf life of milk, caustic soda to reduce the milk acidity and materials like urea, starch, sugar and milk powder to increase SNF content. Such milk adulterants can possess serious health hazards to the public leading to fatal diseases. This review shows the common milk adulteration practices in-country Nepal and their impacts on food safety and human health and emphasize potential strategies for control of such adulteration practices.Keywords:Adulteration, Milk quality, food safety, human healthself Adam, A.A.H. 2009. Milk adulteration by adding water and starch at Khartoum state. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8(4):439-440.Barham, G.S., Khaskheli, M. Soomro, A.H. and Nizamani, Z.A. 2014. Extent of extraneous water and detection of various adulterants in market milk at Mirpurkhas, Pakistan. J Agri Vet Sci, 7(3), pp.83-89.Barham, G.S., Khaskheli, M., Soomro, A.H. and Nizamani, Z.A.2014b. Detection and extent of extraneous water and adulteration in milk consumed at Hyderabad, Pakistan. In Food Nutrition Sciences ,2: 47-52.Bastola, K.P., Nepali, D.B. 2016. 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