In questo lavoro abbiamo analizzato l'annata 1948 del quotidiano del Partito Comunista Italiano, «l'Unità», cercando di cogliere gli elementi che potevano contribuire a definire i confini dell'idea di patria che aveva il PCI. Abbiamo preso in considerazione articoli di fondo scritti dai massimi dirigenti del partito, articoli di personalità indipendenti candidatesi con il Fronte o di semplici simpatizzanti; abbiamo analizzato articoli non firmati, cioè considerati espressione del quotidiano nella sua interezza e alcuni disegni satirici. Abbiamo indagato le retoriche presenti in questi articoli, confrontandole con quelle dei testi canonici che hanno delineato l'idea della nazione italiana. Abbiamo collocato quest'analisi nel contesto dell'Italia del 1948, un anno decisivo per le sorti dell'Italia e per la storia del Partito Comunista Italiano. Abbiamo visto che il personaggio del traditore, fondamentale nelle narrazioni nazional-patriottiche del «canone risorgimentale» è diffusamente presente nelle pagine del quotidiano del PCI in funzione antigovernativa. Ciò non solo nel corso della combattutissima campagna elettorale, ma anche dopo, quando il PCI cercava di riorganizzarsi dopo il disastroso esito delle elezioni e accusava la DC di non avere la volontà di applicare i principi sociali della Costituzione. L'accusa di tradimento sembra peraltro essere un elemento ricorrente nella visione del mondo del comunismo staliniano: il tradimento era ad esempio uno dei capi d'accusa che il partito comunista sovietico muoveva contro i dissidenti nel corso delle sue epurazioni. Il tradimento è anche la chiave di lettura con cui nel libro fatto redarre da Stalin per canonizzare la storia del comunismo sovietico, cioè Storia del partito comunista (bolscevico) dell'URSS, del 1938, venivano interpretate tutte le deviazioni di destra e di sinistra: da Bucharin, a Zinov'iev, da Trockij a Tito.1 Lo stesso procedimento era all'opera nella ricostruzione della storia del PCI fatta redarre da Togliatti in occasione del trentennale del partito: Tasca e Bordiga erano definiti traditori della classe operaia, l'uno per «opportunismo», l'altro per «settarismo». La formula del tradimento era quindi tradizionalmente presente nella cultura marxista-lenista e i massimi dirigenti del PCI erano impregnati di questa mentalità. Molti studiosi che si sono cimentati nello studio del profilo culturale dei comunisti italiani hanno sottolineato questo aspetto: David Kertzer ad esempio ha sostenuto che «at the heart of the PCI's symbolic world was the Manichean tradition of the international Communist movement».2 Per Kertzer questa visione del mondo risaliva alle origini ottocentesche del movimento operaio ed aveva ancor più antiche radici cristiane. On one side lay good, on the other evil. On one side the Communists; on the other, the capitalists and imperialists, Fascists and traitors. On the side of all that is virtuous, the Soviet Union; on the side of all evil, the United States.3 Questa ideologia che portava a identificare i propri avversari come una rete di cospiratori era tipica, aggiunge Kertzer, della retorica del dopoguerra ed aveva un corrispettivo speculare nell'anticomunismo degli USA e dei suoi paesi satelliti, come l'Italia democristiana. Kertzer evidenzia inoltre che il simbolismo manicheo del linguaggio comunista raggiunse il suo acme nel dopoguerra, quando si ebbe la necessità di isolare un nemico interno, come nel caso di Tito in sede internazionale e nel caso Magnani-Cucchi in ambito nazionale. Da questa visione del mondo manichea per Kertzer derivava una «metafora militare», in virtù della quale lo scontro elettorale era letto dai comunisti attraverso un simbolismo militare e gli avversari politici erano identificati come forze reazionarie al servizio degli stranieri.4 Angelo Ventrone ha provato a leggere la storia italiana utilizzando la chiave di lettura del «nemico interno» come strumento di lotta politica. Per Ventrone questo modo di concepire la lotta politica risalirebbe alla prima guerra mondiale quando i neutralisti vennero definiti disfattisti, e prima ancora alla guerra di Libia, e arriverebbe fino ai nostri giorni, passando ovviamente per le elezioni del primo dopoguerra.5 Giuseppe Carlo Marino ha inquadrato il tema nel clima paranoico del PCI postbellico: spie, provocatori e traditori potevano nascondersi ovunque, tanto più in un partito che era diventato di massa, per questo bisognava predisporre criteri rigidi di selezione del personale militante e dirigente. Di qui l'istituzione delle scuole di partito e l'imposizione della pratica autobiografica, perché bisognava conoscere il passato dei militanti per capire se nella loro condotta di vita, nella loro estrazione sociale e familiare, potevano esservi i germi del tradimento. Tutto ciò rendeva necessario spingere alla delazione sistematica: i compagni che notavano elementi potenzialmente anti-comunisti dovevano senza indugio denunciarli alle autorità di partito: il colpevole sarebbe stato poi giudicato e, in caso di colpa grave, sottoposto ad un processo pubblico (cioè alla presenza dei compagni).6 Sempre Kertzer situa questa ricerca del nemico interno nello spazio del mito che caratterizza la sfera politica. Citando l'antropologo francese Raoul Girardet, tra i temi che strutturano i miti politici Kertzer individua quello dell'esistenza di un diavolo cospiratore; l'esistenza di un salvatore; l'arrivo di un'età dell'Oro.7 Per lo studioso americano questi miti sono inoltre al centro della tradizione cristiana, oltre che nell'ideologia del PCI. Per Kertzer i comunisti elaborarono questa mitologia in virtù della loro visione manichea della realtà e della storia, che li portava ad identificare nell'URSS il baluardo del bene, che avrebbe strenuamente combattuto contro il male, cioè il capitalismo e l'imperialismo che in questa fase erano identificati con gli USA.8 Non bisogna però dimenticare che questa visione manichea è presente soprattutto nella prima fase della guerra fredda. Altri studiosi hanno dimostrato che i comunisti non erano una monade nella società italiana ma erano ben inseriti in essa e anche loro furono influenzati dalla cultura di massa americana. Inoltre mito americano, mito sovietico e antiamericanismo erano immagini che erano state variamente presenti nei vari strati della società italiana nel corso del Novecento.9 Due riviste come Il Politecnico e Vie Nuove sono un'ottima testimonianza di questo fatto. Patrick Mc Carthy ha ad esempio mostrato che presso gli intellettuali e i lettori di due delle principali riviste culturali del PCI, Rinascita e Il Politecnico era stato elaborato nel corso degli anni Quaranta un «mito dell'America democratica». Un mito che aveva radici nell'ammirazione della sinistra pre-marxista per l'America e che sembrava essersi rilanciato dopo la «svolta di Salerno» e l'alleanza tra URSS e angloamericani. Esso venne però schiacciato dall'inizio della guerra fredda, che aveva comportato il ritorno ad una visione acritica di un'America imperialistica e consumistica, salvo poi tornare in auge dagli anni '70.10 Stephen Gundle ha poi mostrato in un'analisi comparativa, che il settimanale popolare del PCI Vie Nuove spesso si occupava della cosiddetta «America democratica» e in generale le sue pagine erano familiari con i fenomeni «americanizzanti» che avevano influenzato le abitudini del dopoguerra, dato che si prefiggeva il compito di rispecchiare la mentalità dei suoi lettori.11 Il fatto che questa rivista fosse molto letta è assai significativo.12 Molti studiosi sono quindi concordi nel ritenere quello del tradimento un elemento centrale nella cultura del PCI del primo dopoguerra. In questo lavoro abbiamo cercato di dimostrare che il codice retorico utilizzato per sviluppare il tema in questione è tratto dal discorso nazional-patriottico ottocentesco, anche se quest'ultimo non è ripreso in blocco ma adattato alle diverse esigenze, ai differenti fini, al mutato contesto. Facciamo un altro raffronto, andando a sovrapporre quelle che Banti ha definito «quattro configurazioni sincrone»,13 con il discorso del tradimento lanciato invariabilmente da tutti i dirigenti comunisti su «l'Unità», nei confronti del governo democristiano: per Banti le narrazioni risorgimentali si svolgono sempre passando per le seguenti configurazioni: 1. « l'oppressione della nazione italiana da parte di popoli o di tiranni stranieri; 2. la divisione interna degli italiani, che favorisce tale oppressione; 3. la minaccia al nucleo più profondo dell'onore nazionale, che tale oppressione direttamente o indirettamente comporta; 4. gli eroici, quanto sfortunati, tentativi di riscatto».14 Dal raffronto con le quattro configurazioni delle narrazioni risorgimentali emergono le analogie e le peculiarità che il PCI innesta in questo discorso. Per i comunisti italiani, come abbiamo visto, l'integrità della nazione italiana è minacciata da un lato dallo straniero capitalista e imperialista americano, il quale vuole asservire militarmente il paese; dall'altro lato dall'atteggiamento servile mostrato dalla DC. I comunisti, viceversa, si considerano gli autentici difensori dell'unità e della salute della patria, insieme ai socialisti. A differenza dei patrioti del Risorgimento, però, i comunisti non esprimono avversione nei confronti degli stranieri in quanto tali, cioè gli americani, ma nei confronti del governo italiano, che si è reso servo dello straniero, e del governo degli Stati Uniti, che come abbiamo visto, in questa fase, è identificato con l'imperialismo e il capitalismo. Questo è quanto traspare dalle pagine de «l'Unità». In realtà, come abbiamo visto poco fa, l'atteggiamento del mondo comunista nei confronti dell'America è complesso e variegato nel corso degli anni e l'antiamericanismo può essere considerato un atteggiamento di avversione aprioristica nei confronti degli Usa in quanto considerato il paese in cui il capitalismo si esprime al massimo grado. Il governo d'altra parte è colpevole di accettare servilmente questa politica contraria agli interessi nazionali. Così facendo esso si macchia di tradimento, perché divide irresponsabilmente il corpo nazionale: cioè scinde la classe operaia che nella lettura propagandistica del PCI è rappresentata nella sua interezza dalle forze di sinistra, dal resto della popolazione. Invece nella visione togliattiana la classe operaia per mezzo della guerra di liberazione nazionale era diventata il nucleo della nazione e attorno ad essa si sarebbero dovute coagulare le altre forze sociali interessate ad una riforma in senso «progressivo» delle strutture economiche e sociali dell'Italia. Il PCI, viceversa, ritenendosi il principale e legittimo sostenitore della politica di unità nazionale era per Togliatti il vero sostenitore di una politica indipendente e autonoma dell'Italia in politica estera e interna. Abbiamo visto poi che i massimi dirigenti del PCI nel commemorare i caduti della Resistenza partigiana, hanno fatto ampio uso di immagini impregnate di retorica sacrificale. Le vite lasciate dai partigiani sulle montagne vengono lette cioè come un martirio che ha consentito la redenzione di un paese che si era macchiato della colpa di aver sostenuto il regime fascista e che grazie al sacrificio dei combattenti partigiani ora poteva risorgere. Questo discorso non era esclusivo del PCI: Guri Schwarz ha mostrato che negli anni del primo dopoguerra le neonate istituzioni repubblicane cercarono di ricostruire il paese dal punto di vista simbolico coniando un «patriottismo espiativo» basato sul culto dei caduti, commemorati come vittime, non come eroi. E almeno nei pochi casi che abbiamo visto, sembra proprio che quelle immagini, nelle loro fondamenta, fossero quelle coniate dal discorso nazionalista ottocentesco.15 Abbiamo poi visto che spesso viene evocato «l'onore dell'Italia». In questo caso abbiamo trovato anche alcuni tentennamenti rispetto all'utilizzo del termine «onore». Ad esempio quando l'onore viene evocato dai criminali di guerra nazisti o fascisti, su «l'Unità» si tiene a precisare che essi lo usano in un'accezione diversa o che lo fanno in modo non autentico. L'onore della patria per i comunisti è quello che i fascisti avevano vilipeso, i partigiani riscattato e che i democristiani, adesso, mettevano nuovamente a repentaglio. Ma cos'è l'onore per i comunisti, se è diverso da quello evocato dai fascisti? Evocare l'onore della nazione, da parte dei dirigenti comunisti, non sembra porre in questione la capacità degli italiani di dimostrare il proprio valore militare nel difendere la purezza delle loro donne, e quindi di mantenere puro il sangue dei membri della comunità nazionale, come avveniva nelle narrazioni risorgimentali. Forse perché questa parte del discorso nazionale era quella più compromessa con il fascismo, che aveva fatto della purezza del sangue un dato "scientifico", legato alla cosiddetta scienza della razza. Il concetto di «onore» nel lessico comunista sembra avere un'accezione lata: la parola sembra aver perso il contenuto che aveva nell'Ottocento e ancora nella prima metà del Novecento. Questo cambiamento potrebbe anche essere legato alla crisi di quello che George Mosse ha definito «Mito dell'Esperienza della guerra».16 Dopo la seconda guerra mondiale non era più possibile replicare quel meccanismo per cui dopo la Prima guerra mondiale le stragi belliche erano state trasfigurate e rese nobili per essere sopportabili, pertanto il sistema di valori che lo spazio della figure simboliche metteva in circolo non era più attivabile nella sua interezza. I comunisti sembrano utilizzare il termine «onore» piuttosto nell'accezione in cui esso è usato nell'articolo 54 della Costituzione,17 che rimanda più alla «rispettabilità», così come è stata definita dallo stesso Mosse: cioè un sistema di valori e di comportamenti che a partire dall'Ottocento aveva portato a conferire precisi ruoli agli uomini e alle donne, aveva definito i confini della normalità e dell'anormalità dei comportamenti delle persone, e che grazie all'incontro con il nazionalismo era diventato il sistema di valori dominante.18 Rimane comunque la componente bellica: i partigiani, infatti, per i comunisti hanno restituito l'onore all'Italia con la guerra di resistenza. Guerra di resistenza che, però, come abbiamo visto con Schwarz, era letta, a posteriori, come «guerra alla guerra». Così quando si accusa il governo democristiano di disonorare l'Italia per la politica di asservimento agli interessi di una potenza straniera, non c'è, se non in modo molto implicito, alcun riferimento alla violazione dell'integrità sessuale delle donne. Potremmo pensare, però, che se l'Italia fosse vista simbolicamente come una donna, come nell'iconografia nazional-patriottica, chi la vende allo straniero, di fatto la disonora. Pensiamo a questo proposito ai disegni satirici di Guttuso che abbiamo incontrato, al manifesto elettorale e alla fotografia della ceramica di Leoncillo, riprodotta su «l'Unità» per rammentare la barbarie fascista.19 Però credo che questo elemento agisca semmai a livello inconscio, cioè che sia una conseguenza diretta dell'uso di determinate componenti del discorso nazional-patriottico che, quando attivate, mettono in circuito un certo tipo di elementi simbolici che sono profondamente radicati nel profondo di ciascuno, perché legati a sentimenti percepiti e conoscibili da tutti: l'onore, l'amore, l'odio, il legame genitoriale e quello fraterno, il martirio, la redenzione e la resurrezione. Infine abbiamo visto che viene utilizzato talvolta un lessico legato alla dimensione parentale, sia in riferimento alla comunità nazionale, sia alla comunità di partito. A questo scopo viene utilizzato in blocco il lessico che il discorso nazional-patriottico aveva trasposto dalla famiglia alla patria: si parla infatti su «l'Unità» di figli, di fratelli, di padri e di madri della patria. Soprattutto le madri e i figli sono continuamente evocati. Questo dipende forse dalla vicinanza della Resistenza, che era letta dai comunisti come guerra di liberazione nazionale e come «secondo Risorgimento». Nella guerra partigiana molti giovani erano morti, molte madri avevano perso i loro figli, tanto che avevano costituito associazioni di madri e mogli di partigiani caduti.20 Quindi il tema era molto sentito. Un altro elemento da sottolineare è che il lessico parentale è utilizzato anche per la comunità di partito: i compagni sono anche fratelli, i predecessori padri e i successori figli, secondo quel processo di cui parla Emilio Gentile, per cui gli italiani dopo la seconda guerra mondiale spostarono «la fedeltà patriottica verso altre entità ideali, storiche, politiche – dalla religione, all'ideologia, dall'umanità al partito – considerate eticamente superiori alla nazione e allo Stato nazionale».21 Ed è proprio questo il punto che rende il discorso patriottico del PCI non completamente sovrapponibile al discorso nazional-patriottico ottocentesco: l'internazionalismo che caratterizza da sempre il movimento operaio e che sia pure con le differenze apportate dal comunismo cominternista, non può non caratterizzare anche il PCI, è un elemento nettamente contrapposto rispetto a qualsiasi contenuto del nazional-patriottismo ottocentesco. Quest'ultimo infatti non può concepire una solidarietà di classe che vada potenzialmente in contraddizione con la solidarietà nazionale. Infine abbiamo ricostruito il contesto in cui si verifica questo utilizzo dei tropi nazional-patriottici da parte del PCI: sin dal 1943 esso era impegnato nella costruzione di una propria tradizione, con la qual legittimarsi come partito italiano e nella diffusione presso i propri militanti di tale tradizione, nell'ambito della costruzione del «partito nuovo». Al contempo questa volontà doveva coesistere con il profilo internazionalista e di classe a cui il partito non rinunciava, di qui le oscillazioni che abbiamo visto negli interventi sopra riprodotti, che chiamano in causa quella che è stata da molti definita la «doppiezza» del PCI. Cioè la fedeltà da un lato alla patria statale, dall'altro a quella ideale.22 Poniamo l'attenzione anche su un altro elemento: le tre figure profonde, sacrificio, onore, parentela chiamano in causa, in modo più o meno intenso, caratteri già fortemente presenti nella moralità23 comunista: lo spirito di sacrificio è secondo Sandro Bellassai un tratto fondamentale del buon militante comunista, «unità di misura della fedeltà e dell'affidabilità politica di un comunista».24 La capacità di sacrificare se stessi, i propri affetti, le proprie risorse, è considerato un elemento formativo del militante: Bellassai ad esempio racconta che in un corso della scuola centrale di partito, le Frattocchie, gli allievi dovevano trasportare a spalla un mucchio di massi, a scopo di didattico.25 Si pensi poi a Marina Sereni, che scrive alla madre della sua decisione di rompere i rapporti con lei per le sue opinioni politiche.26 Sacrificio dunque anche dei propri affetti: questo perché il Partito era la vera famiglia e ad esso tutto doveva essere subordinato. Ciò nondimeno il PCI incentrava il proprio progetto politico sulle famiglie e si presentava come il vero difensore di esse.27 Abbiamo iniziato questo lavoro chiedendoci se i concetti di patria e di nazione fossero presenti nel discorso pubblico del Partito Comunista Italiano. Per far questo abbiamo analizzato un anno, prendendolo come campione. Per avere un quadro completo dell'idea di patria del PCI in questa fase della vita del paese sarebbe stato necessario visionare almeno tutto il periodo compreso tra il 1948 e il 1956.28 Concentrarsi su un solo anno ha d'altra parte consentito un'analisi più sistematica e attenta dei singoli articoli. Quindi, pur tenendo presenti i limiti, la risposta alla domanda iniziale è affermativa. I concetti di patria e di nazione sono presenti, nel contesto che abbiamo ricostruito, per le ragioni che abbiamo ipotizzato, seppure opportunamente modificati e ricontestualizzati. Inoltre non ho preso in considerazione due aspetti importanti: la visione dell'altro, dello straniero, che mi avrebbe portato a cercare esempi di come venivano rappresentati «gli altri» dei comunisti, cioè gli americani e magari i democristiani. In secondo luogo un altro elemento mancante o non approfondito è il rapporto tra i generi. Per ragioni di tempo e per mancanza di conoscenze adeguate non ho preso in considerazione questi due aspetti. Ciò nonostante credo di poter concludere che il fatto che anche i dirigenti del PCI abbiano utilizzato alcuni degli stilemi fondamentali del discorso nazional-patriottico testimonia una volta di più la profondità del radicamento di essi nella cultura dell'Italia contemporanea: il discorso nazional-patriottico è così profondamente radicato che ha la capacità di adattarsi ai contesti più diversi, di rimanere "in sonno" per molto tempo e di ritornare a galla, come accade in questi ultimi tempi. Emilio Gentile scrive che il tentativo del PCI di presentarsi nei primi anni del dopoguerra come partito nazionale, legittimo erede del primo Risorgimento e protagonista del secondo, è da considerarsi come «l'ultima metamorfosi laica del mito della Grande Italia e, per certi aspetti, potrebbe essere considerata come l'ultima versione del nazionalismo modernista».29 Se Gentile si riferisce al nazional-patriottismo ottocentesco, mi permetto di notare che manca uno de nuclei fondamentali del nazional-patriottismo, quello legato alla difesa dell'onore sessuale delle donne della nazione. In conclusione: il PCI, nel primo dopoguerra, in parte in virtù di un progetto strutturato e meditato di presentarsi come erede delle tradizioni nazionali «progressive»; in parte in virtù di un milieu che rendeva determinati i contenuti simbolici del nazionalismo familiari anche ai comunisti, portò i massimi dirigenti del comunismo italiano ad utilizzare ampiamente i concetti di patria e di nazione nel discorso pubblico. La persistenza, però, del contenuto internazionalista nell'ideologia marxista-leninista rendeva però quell'utilizzo non completamente coincidente con il nazional-patriottismo classico. Infine alcuni temi troppo compromessi dal nazionalismo fascista e nazista e dalla guerra non erano più riproducibili. Se nei successivi decenni della storia italiana il discorso nazional-patriottico è rimasto assente dallo spazio pubblico, per ricomparire magari in occasione delle partite della nazionale di calcio, non significa che sia scomparso. Le sue radici sono ancora presenti nel profondo e, come dimostra il neo-patriottismo rilanciato dalla presidenza della Repubblica di Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, sono facilmente riattivabili. Purtroppo i circuiti comunicativi del discorso nazional-patriottico sono innestabili anche in contesti e con intenti meno nobili. Si veda la vicenda dei due marò italiani arrestati in India per la morte di due pescatori indiani: aldilà delle effettive responsabilità, delle attenuanti, del contesto, che saranno ricostruite dai tribunali indiani, quello che in questa sede va sottolineato è che la vicenda ha fatto esplodere un'ondata di pulsioni nazionaliste e colonialiste da parte di giornalisti, politici e «popolo». Salvatore Girone e Massimiliano Latorre sono stati giudicati dall'opinione pubblica e dalla classe dirigente innocenti a-priori, e gli indiani degli incantatori di serpenti che hanno ingannato due soldati che facevano solo il loro dovere. La vicenda si è poi colorata in modo sinistro, con la presenza di sedicenti ingegneri provenienti da associazioni neofasciste come Casa Pound chiamati dal governo a ricostruire in parlamento il complotto indiano.30 E basta fare un giro sul web italiano per trovare messaggi come «Salviamo i nostri soldati» in stampatello maiuscolo sparato su fotografie dei due soldati ritratti in pose da «duri» con tricolore sullo sfondo e commenti razzisti non ripetibili in questa sede. E forse è un caso, forse no, che la stampa italiana, solitamente poco interessata alle questioni internazionali, abbia di recente prestato molta attenzione al problema degli stupri in India.
En su conocido ensayo Moc bezmocných1 (El poder de los sin poder), Václav Havel delinea el contorno general de su concepción sobre la "vida en la verdad" como opuesta a la "vida en la mentira" del post-totalitarismo en Checoslovaquia. Partiendo de la descripción de la conducta de un verdulero que coloca en la vitrina de su negocio, diariamente, el lema "proletarios del mundo, únanse" entre zanahorias y tomates, el ensayo busca las causas que le impelen al vendedor de hortalizas a expresar su anhelo de unidad de los obreros de distintas latitudes. ¿Son, acaso, su férrea voluntad socialista y su conciencia de clase las que lo llevan a colocar ese lema entre las verduras? La conclusión a la que arriba el autor es que ni el verdulero ni sus clientes prestan ya atención al contenido de los carteles omnipresentes, sino que esta rutina significa una señal hacia arriba, hacia la jerarquía del Partido, expresando su lealtad al orden establecido. El verdulero asiste a las reuniones y vota las resoluciones allí tomadas, sin oponerse ni discutir; concurre a votar en los comicios generales por los candidatos oficiales; firma las proclamas "anticartistas". Sin embargo, esto no es suficiente y debe desplegar en su vitrina el slogan mencionado. En este sentido, la ideología sirve como puente entre el hombre común y el Partido. Si el vendedor fuera compelido a colocar la frase "tengo miedo y obedezco sin dudar", su contenido sería estrictamente cierto, pero significaría una humillación para su dignidad. A través de los "rituales" de esta índole, el hombre comunica a la jerarquía su estricta obediencia. El cliente que concurre a comprar verduras no advertirá la presencia del lema, puesto que éstos están en toda la ciudad, e incluso ella misma colocará uno en su oficina. De este modo, cada uno participa en el control de los demás, convirtiéndose en responsable de la mentira del post-totalitarismo. ¿Qué ocurriría –se pregunta Havel en su ensayo- si el verdulero no colocara más el lema en su vitrina, si no concurriera más a sufragar en elecciones que considera una farsa, si expresara su opinión libremente en las reuniones a las que es convocado? En esta decisión que el autor denomina "vivir en la verdad", el verdulero señalaría al rey desnudo. Perdería su posición; sería "degradado" en su oficio, ganando menos dinero; ya no tendría vacaciones en Bulgaria y sus hijos tendrían problemas para acceder a la educación superior. Sus antiguos compañeros testificarían en su contra, no porque lo creyeran culpable y agente de la "contrarrevolución", sino para preservar sus empleos. Ahora bien, el interrogante que plantea Havel en su ensayo es sobre cuáles son las condiciones que llevan al hombre moderno a ser el creador de un sistema de estas características. Vivir en la mentira provoca la desmoralización del hombre, que sólo se siente responsable por lograr los medios necesarios para su propia supervivencia, sin sentir una responsabilidad mayor por el mundo que lo rodea. Havel remarca que esto es propio de la sociedad tecnológica contemporánea, siguiendo el razonamiento de Heidegger, de que la humanidad ha perdido el dominio sobre la técnica. El post-totalitarismo es la versión más crítica de lo que el automatismo lleva a las sociedades industriales y de consumo, exhibiendo la inhabilidad de la humanidad de ser dueña de su propia circunstancia. De esta crisis de la identidad humana no escapan las democracias parlamentarias de Occidente; por el contrario, el mayor espacio que tienen los individuos en ellas serviría para ocultar mejor esta crisis. "Realmente, no parece que la democracia parlamentaria tradicional pueda ofrecer una forma de oponerse al automatismo de la civilización tecnológica y de la sociedad industrial y de consumo; ellas también son arrastradas en el desconcierto. La gente es manipulada en maneras que son infinitamente más sutiles y refinadas que los métodos brutales usados en las sociedades post-totalitarias. Pero este complejo estático de enmohecidos partidos políticos de masas, conceptualmente flojos y políticamente pragmáticos, dominados por aparatos profesionales que liberan al ciudadano de todas las formas de responsabilidad concreta y personal; las estructuras complejas de focos de acumulación de capital comprometidos en manipulaciones secretas y de expansión; la dictadura omnipresente del consumo, la producción, la publicidad, el comercio, la cultura de consumo y de todo ese torrente de información: todo ello, tan frecuentemente analizado y descripto, realmente es difícil considerarlo, con alguna perspectiva, como un camino para que el hombre se descubra a sí mismo nuevamente"2. La revolución existencial, entonces, es la reconstitución moral de la sociedad, lo que significa la relación auténtica del hombre con el "orden humano", que ningún orden político puede suplantar. Es la renovación de una más alta responsabilidad con los demás y con la comunidad. La superación del automatismo de las sociedades industriales, ya sea en su forma post-totalitaria, ya sea en el mondo de vida de las democracias parlamentarias, lo denomina provisionalmente como "post-democracia". Havel desconfiaba de los partidos políticos y las instituciones, por lo que propugnaba que para cada problema concreto, los ciudadanos se reunieran en organizaciones ad hoc, que se disolverían tras lograr su cometido. En estas organizaciones tendrían un espacio relevante las personalidades reconocidas por sus méritos y no por ocupar una jerarquía en la nomenklatura. Incluso deslizó la idea de que tuvieran cierto poder legislativo, aunque sin profundizar en ello. Reconoció que en 1968 consideraba que imprescindible un partido de oposición, pero en este ensayo rectificó su opinión, descartando que la solución de los problemas del mundo contemporánea se hallara en el orden político. Este redescubrimiento de la responsabilidad también tendría consecuencias en la economía, puesto que las empresas tendrían una participación genuina de los trabajadores en las decisiones, así como auto-control y auto-disciplina. Por consiguiente, el ciudadano vuelve a ser responsable por lo que acontece en la polis de la que forma parte. Solamente con el cambio en la persona individual puede cambiar la sociedad. Václav Havel no cambió su parecer sobre los partidos políticos con el correr de los años en sus tiempos de disidente. En 1986, en sus conversaciones con Karel Hvížďala, remarcó que no confiaba demasiado en el principio tradicional de dos o tres partidos como única garantía posible de la democracia y no lo consideraba un ideal, aun cuando el sistema del aparato burocrático del partido único comunista era peor. Como solución, planteó que fueran electas personas y no partidos políticos, personas concretas y no en su carácter de miembros de una "megamaquinaria" partidaria o sus favoritos3. A fines de 1989, pocos días antes de asumir la primera magistratura de Checoslovaquia, manifestó su clara desconfianza hacia los partidos políticos en términos prácticamente idénticos a los ya citados: "En mi parecer, en el futuro deberían jugar un papel mayor las personalidades y uno menor los partidos políticos, que deberían, según mis concepciones personales e ideales, tener la función de clubes, en los cuales las personalidades políticas nacen, se perfilan, se presentan; pero los partidos políticos no deberían participar directamente en el poder, porque ello acarrea a una forma de anonimización del poder. En mi opinión, la única salvación de esta civilización es si libera al hombre, la personalidad humana concreta, de las manipulaciones de todas las megaestructuras que el hombre inventó y que lo destruyen"4. En los primeros meses de la presidencia, Havel repitió en reiteradas oportunidades los principios que había sustentado como ensayista y disidente, procurando utilizar su influencia para establecer las bases de la "revolución existencial"5. Señala Honajzer6 que el Foro Cívico procedió como lo hizo anteriormente Carta 77, y que la autoridad de sus representantes, el prestigio de la Carta y el rechazo de los ciudadanos a participar en un partido político, generó que triunfara el camino de la "política no política" y por ello propiciaron el diálogo con los comunistas. Una alternativa claramente política es la que entonces planteó en los inicios de la revolución de terciopelo el grupo de Iniciativa Democrática checoslovaca, propugnando la dimisión del gobierno, la disolución del parlamento y la convocatoria a comicios libres para el 1° de febrero de 1990, exigencias que el resto del Foro Cívico rechazó7. Según Honajzer, el camino de Iniciativa Democrática era el de la política regular, en el que los partidos aspiran al gobierno. Fue, precisamente, este grupo disidente, llamado "realista", el que más duramente criticó el "radicalismo moral" de los miembros de la Carta 77. Realizaban seminarios y discusiones en los que también participaron personas de la "estructura", como Tomaš Ježek, con el objeto de que el punto de partida de las soluciones se encontrara analizando la situación real de Checoslovaquia en tiempos de la "normalización".8 Petr Pithart9 realizó una autocrítica, algunos años después, sobre el temperamento antipartidos y la búsqueda de una vía alternativa al sistema de partidos, juzgándolo como un síntoma de baja cultura política. Esta atmósfera "no política" era ampliamente compartida entre los miembros del Centro Coordinador del Foro Cívico, como en el caso de Jana Petrová, diputada en la Asamblea Legislativa, que declaró que "Cuando Occidente comprobó que tumbamos a los comunistas, pensó que inmediatamente adoptaríamos el sistema estadounidense. Pero nosotros no queremos ni comunismo, ni capitalismo estadounidense, sino una tercera vía. Justicia social, economía de mercado de los partidos no políticos de Havel. Cuando el Occidente finalmente lo comprenda, evidentemente estará sorprendido y tal vez nos tome como ejemplo"10. El movimiento político era interpretado como una forma superior para la acción cívica, y el triunfo electoral del Foro Cívico en junio de 1990 sirvió para reforzar en algunos miembros esta visión. Por ejemplo, Miroslav Filip escribió en el diario del FC que "Contra el movimiento cívico y dinámico, que es en opiniones mucho más democrático e incluye casi dos decenas de organizaciones y grupos de izquierda a derecha, actúan partidos políticos clásicos un tanto anticuados"11. Sin embargo, el mismo Havel cambió de parecer respecto de los partidos políticos en su Letní přemítání (Meditaciones de verano), arguyendo que tanto sólo se oponía a la dictadura partidista. Pero rechazar a los partidos, afirmó en el ensayo, sería oponerse a la democracia misma12. ¿Qué se comprende por "política no-política"? Si bien nunca fue explicada esta concepción con profundidad, en líneas generales se la puede bosquejar como el compromiso del ciudadano con la comunidad sin ataduras ideológicas, sin supeditarse a estructuras preestablecidas –como pueden serlo los partidos- y un cierto recelo hacia las instituciones, que originan rutinas y burocracias –en el sentido de nomenklatura- que las vacían de contenido. En un sistema político de estas características, prima la búsqueda del consenso entre los actores, y no la confrontación de ideas e intereses entre partidos. Resulta claro que en el transcurso del año 1990 la ilusión "post-democrática" y "no-política" se fue desvaneciendo para ir dejando su lugar a la democracia parlamentaria al estilo occidental con todas sus virtudes y defectos. El naufragio de esta convicción se fue dando paso a paso, en cada tomas de decisión en el gobierno, en los ámbitos de la legislación, de la reforma económica, de la competencia electoral y hasta de la misma organización interna del Foro Cívico. Sin embargo, la campaña electoral del FC tuvo un fuerte carácter anti-partidos, siendo su más claro ejemplo el slogan "Los partidos son para los partidarios, el Foro Cívico es para todos". El discurso antipartidos recobró fuerza nuevamente tras los comicios generales de junio de 1990, cuando Václav Klaus, a la sazón ministro federal de Finanzas y presidente del Foro Cívico desde octubre de 1990, propugnó la conversión del movimiento en un partido político cuyo programa fuera la defensa de la transición radical hacia la economía de mercado. La definición del Foro Cívico En la definición que el Foro Cívico siempre buscó de sí mismo, influyó notoriamente la concepción de Václav Havel sobre la política. Los dirigentes del Foro que no pertenecían a ningún partido y que habían actuado, fundamentalmente, en Carta 77, tomaron como referencia los ideales políticos del presidente. Muchos dirigentes, incluso, pese a que pertenecieron a otras antiguas agrupaciones de la disidencia, como Ivan Gabal, L. Kopecký y Josef Vavroušek al KNI (Club de los Intelectuales Independientes) o Hana Marvanová y Jana Petrová al MNS (Asociación Independiente por la Paz), luego se declararon simplemente como miembros del Foro.13 En la primera sesión de la Asamblea del Centro Coordinador del Foro Cívico, Havel expresó que "(…) no recomiendo que el Foro Cívico llegue a ser un partido. Hoy el Foro es mucho más que una coalición de algunos partidos. El FC representa al amplio espectro de la sociedad que comprende a los partidos en formación o los ya existentes, los que por supuesto pueden ser soberanos, independientes de alguna pseudo coalición. El FC es, hasta las elecciones, el garante universal del camino pacífico a la democracia (…). No olviden que en el FC hay una absoluta mayoría de personas que no desea estar en ningún partido, que sólo anhelan una vida mejor. No piensen en el Foro como en alguna confabulación de cinco o seis partidos"14. En esa misma reunión, explicó que actuaría como presidente por encima de todas las fuerzas políticas y que, por lo tanto, ya no procedería como un representante del Foro Cívico. Cuando Josef Vavroušek, miembro del Centro Coordinador del Foro Cívico, presentó sus ideas sobre las perspectivas del Foro Cívico15, planteó tres posibles escenarios, con sus ventajas y desventajas: El FC como agrupación provisional de ciudadanos de las más diversas orientaciones políticas, que finalizaría sus actividades entre dos y seis semanas previas a las elecciones libres.El FC como la coalición de diferentes corrientes políticas (no comunistas) participando en los comicios con una lista unificada. Tras las elecciones, esta alianza se disolvería.El FC como un movimiento político a largo plazo, del cual se separarían los partidos políticos que concurrirían a las elecciones individualmente. Este movimiento podría organizarse en dos formas: c1) como un partido político "clásico" o c2) en la forma de un partido político sin miembros estables, con un aparato mínimo y con predominio de una estructura horizontal, fundada en el funcionamiento autónomo de unidades locales. Vavroušek indicó que consideraba a la alternativa c2 como la más adecuada para el FC, si bien iba en contradicción con las declaraciones hasta entonces emitidas por los representantes del movimiento, lo que podría explicarse a la sociedad como resultado del desarrollo de los acontecimientos y, además, por la misma presión ejercida por los miembros del FC. Aconsejaba descartar la opción "a" porque debilitaría rápidamente al movimiento, lo que afectaría al objetivo fundamental del Foro: ser el garante de las elecciones libres. La variante "b" era más aceptable, puesto que sumaba furzas para enfrentar al experimentado aparato del Partido Comunista, pero igualmente tenía riesgos –menores que en la opción "a"-, como las dificultades para la selección de los candidatos y que esta fuera, además, no democrática. El camino "c" era el que más concordaba con la experiencia y las concepciones de la disidencia, alentando a la participación de los ciudadanos no afiliados a los partidos existentes, aun cuando no hubiera experiencia de este tipo de movimientos. Jiří Suk subraya que una semana después, el 11 de diciembre, Vavroušek constató que el escenario político se había alterado sustancialmente, cuando los partidos establecidos declararon su individualidad e independencia con respecto al Foro Cívico, de manera que la variante "b" de constituir un bloque de fuerzas democráticas ya no respondía a la realidad. El FC reuniría a "todos los ciudadanos que están de acuerdo con sus principios programáticos del día 26 de noviembre de 1989, ya como miembros de los diferentes partidos políticos con orientación democrática, ya como no partidarios. El FC concurrirá a las elecciones como coalición de fuerzas políticas democráticas, y al mismo tiempo que prepara su propio programa y lista de candidatos, apoyará a los candidatos escogidos de los distintos partidos. El FC posibilita a los no partidarios la acción política organizada luego de los comicios". De acuerdo con esto, el FC tendría que haber sido como un partido al estilo estadounidense, el que uniría por un tiempo determinado a todas las fuerzas políticas anticomunistas. El Pleno (Plenum), reunido el 10 de diciembre, se declaró por la tercera de las variantes propuestas por Vavroušek16. Ivan Fišera, también miembro del Centro Coordinador del FC, poco tiempo después escribió un artículo fundamentando el nuevo paso del Foro al constituirse no sólo como el garante de los comicios libres, sino también como uno de los competidores en los mismos17. Argüía que, pese al rechazo que muchos sentían por todo aquello que rememorara al partidismo, debía afrontarse la transición con realismo, ya que la cristalización de una vida política normal requeriría tiempo y tranquilidad, puesto que sin estas condiciones elementales, no podrían desarrollarse partidos políticos modernos. Éstos no sólo no estarían imposibilitados de expresar los sentimientos y deseos de sus simpatizantes, sino que tampoco formularían programas electorales concretos y posibles de discernir entre sí, ni conformarse con personalidades representativas en su dirección, mucho menos –en caso de una eventual victoria electoral- para el gobierno. Es por ello que el FC habría de representar a la corriente de ciudadanos sin partido, a la vez que contendría en su seno a los partidos que recién se estaban constituyendo. Una encuesta realizada por el Grupo de Análisis Social Independiente (Skupina por nezávislou sociální výzkum) demostró que el 77% de la población no quería que el Foro Cívico y Opinión Pública Contra la Violencia se convirtieran en partidos políticos. Otro dato relevante de la desconfianza hacia los partidos en Checoslovaquia fue que el 90% de los consultados subrayaba la responsabilidad de los diputados hacia sus votantes, y no hacia sus formaciones políticas de origen18. Según Hadjiisky, las concepciones del Foro privilegiaron, en su forma de organización interna, una visión de la democracia fundada en la autonomía del individuo y la autonomía local, en detrimento de la idea de la organización política, del mandato y el sufragio19. Para esta autora, uno de los grandes principios constitutivos del Foro fue el carácter horizontal de sus estructuras, careciendo de una jerarquía vertical de decisiones y mandatos. Los foros cívicos locales tenían funciones que respondían, sobre todo, al ideal de movilización de la sociedad civil, basados en los principios de autonomía y la no-subordinación. Así lo establecía el documento para la organización interna llamado Co jsme (Qué somos), del 28 de noviembre de 1989, en su artículo 3b, que "el Centro Coordinador es solamente el centro informativo y organizador, de ninguna manera es el centro director, su tarea es reunir información de los foros cívicos locales, servir de intermediario e informar sobre actos ejecutados y en preparación. Absolutamente todos los FC locales trabajan en sus lugares individualmente"20. Los foros cívicos locales habrían trabajado de una forma separada, unos de otros, y eran la continuación de los comités de huelga, ya que era concebidos como un medio legítimo de defensa cívica ante las estructuras burocráticas del Estado. Habrían sido concebidos, entonces, a la vez como centros de resistencia civil –herencia de las jornadas de noviembre y diciembre de 1989- y como eventuales centros de gobierno local. 1- Václav Havel, Moc bezmocných, en O lídskou identitu. Úvahy, fejetony, protesty, polemiky, prohlášení a rozhovory z let 1969-1979. Praga, Rozmluvy, 1990.2- Havel, op. cit., pp. 127-128.3- Václav Havel, Dálkový výslech. Rozhovor s Karlem Hvížďalou. Praga, Academia, 2000. P. 21.4- "Tísková konferences Václavem Havlem", en Infórum n° 4/89, 22 de diciembre de 1989.5- Aviezer Tucker, Fenomenologie a política. Od J. Patočky k V. Havlovi. Olomouc, Votobia, 1997. Pp. 189-190.6- Jiří Honajzer, Občanské fórum. Vznik, vývoj a rozpad. Praga, Orbis, 1996. Pp. 14-15.7- Conf. reportaje a Karel Štíndl en Čas Demokratické iniciativy, 1987-1990. P. 267. Tb. la proclama del 19 de noviembre de 1989, pp. 205-206.8- Milan Otahal, Opozice, moc, společnost. 1969/1989. Praga, Maxdorf, 1994. P. 35.9- Petr Pithart, Po devětaosmdesátém: Kdo jsme? Brno, Kalligram-Doplněk, 1998. P. 25.10- Tucker, op. cit., p. 202.11- "Žadný strach z vítězství" en Občanský Deník, 12 de junio de 1990.12- Václav Havel, Letní přemítání. Praga, Odeon, 1991. P. 38.13- Magdaléna Hadjiisky, La fin du Forum Civique et la naissance du Parti civique democratique (janvier 1990-avril 1991): la construction d'une Enterprise politique et le reniement symbolique du mouvement civique de 1989. En Itinéraires politiques et partisans en ex RDA et en République tchèque. Documents de travail n° 5-6. Praga, CEFRES, diciembre de 1996. P. 8.14- Zápis ze Sněmu Občanského fóra, 23 de diciembre de 1989. También puede consultarse en Jiří Suk, Občanské fórum. Listopad-Prosinec 1989. Brno, Doplněk, 1998. Tomo II, Dokumenty, p. 281.15- Perspektivy OF, 2 de diciembre de 1989, en Jiří Suk, op. cit., T. II, pp. 44-46.16- Jiří Suk, Vzník Občanského fóra a proměny jeho struktury (19. listopad – 10. prosinec 1989) en Soudobé Dějiny 1/95, Praga, ÚSD, 1995, p. 37. La exposición de Vavroušek en Jiří Suk, Občanské fórum, Tomo II, p. 207.17- "Občanské fórum před volbami", en Infórum n° 10/90, 19 de enero de 1990.18- "Odpovědnost za vítězství", en Infórum n° 18/90, 28 de febrero de 1990.19- Hadjiisky, op. cit., p. 10.20- Co jsme, en Suk, op. cit., Tomo II, p. 35.Sobre el autorDr. en Historia Profesor de Historia Universal Contemporánea Universidad ORT- Uruguay
Comentario en base al artículo "Graceful Decline?: The Surprising Success of Great Power Retrenchment" de Paul MacDonald y Joseph Parent enInternational Security, Vol. 35, No. 4, 2011, pp. 7-44.El descenso relativo (1) -o más prudentemente, las percepciones de un descenso- de una potencia en el sistema internacional suele generar, más tarde o más temprano, un debate en torno a las decisiones estratégicas que deberían adoptarse en respuesta a tal declive. Debate que, en buena medida, es el producto de una angustia generada por la perspectiva de una primacía que no va a tardar en desvanecerse y la proliferación de amenazas en un mundo regido por el ascenso de otro(s). (2) Hace unos años que esta discusión se ha instalado en Estados Unidos. (3)Por cierto en torno a la estrategia estadounidense ante el ascenso de China; pero también frente al ascenso de otras potencias que estarían cambiando la estructura de poder en el sistema. No debería sorprender que la conducta de las potencias en descenso sea objeto de estudio privilegiado en la disciplina (tan temprano como en el siglo XVIII, Edward Gibbon escribe su magnum opus, y uno de los clásicos en la cuestión, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire). La razón de tal relevancia académica es sencilla de comprender: históricamente las transformaciones en la cima del sistema internacional han instalado períodos de alta inestabilidad; períodos comúnmente asociados a colosales guerras sistémicas. Grosso modo, dos escenarios vinculados al declive de las grandes potencias han sido identificados por historiadores y teóricos de las relaciones internacionales:Las potencias en descenso relativo suelen recurrir a la guerra preventivacomo herramienta para hacer frente a las amenazas de un estado(s) en ascenso. Aquí el conflicto está tan atado a los cambios de poder que es difícil entrever otro final para las transiciones que vendrán.La reestructuración negociada del orden internacional en base a las nuevas realidades de poder es un escenario no sólo viable, sino también probable. (4) El uso de la fuerza dejaría -según los adeptos a esta corriente- de ser una herramienta válida o eficiente para las potencias en descenso.La pertinencia del debate entre estas escuelas pesa fuertemente sobre la relación bilateral entre Estados Unidos y China. No habiendo -ni teniendo espacio en esta ocasión- mucho que agregar en términos de la visión que cada corriente tendría sobre una transición de poder sino-estadounidense (altamente pesimista la primera; mucho más optimista la segunda). Paul MacDonald y Joseph Parent, profesores en Williams College y la Universidad de Miami respectivamente, han publicado un original artículo en torno a este debate en el último número de International Security. Yendo al epicentro del trabajo, los autores ponen en pie un modelo teórico y una interpretación histórica donde el retraimiento (retrenchment) (5) sería el patrón de conducta de las potencias en declive. Es decir, una tesis a tono con las interpretaciones optimistas sobre los cambios en la estructura de poder internacional (punto "B)" anterior). El blanco a desacreditar en el trabajo es una de las tesis más expandidas en el estudio de los cambios de poder: la idea que las potencias en descenso no suelen esperar apaciblemente su caída en el sistema; sino que por el contrario, suelen reaccionar activa y ofensivamente para disipar los problemas de un mundo en el que su posición se ve amenazada in crescendo (punto "A)" más arriba).La supuesta relevancia normativa para la política internacional contemporánea es transparente. No sólo Estados Unidos puede y debe hacer una elección racional y eficiente por el retraimiento, sino que, teoría e historia de por medio, ésta es la conducta esperable vis-à-vis China. Para respaldar sus hipótesis los autores elaboran un estudio estadístico de dieciocho casos de estados en descenso relativo desde 1870 hasta el presente; más dos casos de estudio cualitativo. El resultado es el siguiente: "Based on the empirical record, we find that the great powers retrenched in no less than eleven an no more that fifteen of the eighteen cases, a range of 61-83 percent" (p. 9). Por otra parte: "…our analysis suggests that great powers facing acute decline are less likely to initiate or escalate militarized interstate disputes. Faced with diminishing resources, great powers moderate their foreign policy ambitions and offer concessions in areas of lesser strategic value" (p. 10). Mejor dejar en claro el espíritu general de este comentario desde ya. La poca comprensión de las dinámicas centrales del cambio en la política de grandes poderes que refleja el trabajo de Parent y MacDonald desemboca en un endeble modelo teórico, impidiendo así cualquier contribución medianamente sustantiva al debate. Todo lo que parecía novedoso a primera vista se va cayendo a medida que el lector se adentra en la lógica del trabajo. A transitar esa trayectoria crítica es que nos disponemos aquí. Más allá de los problemas en el diseño metodológico –por ejemplo, una incompleta cuantificación de los descensos relativos centrada únicamente en torno a la caída en el PBI de un estado en relación al PBI total de los estados centrales en el sistema y, como se desarrollará más adelante, una selección de casos discutible- la crítica más provechosa debe apuntar a cuestiones de base; aquellas que hacen a la naturaleza de los cambios de poder y sus consecuencias sobre el sistema. Hay que partir de un punto elemental. Tanto las estrategias de retraimiento como las de guerra preventiva están en el abanico de opciones de las potencias en descenso. No existe un record histórico que avale un modelo determinista de los patrones de reacción del declive. Quizás "la más verdadera" de las causas de la Guerra del Peloponeso fuese el crecimiento del poderío ateniense y el miedo de Esparta, como Tucídides marcó a fuego. Pero este ejemplo de transición conflictiva debe contraponerse a casos como el de Gran Bretaña recibiendo pacíficamente el ascenso estadounidense. Ergo, la primera lección de los cambios de poder es que cualquier tipo de determinismo histórico –tanto optimista como pesimista- parte del error y está destinado a mantenerse en este campo. El artículo está atiborrado de áreas grises -por falta de un eufemismo más acertado. La primera, y relacionada al título de esta crítica, se posa sobre concepto de "retraimiento." El problema está en tratar de encontrar una clasificación claramente diferenciada entre una estrategia de retraimiento homogénea e universal y una de expansión de la actividad internacional –ligada a una conducta ofensiva o agresiva. La realidad suele ser bastante más compleja. Retraer puede querer decir "recortar gastos (monetarios, militares y/o de capital político) en alguna parte del globo o en el ámbito doméstico para realinear fuerzas pensando en una amenaza más acuciante." Esto fue precisamente lo que hizo Gran Bretaña a principios del siglo XX. Como señala Paul Kennedy: "…these reductions in Britain's overseas commitments had an inherent logic of their own, there is no doubt that by 1903 or so British planners and the public were beginning to develop at least a suspicion about Germany's great naval expansion, which also necessitated a redeployment of the Royal Navy." (6) Gran Bretaña sí hizo un retraimiento en algunas zonas del globo –especialmente en las Américas. No obstante, el fin último era expandir sus capacidades de poder frente a la amenaza más apremiante: la Alemania de Guillermo II. Conceptualmente, y por sí solo, el retraimiento no tiene mucho que decir sobre los patrones de paz y guerra que suelen acompañar a los cambios en la estructura de poder internacional. Por ejemplo, poco importa que Estados Unidos, como respuesta al ascenso chino, decida poner en marcha una política de retrenchmenten Medio Oriente, si el fin último de esa conducta es concentrar sus fuerzas sobre Asia. En este caso la idea de un retraimiento queda nula como herramienta de análisis para la relación bilateral más relevante, ya que la conclusión sería la puesta en marcha de una expansión del poder estadounidense en Asia, con China como foco de atención. La pregunta que, imprudentemente, queda fuera del trabajo es: ¿Qué tipo de retraimiento y para qué? (7) El trabajo tiene una base conceptual interesante. El análisis de las potencias en declive se encauza por medio de un enfoque realista-estructural que busca complementar, no sólo las discusiones de los cambios de poder, sino la propia escuela neorrealista.No obstante, el desarrollo del trabajo termina resultando poco productivo. Los autores cometen el error de arrojarse al armado de un modelo teórico que intenta explicar la conducta de las potencias en descenso de manera ciegamente unilateral –y quizás excesivamente racionalista. Es decir, un análisis que, atado a un liviano uso del neorrealismo, toma en cuenta únicamente las prerrogativas de la potencia en descenso. Según Parent y MacDonald: "States often curtail their commitments and mellow their ambitions as they fall in the ranks of great powers…They do this for the same reason that they tend to seize opportunities to expand: international incentives are strong inducements. In the high-stakes world of great power politics, states can seldom afford to fool themselves or pamper parochial interests when relative power is perilously slipping away."Un estructuralismo tan encorsetado no puede avanzar mucho en el estudio dinámico y vertical de los cambios de poder. Desde el momento en que se acepta que no todos los descensos relativos son iguales, por la simple razón de que no todos los ascensos relativos son iguales, la idea de sacar patrones de conducta analizando solamente a la potencia en declive queda obsoleta. Y aquí está el quidde la cuestión, que los autores parecen saltarse olímpicamente: a la hora de tomar decisiones estratégicas, sí importa quién es el otro. No es por capricho que se habla de descenso relativo –y no absoluto. Y este concepto de relativo, que MacDonald y Parent o no entienden o evaden conscientemente, significa que al estado A le sucede algo porque al estado B le sucede algo. Variables como la cercanía geográfica, la capacidad de utilizar la fuerza, la existencia de identidades comunes entre los estados (por ejemplo, si ambos son democracias), las percepciones sobre las amenazas que presenta el otro (o las amenazas que tengan en común), y, quizás más relevante, la postura hacia el status quo, son todas centrales para la formulación de la política exterior de un estado en declive. Para ilustrar el punto: ¿Estuvo Gran Bretaña en iguales condiciones de adoptar una política de retraimiento ante el ascenso de Estados Unidos que ante el ascenso de la Alemania de Guillermo II o la de Adolf Hitler? Perder al "otro" es un paso en falso que deja al análisis rengo. Lamentablemente, el artículo va a perder también la otra pierna y los dos brazos. Para explicar sus hipótesis los autores elaboran un modelo teórico que ubican dentro de la familia neorrealista. Más específicamente, una formulación teórica que sería un derivado directo del trabajo de Kenneth N. Waltz. En uno de los comentarios que resume su modelo, señalan: "…in the competitive arena of world politics, inert or improvident great powers receive negative feedback until they are disabused of their delusions or replaced at the top rungs by more sensible states. Great powers that do not react with agility and alacrity to a lower position are unlikely to last in the unforgiving game of power politics. Rivals will be quick to detect and exploit incompetence" (p. 19). Los vínculos intelectuales que van del neorrealismo al modelo presentado en el artículo, y luego a sus prescripciones políticas son, cuando menos, frágiles. La idea de un retraimiento racional y eficiente como estrategia inducida por la estructura es complicada de sustentar. Los autores olvidan uno de los conceptos centrales en la comprensión neorrealista de la política internacional: las ganancias sonrelativas. Según Waltz: "Un estado se preocupa por una posible división de ganancias que puede favorecer más a otros que a sí mismo. Esa es la primera manera en que la estructura de la política internacional limita la cooperación entre los estados." (7) Sin embargo, los autores asumen que: "To avoid insolvency, states adopt retrenching policies as a way to gain breathing room, regroup, and retard if not reverse their decline" (p. 19). El error está en asumir que los estados van a adoptar una política de retraimiento sin pensar en los costos que esto les puede generar en sus interacciones con otras potencias. A su vez, se desconoce que en el núcleo mismo del neorrealismo está la búsqueda de la seguridad como objetivo primario e ineluctable. Desde el realismo estructural à la Waltz, que es donde Parent y MacDonald asumen estar parados, una potencia nunca podría formular su estrategia en respuesta al declive en términos de eficiencia económica –que es como ellos entienden los ascensos y descensos en el sistema. (8) Esto no quiere decir que la economía no sea una variable a tener en cuenta. Lo que sí quiere decir es que no va a ser la única, y seguramente tampoco la más relevante. Es por esta subordinación de objetivos que, por ejemplo, tiene sentido que Gran Bretaña a principios del siglo XX (i.e. una potencia en descenso relativo) se embarcase en una carrera armamentista con Alemania, aún cuando la más "eficiente" –à la Parent y MacDonald- de las opciones hubiese sido evitar entrar en tal dinámica. Trágicamente, la mayoría de las veces la opción máseficiente está vedada en la política de grandes poderes.El siguiente punto problemático está íntimamente relacionado con el anterior. En el artículo se puede leer que: "If declining states mismatch their foreign policy means and ends for a significant length of time, they will hemorrhage resources and be contemptible competitors in the game of great power politics. To avoid this fate, states are apt to align ends and means and decline gracefully" (p. 22). Lo cierto, sin embargo, es que los estados no suelen comportarse de esta manera.Si las potencias en declive fuesen capaces de advertir -a corto plazo- cuando están ingresando en un gap entre medios y fines, un fenómeno tan común en la política internacional como es la sobre-extensión (overextension, i.e. la expansión de los fines de política exterior más allá de las capacidades estatales para llevarla a cabo) desaparece. En términos prácticos, grandes sucesos en la historia de las relaciones internacionales -entre ellos: Felipe IV enterrando al imperio español en los Países Bajos en el siglo XVII; Napoleón estirando su imperio europeo hasta el punto de quiebre; Hitler y su desastrosa operación Barbarossa; Estados Unidos en Vietnam; la URSS en Afganistán; y Estados Unidos hoy en día en Irak y Afganistán (?)- quedan en una obscuridad absoluta para la disciplina. Pero llévese, con espíritu provocador, el argumento un poco más allá para ver como se torna totalmente inconsistente e insostenible. De ser acertado el modelo, la guerra entre grandes potencias se termina, o al menos se reduce significativamente como fenómeno internacional. Como señala Geoffrey Blainey en su magistral The Causes of War, las guerras suelen ser el producto de un desacuerdo entre estados sobre sus capacidades de poder relativas. Blainey trae acertadamente a colación al sociólogo Georg Simmel quien argumentaba en 1904 que la manera más efectiva de prevenir una guerra es a través del conocimiento exacto del poder relativo entre dos naciones o alianzas. El problema, siguiendo a Simmel, es que tal conocimiento "es la mayoría de las veces solamente alcanzable llevando la contradicción al campo de las armas." (9) Entonces, si MacDonald y Parent están en lo cierto, y los estados son capaces de hacer una correcta medición del poder nacional relativo –algo bastante difícil de aceptar, teniendo en cuenta que las apreciaciones las suelen hacer estadistas con naturales limitaciones humanas- y acomodar en un período corto de tiempo su nuevo poder con sus objetivos de política exterior, las guerras entre grandes poderes deberían ser un fenómeno bastante escaso, ya que el entendimiento de cuándo conviene negociar y cuándo pelear sería cristalino. Un curso básico de historia europea demuestra lo falaz del argumento.La selección de los casos de estudio se presenta como otra área problemática. Según los autores: "…it is important to distinguish retrenchment from related concepts. First, retrenchment is not synonymous with hegemonic change…we argue that retrenchment is a policy option available to any great power facing acute relative decline, whether or not it is the dominant hegemon…only one of our eighteen cases of acute relative decline since 1870, for example, involves a hegemon. Categorizing relative decline into static categories of 'hegemonic' and 'nonhegemonic' obscures important differences within these categories."(12) El lector notará que el inconveniente al que se hace alusión es: ¿A quiénes se debería meter en la bolsa de los estudios del cambio en la política de grandes poderes? Los dos casos de análisis cualitativo en el trabajo son: Francia en 1924 y Gran Bretaña en 1946 –difícilmente estados en el tope de la jerarquía internacional para ese entonces. Mientras que los 18 casos estadísticos están repletos de poderes medios –Alemania Occidental en 1967, Gran Bretaña en 1956, entre otros. En términos de los objetivos que se plantea el artículo, la elección de tal línea metodológica es difícil de sustentar. Por un lado, toda la literatura con la que dialoga y discute el trabajo (Gilpin, Copeland, Friedberg, Organski, entre otros) está centrada en el análisis de las dinámicas entre estados hegemónicos y sus contendientes. Más problemático aún, la razón de ser del trabajo es en buena medida entender y dar recomendaciones normativas sobre de la relación sino-estadounidense, un díada hegemón-contendiente por excelencia. La relevancia de este agujero teórico es total. Para cerrarlo los autores deberían poder argumentar exitosamente que el aparente declive de Estados Unidos hoy en día –o en un futuro medianamente próximo-, de Gran Bretaña a comienzos del siglo XX, del imperio de Felipe II, o de la Esparta de la Guerra del Peloponeso, son teóricamente compatibles con Francia en 1924, Gran Bretaña en 1956, o, más ridículo aún, Alemania Occidental en 1967. Tarea condenada al fracaso por el simple hecho de que estos actores no juegan en las mismas ligas, ni juegan el mismo juego. Esto es así por diversas razones. El hegemón es quien organiza un status quo determinado y, consecuentemente, es él quien se ve más amenazado ante una posible modificación del mismo. A su vez, los estados hegemónicos no tienen a quién pasarle la cuanta (buckpassing); es decir, no tienen en quien apoyarse ante las amenazas del (los) ascendentes(s). Sin embargo, las potencias medias si tienen en quien recaer. El ejemplo de Europa desde fines de la Segunda Guerra Mundial es ilustrativo. Podría decirse que durante los cambios verticales en el sistema la anarquía y el principio de auto-ayuda son más acuciantes para el estado hegemónico. Si este agujero existe, toda pretensión de los autores de haber identificado patrones universales de conducta de las potencias en declive se derrumba. Más aún, el estudio se queda sin nada para decir sobre el gran asunto de la alta política internacional en las próximas décadas: el posible cambio de poder entre Estados Unidos y China. Hay que compartir con los autores el inconformismo que genera la falta de casos empíricos en el estudio de las transiciones de poder en las altas esferas de la política internacional. Sin embargo, la expansión del ámbito de análisis hacia muestras que escapan a la naturaleza de los actores que nos importan no parece ser un paso hacia adelante."Graceful Decline?." parte del encomiable impulso de renovar las discusiones teóricas sobre el descenso relativo. El resultado, no obstante, es un efímero soplo de aire fresco que rápidamente comienza a ahogar. Comprimiendo descaradamente una línea de trabajo por cierto voluminosa, el camino más provechoso es el de la búsqueda de las variables que han puesto en marcha transiciones de poder pacíficas por un lado, y conflictivas por el otro. Un buen ejemplo es el la profundización de los estudios que intentan explicar porqué ciertos estados en proceso de transición crean imágenes benignas, status quo o agresivas entre sí. El abuso a la paciencia del lector, que de haber llegado hasta aquí ya ha tenido que soportar varias páginas de lectura, obliga a postergar esta exploración alternativa para un futuro próximo.(1) Entendido como la pérdida de poder de un estado en relación al poder del resto de los estados centrales en el sistema internacional.(2) Ver: Friedberg, Aaron, The Weary Titan: Britain and the Experience of Relative Decline 1895-1905, Princeton University Press, New Jersey 1988.(3) Vale aclarar que durante la década de los ochenta la idea del declive estadounidense ya había aparecido. Es por esto que se remarcó, en la primera línea de este trabajo, el concepto de percepciones del declive. Ver: Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of Great Powers, Penguin Books, London, 2001.(4) Por ejemplo, Gran Bretaña haciéndole "lugar" a Estados Unidos a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX.(5) Entendido como: "a policy of retracting grand strategic commitments in response to a decline in relative power."(6) Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Penguin, Londres, 1976, p. 214.(7) Los autores mencionan la posibilidad del retraimiento como un cambio de foco de asuntos periféricos a asuntos centrales (core issues). Pero tan fugaz como aparece, este asunto de primera relevancia se vuelve a perder en el análisis.(8) Waltz, Kenneth N., Teoría de la Política Internacional, Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, Colección Estudios Internacionales, Buenos Aires, 1988, p. 157.(9) Según Waltz: "En un sistema de auto-ayuda, la consideración de la seguridad subordina los beneficios económicos al interés político." Ibídem, p. 158.(10) Blainey, Geoffrey, The Causes of War, The Free Press, New York, p. 118 (traducción de G.C.). *Profesor Depto. Estudios Internacionales. FACS - Universidad ORT Uruguay. MA en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di TellaE-mail: gcastro@sas.upenn.edu
Author's introductionAlthough criminologists have long dominated the field of school violence research, there has been a growing body of research by cultural sociologists in this area as well. In many ways, a cultural approach to understanding school violence has taken school violence beyond the realm of just criminal and physical acts of violence. These scholars have begun to examine verbal, emotional, sexual, and racial expressions violence, as well as violence that is perpetuated by institutions, what Bourdieu has called symbolic violence. Courses that take this perspective explore how cultural concepts, or what Swidler calls a 'cultural toolkit', can be used as a lens for analyzing the experiences and practices of school violence. This can include, for example, an examination of how the dominant American ideology of meritocracy and competition can foster fights between middle school students, or how a feminine identity might push girls to be relationally aggressive towards each other rather than physically aggressive. In this regard, cultural sociology broadens our understanding of what constitutes school violence to uncover a wide spectrum of behaviors, attitudes and beliefs that may indeed lead to more overt expressions of violence. In doing so, a cultural approach can also help educators rethink discipline policies that have been created to resolve this social problem.Author recommendsSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review51: 273–86.Swidler's concept of a cultural toolkit provides a strong foundation for any cultural sociology course. Swidler defines a cultural toolkit as the symbols, stories, rituals, beliefs, ideologies and practices of daily life through which people use to shape their behavior. This paper presents a broad understanding of culture, which Swidler argues is not a unified system, but rather a set of complex and changing concepts from which we select different pieces from in order to construct different strategies of actions. When considering cultural approaches to school violence, it is useful to consider this broad definition of culture.Henry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.'Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science567: 16–30.Henry provides a definition of school violence that transcends physical violence and interpersonal violence between students to include psychological, emotional, ethical and moral violence that occurs not only between students, but also includes harm committed by teachers and organizations against students. This latter form of harm can include tracking, school security, sexual harassment, or essentially anything that hinders the creativity, learning and academic success of a student. Henry argues that school violence must include symbolic violence, which he defines as the use of authority, power, and coercion to dominate an individual or group of people.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Ferguson builds on Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence and Foucault's theory of disciplinary power to examine an intervention program for 'at‐risk' students, which was comprised of mainly 5th and 6th grade African‐American males. Her ethnography provides a great example of the benefit of using a cultural approach to studying violence, discipline and punishment in schools. For example, Ferguson argues that fighting among boys should be seen as a symbolic expression of masculinity and a space for boys to do emotional work, as well as a site for the production of power and a form of resistance to authority. Her work also explores how teachers and administrators can enact a form of symbolic violence onto students. She observed how the cultural behaviors of African‐American boys, for example, their use of Black English, was often translated by the teachers as 'problem behavior' and resulted in their label of 'Troublemaker'. Such labels often condemned the boys to the bottom rung of the social order and negatively impacted their academic success.Spina, Stephanie Urso, ed. 2000. Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.This edited collection examines school violence as a complicated and multi‐faceted phenomenon, exploring how political, economic, ideological and discursive practices contribute to school violence. This interdisciplinary book includes chapters from Donna Gaines, Henry Giroux, Peter McLaren, Stanley Aronowitz, and Paulo Freire and Donald Macedo. The authors expand the definition of violence by arguing that youth violence, adult violence and societal violence are all intricately connected, and therefore prevention of school violence would requires educators to move beyond reform that only takes place in the school system. Instead, violence prevention needs to implore a broader strategy for change that includes schools, families, communities, and beyond.Brown, Lyn Mikel 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. New York, NY: New York University Press.Mikel Brown conducted qualitative interviews with more than 400 girls from first grade through high school who were from different economic, racial and geographic backgrounds. She begins the book by analyzing the cultural messages that girls receive in the media; messages and images that she argues provide girls with a context for fighting among their peers. She draws on Paulo Freire's notion of horizontal violence to look at how girls' meanness to other girls is a result of their struggle to make sense of gender‐saturated images of beauty and heterosexuality that often reinforce their subordinate status in the world. Girlfighting then becomes an avenue to power for young girls in a culture that is rife with sexism. Unlike many other recent books on relational aggression among girls, Mikel Brown interrogates the complicated intersections of race, ethnicity, and class as it relates to girlfighting.Casella, Ronnie 2001. 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Casella's ethnography of Brandon High School, a small city school in a diverse neighborhood in upstate New York, takes a cultural‐ecological approach to school violence, capturing systemic, interpersonal and hidden forms of violence. He provides a thoughtful critique of intervention strategies that have been created to deal with school violence, such as peer mediation programs, the use of police officers in the hallways, and D.A.R.E. programs, because these programs only address individual acts of violence and do not account for the realities of urban environments, prejudice, economic injustice and poverty that underlie and contribute to school violence.Merten, Don E. 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly25(1): 29–43.Don Merten has published several articles that provide a useful framework for examining aggressive behavior from a cultural standpoint. The data from this article come from a larger ethnographic project of predominantly middle class students in a suburban area who recently transitioned from elementary to junior high school. Merten argues that middle class culture promotes and celebrates individualism, success and hierarchy, which in turn creates a culture that promotes aggressive behavior among students, because students learn that meanness can be an easy avenue for gaining power and status in the hierarchy of cliques in schools.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives48(1): 25–48.Morris draws on Bourdieu's classic reproduction theory to look at the relationship between cultural capital and bodily discipline as it relates specifically to clothing styles and manners. This article is based on an ethnographic study of an urban middle school in Texas that recently enlisted a 'Standard Mode of Dress' uniform policy. The regulation of dress became a constant source of conflict between the students and staff at the school, but had the most punitive effect on poor and racially ethnic minority students, whose cultural styles tended to be negatively stereotyped by the teachers. These students were more likely to punished for violating the policy, even though all social class and racial groups, to some degree, violated the policy. This harsher punishment engendered resistance and alienation among the minority students, which Morris argues had the potential of pushing these students away from school, further reproducing the very inequalities that the school was trying to change.Online materials http://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/crimeindicators2008/ The National Center for Education Statistics puts out an annual report on indicators of School Crime and Safety. The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, and principals. The report covers not just overt forms of school violence, such as bringing a weapon to school, fighting, and teacher injuries, but also covers bullying, victimization, student perceptions of school safety, and availability and use of drugs and alcohol. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm The Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System is a school‐based survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The survey is conducted every 2 years and provides a representative sample of 9th through 12th graders in public and private schools in the United States. The YRBSS asks a wide variety of questions, but most relevant to school violence include self‐reported responses about behaviors that might lead to unintentional injuries and violence, such as carrying a weapon to school, being threatened by a weapon or being in a fight on school grounds. These data serve a useful comparison between student self‐reporting of violent behavior and school reporting of incidents of school violence. http://www.sshs.samhsa.gov/default.aspx The Safe Schools/Healthy Students website is a federal initiative by the U.S. Departments of Education, Justice, and Health and Human Services. It provides many useful resources, including links federal reports on school safety, a list of related websites, and video podcast discussions of school violence that can be used in the classroom. http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/uslgbt/toc.htm 'Hatred in the Hallways: Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Students in U.S. Schools' is a report conducted by the Human Rights Watch. Data consists of interviews with 140 students, ages 12–21, and 130 parents, teachers, administrators and counselors across seven states, in every region of the U.S. The findings discuss a broad spectrum of violent behavior, including verbal harassment, homophobia, and physical violence. It can be useful for classroom discussion because each finding section of the report includes a 'case study' of one of the participants with direct quotes from their interview. http://www.aauw.org/research/hostile.cfm 'Hostile Hallways: Bullying, Teasing and Sexual Harassment in School' is a national report conducted by American Association of University Women on 8th to 11th grade students. The study found that 8 in 10 students experienced some form of harassment during their time in school. Both the executive summary and entire report are available to download on the website.Sample syllabusCourse outline and selected reading assignmentsSection 1: Introduction to cultural sociologyDefining CultureSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review 51: 273–86.Jepperson, Ronald and Ann Swidler 1994. 'What Properties of Culture Should We Measure?'Poetics 22: 359–71.Cultural Capital and Symbolic ViolenceBourdieu, Pierre and Jean‐Claude Passeron 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage.Lareau, Annette, and Elliott B. Weininger 2003. 'Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.'Theory and Society 32: 567–606.Reproduction TheoryMacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 2, 'Social Reproduction in Theoretical Perspective.' Pp. 11–24 and Chapter 8, 'Reproduction Theory Reconsidered,' pp. 135–54.Cultural PedagogyGiroux, Henry 2000. 'Representations of Violence, Popular Culture and Demonization of Youth.' Pp. 93–105 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. Edited by Stephanie Urso Spina. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 2: Broadening the definition of school violenceHenry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.' Annals of the American Academy of Political and social Science 567: 16–30.Watkinson, Ailsa 1997. 'Administrative Complicity and Systemic Violence in Education.' Pp. 3–24 in Systemic Violence in Education: Promise Broken. Edited by Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press.Urso Spina, Stephanie 2000. 'Violence in Schools: Expanding the Dialogue.' Pp. 1–40 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and LittlefieldCasella, Ronnie 2001. 'What is Violent about School Violence? The Nature of Violence in a City School.' Pp. 15–46 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Edited by Joan Burstyn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Elliott, Delbert S., Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams 1998. 'Violence in American Schools: An Overview.' Pp. 3–30 in Violence in American Schools. Edited by Delbert S. Elliott, Beatrix A. Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part I, Chapters 1–3, pp. 3–76.Section 3: Ideology and aggressionMerten, Don 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly, v. 25 (1): 29–43.Willis, Paul 1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Farnborough, England: Saxon House.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part II, Chapters 4–7, pp. 77–178.MacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 6, 'School: Preparing for Competition,' pp. 83–111.Devine, John 1997. Maximum Security: The Culture of Violence in Inner‐City Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read Chapter 1, 'Schools or 'Schools'? Competing Discourses on Violence,' pp. 19–46.Section 4: Cultural scripts – masculinityKimmel, Michael S. and Matthew Mahler 2003. 'Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence.'The American Behavioral Scientist 46(10): 1439–58.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 4, 'Naughty by Nature,' pp. 77–99 and Chapter 6, 'Getting into Trouble,' pp. 163–96.Bender, Geoff 2001. 'Resisting Dominance? The Study of a Marginalized Masculinity and its Construction within High School Walls.' Pp. 61–78 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Klein, Jessi and Lynn S. Chancer 2000. 'Masculinity Matters: The Omission of Gender from High‐Profile School Violence Cases.' Pp. 129–62 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 5: Cultural scripts – femininityEder, Donna 1985. 'The Cycle of Popularity: Interpersonal Relations among Female Adolescents.'Sociology of Education 58(3): 154–65.Merten, Don 1997. 'The Meaning of Meanness: Popularity, Competition, and Conflict Among Junior High School Girls.'Sociology of Education 70(3): 175–91.Merten, Don 2005. 'Transitions and 'Trouble': Rites of Passage for Suburban Girls.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 36(2): 132–48.Artz, Sibylle 2004. 'Violence in the Schoolyard: School Girls' Use of Violence.' Pp. 167–90 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities, edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Morris, Edward W. 2007. ''Ladies' or 'Loudies'? Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms.'Youth & Society 38: 490–515.Mikel Brown, Lyn 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. NY: New York University Press.Section 6: Culture resources and school violence – languageLanguage and Symbolic ViolenceFerguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 7, 'Unreasonable Circumstances,' pp. 197–226.Youth Talk about ViolenceDiket, Read M. and Linda G. Mucha 2002. 'Talking about Violent Images.'Art Education March: 11–7.Morrill, Calvin, Christine Yalds, Madelaine Adelman, Michael Musheno, and Cindy Bejarano 2000. 'Telling Tales in School: Youth Culture and Conflict Narratives.'Law & Society Review 34(3): 521–65.Burman, Michele 2004. 'Turbulent Talk: Girls Making Sense of Violence.' Pp. 81–103 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities. Edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Obidah, Jennifer 2000. 'On Living (and Dying) with Violence: Entering Young Voices in the Discourse.' Pp. 49–66 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 7: Culture resources and school violence – clothingClothing and School Safety DebatesHolloman, Lillian and Velma LaPoint, Sylvan I. Alleyne, Ruth J. Palmer, and Kathy Sanders‐Phillips 1996. 'Dress‐Related Behavioral Problems and Violence in Public School Settings: Prevention, Intervention, and Policy—A Holistic Approach.'The Journal of Negro Education 65(3): 267–281.Stanley, M. Sue 1996. 'School Uniforms and Safety.'Education and Urban Society 28(4): 424–35.Gereluk, Dianne 2008. 'Limiting Free Speech in the United States.' Pp. 41–64 in Symbolic Clothing in Schools: What Should Be Worn and Why. New York, NY: Continuum.Brunsma, David L., ed. 2006. Uniforms in Public Schools: A Decade of Research and Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Clothing, School Policies and Symbolic ViolenceHorvat, Erin McNamara 1999. '"Hey, Those Shoes are Out of Uniform": African American Girls in an Elite High School and the Importance of Habitus.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 30(3): 317–42.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives 48(1): 25–48.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 3, 'School Rules,' pp. 49–73.FilmsTough guise: violence, media, and the crisis in masculinity (2002)This Media Education Foundation film explores the relationship between popular culture and the construction of violent masculinity. Of particular relevance to this class, the film examines how the construction of masculinity relates to school shootings. The film is directed by Sut Jhally and narrated by Jackson Katz. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.Wrestling with manhood: boys, bullying and battering (2004)This Media Education Foundation film, written and directed by Sut Jhally, examines the relationship between professional wrestling and the construction of masculinity. The film looks at how wrestling contributes to homophobia, violence against women and bullying in school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.School violence: answers from the inside (2000)This film originally aired on PBS''In the Mix,' a television series created by and for teens. The film examines stereotyping and conflict in schools through the eyes and voices of teenagers attending a diverse suburban high school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Resources – Language.The killer at Thurston high (2000)This PBS Frontline film focuses on Kip Kinkel, who in 1998, at the age of 15, shot his mother and father, and then opened fire at his school in Springfield, Oregon, killing two and injuring 25. He is currently serving 111 years in prison. The film provides an understanding of the tragedy through multiple viewpoints, including interviews with Kip's sister, teachers and psychiatrists. This film could be used in the section Broadening the Definition of School Violence.Mean girls (2004)Written by Tina Fey and based on Rosalind Wiseman's book, Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence, this fictional account of 'mean girls' is a film that most college students will be familiar with. Clips from the film can be used in the section Cultural Scripts—Femininity to begin a discussion about relational aggression between girls in schools. It can also be used to examine the role that racism and classism play in our public perception of violent behavior, particularly since 'mean girls' in this film tend to be constructed as white and upper class, whereas in contrast, 'violent girls' in film have historically been constructed as poor, young women of color.Project ideas1. Social Policy and Intervention. This assignment is intended to get students critically thinking about how educators approach school violence. Have students pick either a national intervention program, such as D.A.R.E., or a local school policy created to deal with school violence. Begin by analyzing how school violence is defined and what type of intervention/prevention is being proposed. Require students to use a cultural approach to understand and critique the policy. In writing the paper, students should consider the following questions. How would a cultural sociologist define violence? What types of violence are missing from this policy? How would this policy be different if it took into account a cultural approach? The book, 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools (2001) by Ronnie Casella provides a good background resource for completing this assignment.2. Observation Project: Clothing and School Safety. Students will begin by gaining permission to observe at a local middle school or high school. Begin by analyzing the school policy towards clothing. Some schools might have an official uniform policy, whereas others might have policies regarding certain types of clothing (i.e. gang clothing, clothing with profanity, etc.) Next, spend several days observing students in non‐classroom settings, like the hallways, cafeteria, bus or playground. Take detailed fieldnotes. Pay particular attention to the clothing that students wear, any discussion made about clothing by either students or teachers, the relationship between clothing and identity, how clothes are used as a site of resistance, and how clothes might cause conflict between students, or between students and teachers. (You may also want to informally interview students about their perception of the school's policy on clothing, how they negotiate rules about clothing, and how they see clothing policies as contributing to conflict and violence, as well as school safety.) As a class, develop a coding scheme for the fieldnotes. Each student will then individually write an analysis paper on the relationship between clothing, conflict, discipline policies, and school violence.3. Mean Girls: Examining Relational Aggression in Schools. There has been much public attention in recent years to 'mean girls.' As a class, view the film Mean Girls during the course section, Cultural Scripts – Femininity. As a class, develop an interview guide with about six open‐ended questions (i.e. What were your experiences with 'mean girls' in high school? How did you or a close friend deal with being the victim of relational aggression? To what extent did you ever participate in being a 'mean girl'? How did teachers at your school respond to relational aggression between girls?) Next, have students interview six female students using the class interview guide. Students can work individually or in groups to write a paper that compares and contrasts the social construction of mean girls in the film with the actual perceptions of mean girls from their research participants. The analysis should be grounded in the social science research that students are reading on relational aggression.
DER WELTBRAND BAND 3 Der Weltbrand (-) Der Weltbrand Band 3 (3; 1920) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) Impressum ( - ) Der Krieg gegen Rumänien im Oktober und November 1916. (649) [Abb.]: Der Gebirgskrieg in Rumänien: Aufstieg der Truppen und Lasttiere. (650) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Gebirgshaubitze in Feuerstellung im Tölgyespaß. (651) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von den Kämpfen im Gyergyogebirge; Munitions- und Provianttransport auf einer Holzbeförderungskleinbahn. (2)Der bekannte rumänische Badeort Sinaia; links Schloß Pelesch, die Sommerresidenz der rumänischen Königsfamilie. (653) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf den südlich von Kronstadt gelegenen rumänischen Grenzort Predeal, der am 23. Oktober von deutschen und österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen genommen wurde. (2)Petroleumtanks im Hafen von Constanta. (654) [Abb.]: Die Hafenanlagen von Constanta mit der Landungsbrücke im Hintergrund. (655) [Abb.]: Rast an einer Kirche im Focsani. ( - ) Deutsches Friedensangebot der Mittelmächte. - Die Friedensbemühungen Amerikas. (657) [Abb.]: Die tote rumänische Schwarmlinie in Kronstadt, die durch Flankierung mit einem Maschinengewehr weggefegt wurde. (657) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die von deutschen Fliegern erfolgreich mit Bomben belegte Donaubrücke bei Cernavoda in der Dobrudscha. (Die Brücke wurde unter König Karl I. von Rumänien in den Jahren 1892 bis 1895 erbaut und ist bei einer Gesamtlänge von 3850 m die längste Eisenbrücke Europas.) (2)Kolonnenbrücke bei Râmnicu-Vâlcea. (659) [Abb.]: Blick auf die bulgarische Stadt Svistov. (661) [Abb.]: Im Schlamm der rumänischen Landstraße. (662) [Karte]: Karte von Südmazedonien und Nordgriechenland. (663) [Abb.]: Aus der rumänischen Hauptstadt Bukarest: Blick auf den Boulevard Elisabetha mit dem deutschen Gouvernement (links). (665) Die Ereignisse im Orient vom 1. Juli bis Ende 1916. (666) [Abb.]: Wochenmarkt im Skutari. (667) Die Vorgänge in Mazedonien vom 1. Oktober bis 31. Dezember 1916. (668) [Abb.]: Vom mazedonischen Kriegsschauplatz: Ein erfolgloser Angriff der Serben im Cernabogen bei Tepavci im November 1916. (669) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen in Monastir: Sächsische Jäger im Feuer. (671) Die Niederlage Rumäniens im Dezember 1916. (671) [13 Abb.]: Deutsche Heerführer. (1)Generalleutnant v. Moser, Führer eines Reservekorps. (2)Generaloberst v. Falkenhausen, Führer einer Armeeabteilung. (3)Generalleutnant v. Bredow, Führer einer Division im Osten. (4)Oberst Hesse, Chef des Generalstabes einer Armee. (5)Generalleutnant Hofmann. (6)Generalleutnant Heinrich Schmidt v. Knobelsdorf, Kommandeur einer Infanteriedivision. (7)Königl. Sächs. General der Kavallerie v. Laffert, Führer eines Armeekorps. (8)Generalleutnant v. Conta, Führer eines Armeekorps. (9)Generalleutnant Kühne. (10)General der Infanterie v. Liebert. (11)General der Infanterie Kosch. (12)General der Artillerie v. Gronau, Oberbefehlshaber einer Armeeabteilung. (13)Generalleutnant v. Wenninger. ([673]) [Abb.]: Bukarest (Nordwestteil), von einem deutschen Flugzeug aus 3000 m Höhe aufgenommen. (674) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das königliche Schloß in Bukarest. (2)Ein rumänisches Kavallerieregiment auf der Calea Victoriei, der Hauptstraße Bukarests. (675) [Abb.]: Straße in Ploesti nach der Einnahme der Stadt durch die deutschen Truppen am 7. Dezember 1916. (677) [Abb.]: Ausgebrannte und zerstörte Petroleumtanks in Ploesti. (678) Griechenland im letzten Vierteljahre 1916. (678) [Abb.]: Im rumänischen Petroleumgebiet: Blick auf die Ölquellen im Predealtal. (679) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kirche in Curtea de Arges, in der König Carol und Königin Elisabeth (Carmen Sylva) beigesetzt sind. Im Hintergrund das Schloß. Die durch Curtea de Arges ziehenden deutschen Truppen legten auf Anordnung des Deutschen Kaisers an den Särgen des verstorbenen Königspaares Kränze nieder. (2Ansicht der rumänischen Haupthandelsstadt Braila in der Großen Walachei. (680) [Abb.]: Vor dem Stadthaus in Buzau nach der Einnahme der Stadt am 15. Dezember 1916. (681) Der See- und Luftkrieg im ersten Vierteljahr 1917. - Der Eintritt Amerikas in den Krieg. (683) [Abb.]: Türkische Artillerie beim Übergang über die Kriegsbrücke bei Odobesti. (683) [Abb.]: Straße in Macin. (684) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einmarsch deutscher Truppen in Macin, den von den Rumänen hartnäckig verteidigten Brückenkopf an der unteren Donau. (2)Von der Weihnachtsschlacht bei Rimnicul-Sarat, die am 27. Dezember 1916 mit der Einnahme der Stadt durch deutsche Truppen der Armee des Generals v. Falkenhayn endigte. (685) [Abb.]: In der hinteren Maschinengondel eines Zeppelin-Luftschiffs während der Fahrt durch die feindliche Luftsperre nach einem erfolgreichen Angriff auf England. ([686 - 687]) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Fliegerangriffs auf der oberen Plattform eines Zeppelin-Luftschiffes während eines Fluges über England. (689) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abwickeln eines um den vorderen Propeller eines Zeppelin-Luftschiffes verwickelten Taue während einer Angriffsfahrt über England. (2)Die deutschen und die feindlichen verluste im Luftkampf an der West- und Ostfront im Jahre 1916. (691) [Karte]: Das Kriegsgebiet in der Nordsee und im Mittelländischen Meer. (692) [2 Abb.]: (1)Minensuchboote beim Fischen von Minen. (2)Torpedotreffer auf einem feindlichen Handelsdampfer. Nach einer im nördlichen Eismeer gemachten photographischen Aufnahme. (693) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nach schwerem Wetter an Deck; allerlei Schäden werden ausgebessert. Nach einer im nördlichen Eismeer gemachten photographischen Aufnahme. (2)Ein deutsches Großkampfschiff in der Schlacht, Backboard-Breitseite der schweren und mittleren Artillerie feuernd. (695) [Abb.]: Die Schiffsverluste unserer Gegner bis Ende Dezember 1916. (696) [Abb.]: Der Untergang des französischen Großkampfschiffes "Danton" im Mittelländischen Meer am 19. März 1917 nach der Torpedierung durch eines unserer U-Boote. (697) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die zahlreichen Gefangenen an Deck des Hilfskreuzers "Möwe" nach der Rückkehr von seiner mehrmonatigen Kreuzfahrt im Atlantischen Ozean. (2)Burggraf und Graf Dohna-Schlodien bei einer Ansprache an seine tapferen Leute nach der Ankunft im Heimatshafen. Das Schiff hat 22 Dampfer und 5 Segler mit 123 100 Brutto-Registertonnen, darunter 21 feindliche Dampfer, von denen 8 bewaffnet waren und 5 im Dienste der englischen Admiralität fuhren, und 4 feindliche Segler aufgebracht. An Bord befanden sich 593 Gefangene. (698) [Abb.]: Nächtliche Szene am Rande des Waldes von St. Pierre-Vaast. (699) [Abb.]: Ein kampfunfähiger englischer Panzerkraftwagen (Tank) vor der deutschen Stellung bei Arras. (700) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsches Kraftwagen-Flugzeugabwehrgeschütz, bei Savy den Angriff englischer Kavallerie zurückweisend. (2)Ein Großkampftag an der Arrasfront: Der englische Angriff bricht unter dem deutschen Sperr- und Maschinengewehrfeuer zusammen. (701) [Abb.]: Der moderne Krieg: Stoßtrupp. (703) Die Kämpfe an der Westfront vom 1. Januar bis 31. März 1917. (703) [Abb.]: Bau eines etwa 10 m unter der Erde leigenden Unterstandes zur Sicherung gegen schwere Artillerie und Minen. (704) [Abb.]: Infanterieflieger unterstützt einen deutschen Sturmangriff, indem er in niedriger Höhe der Infanterie voranfliegt und mit seinem Maschinengewehr die feindlichen Gräben beschießt. (705) [Abb.]: Brieftauben-Station bei einer Armeegruppe. (706) [Abb.]: Von dem planmäßigen deutschen Stellungswechsel an der Westfront zwischen Arras und der Aisne: Deutsche Nachhut im Oise-Gebiet. (707) [Abb.]: Deutscher Sturmtrupp beim Einbruch in die französische Linie. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wie der italienische Zeichner F. Matania in der englischen Zeitschrift "The Sphere" den aus militärischen Gründen notwendigen Rücktransport der Zivilbevölkerung aus einem Teil des besetzten Gebietes schildert. (Phantasiezeichnung.) (2)Wie eine derartige Maßnahme in Wirklichkeit vor sich geht: Rücktransport der Bewohner von Courcy-lès-Eppes wegen andauernder Beschießung des Ortes durch die feindliche Artillerie. (709) Der rumänische Krieg im ersten Vierteljahr 1917. (710) [11 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant Otto Parschau (†). (2)Leutnant Mulzer. (3)Hauptmann Buddecke. (4)Oberleutnant Ernst Freiherr v. Althaus. (5)Oberleutnant Berr. (6)Generalleutnant v. Hoeppner, beauftragt mit der Wahrnehmung der Geschäfte des kommandierenden Generals der Luftstreitkräfte. (7)Leutnant Walter Höhndorf. (8)Leutnant Wilhelm Frankl. (9)Leutnant Berthold. (10)Leutnant Leffers. (11)Vizefeldwebel Friedirch Manschott (†). (711) [Abb.]: Die Rumänen und Russen auf der Flucht ins Rimnicul-Sarat-Tal. (713) Die Russenkämpfe vom 1. Januar bis 31. März 1917. (713) [Abb.]: Ernte in Rumänien bei Rimnicul-Sarat. (714) [2 Abb.]: (1)Typen rumänischer Bauern aus Siebenbürgen. (2)Motiv aus Pitesti. (715) [Abb.]: Der bulgarische General Nerezow (x), der Oberbefehlshaber der Dobrudscha-Armee, mit seinem Stabe. (716) [Abb.]: Vom östlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Vorgehender österreichisch-ungarischer Stoßtrupp. (717) Die italienischen Kämpfe im ersten Vierteljahr 1917. (718) [Abb.]: Bei unseren österreichisch-ungarischen Bundesgenossen in Ostgalizien: Sturmangriff. (718) [Abb.]: In den Rokitnosümpfen. (719) China tritt in den Bund gegen Deutschland ein. - Der Krieg zwischen Deutschland und Amerika und der englische Krieg vom 1. April bis Ende Juni 1917. (721) [Abb.]: Die Zusammensetzung der Bevölkerung der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika ihrem Ursprung nach. (721) [Abb.]: Die Einfuhr der Vereinigten Staaten nach Deutschland und die deutsche Ausfuhr nach den Vereinigten Staaten im Jahre 1913. (722) [Abb.]: Leben und Treiben auf dem Marktplatz zu Grandpré. (723) [Abb.]: Hinter der Front in Westflandern: Küche in Belfried zu Brügge. (724) [Abb.]: Von der Front in Westflandern: Minenüberfall im vordersten Schützengraben. (725) [4 Abb.]: (1)Großherzog Friedrich August von Oldenburg. (2)Großherzog Ernst Ludwig von Hessen (in der Mitte). (3)Adolf Fürst zu Schaumburg-Lippe. (4)König Friedrich August mit Kronprinz Georg von Sachsen beim Kronprinz Rupprecht von Bayern. (726) [Abb.]: Vom östlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Gasgranaten. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vom Kriegsschauplatz in Flandern: Batteriegeschütz wird bei Annäherung von feindlichen Monitoren am Horizont aus Landstellung in Seestellung gebracht. (2)Ausbessern der im nächtlichen Artillerieüberfall durch Minen verursachten Schäden in einem Schützengraben bei Dixmuiden. (729) Der Kampf an der deutschen Westfront vom 1. April bis Ende Mai 1917. (731) [Abb.]: Von der französischen Kampffront: Besetzung eines riesigen Minentrichters durch unsere Truppen unmittelbar nach der Sprengung. (731) [Abb.]: Aus der Zeit der Sommekämpfe: Sanitätsunterstand eines im Bau begriffenen Kanalbettes. (732) [Karte]: Zu dem großen französischen Angriff an der Aisne und in der Champagne am 16. April 1917: Das Ziel der französischen Frühjahrsoffensive und ihr wirklicher Gewinn. (Die auf der Karte angegebenen Zeiten bedeuten die Zeiten nach der befohlenen Angriffsstunde.) (733) [Abb.]: Abgeschlagener französischer Nachtangriff; die französischen Truppen flüchten bei Tagesgrauen durch das vom deutschen Trommelfeuer aufgewühlte Vorgelände der deutschen Stellungen zurück. (735) [Abb.]: Prinz Friedrich Karl von Preußen, Sohn des Prinzen Friedrich Leopold, Rittmeister im Leib-Husarenregiment Nr. 1, seit 1. Oktober 1916 Mitglied der Fliegertruppe geriet am 21. März bei einem Flug schwer verwundet in englische Gefangenschaft, in der er verstarb. (736) [Abb.]: Aus der großen Arrasschlacht: Maschinengewehre rücken zur Verstärkung vor. (737) [Abb.]: Vom westlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Ablösungsmannschaften auf dem Wege durch eine unter feindlichem Feuer liegende Ortschaft. (739) [Abb.]: Vom westlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Alarmierung eines Maschinengewehr-Postens. (740) [2 Abb.]: (1)In der Minenwerfer-Stellung. (2)Von der Westfront: Eine von unseren Truppen erbaute Treidelbahn zur Beförderung von Material bis in die vordersten Gräben sowie von Lehm und Erde ausgeschachteten Unterständen. (741) [Abb.]: Minenwerfer bei der Arbeit. (743) Die italienischen Kämpfe im April und Mai 1917. (744) [Abb.]: Vom westlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Anlegen eines Drahtverhaues hinter der Front. (745) [Abb.]: Ein Großkampftag bei Görz; Trommelfeuer vom Monte Santo bis zum Meer. (747) Die Kämpfe in Mazedonien und Griechenlands Schicksal im ersten Halbjahr 1917. (749) [Abb.]: Vom Kriegsschauplatz in Mazedonien: Ein Angriff bulgarischer Infanterie am Prespasee. ([750 - 751]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Konstantin I., König der Hellenen, der wegen seiner streng neutralen Haltung von der Entente zur Abdankung gezwungen wurde. (2)Alexander, König der Hellenen, der zweite Sohn des von der Entente zur Abdankung gezwungenen Königs Konstantin, der nach dem ebenfalls von der Entente erzwungenen Thronverzicht des Kronprinzen Georg den griechischen Thron bestieg. (752) [Abb.]: Leben und Treiben auf einem mazedonischen Bahnhof. (753) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schwere Artillerie auf dem Marsch. (2)Eine Straßenecke in Monastir. (755) [Abb.]: Tausendjährige Eiche in Ochrida. (757) [14 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor Höfer. (2)Generalmajor von Berendt. (3)Generalleutnant v. Hofacker. (4)Generalmajor Tappen. (5)General der Infanterie Gaede. (6)General Tülff v. Tschepe und Weidenbach. (7)Generalleutnant v. Winckler. (8)General der Infanterie Ritter v. Xylander. (9)Oberst Freiherr v. Oldershausen. (10)Generalleutnant Dr. Willy Gröner. (11)Generalleutnant v. Wilsdorf, sächs. Kriegsminister. (12)Generalleutnant Eberhard Graf v. Schmettow. (13)General der Infanterie z. D. v. Ehrenthal. (14)General der Infanterie v. Jacobi, Generaladjutant des Kaisers. (759) Die innenpolitischen Verhältnisse Deutschlands während der ersten drei Kriegsjahre. (760) [Abb.]: Kriegsschiffsverluste unserer Feinde in den ersten 3 Kriegsjahren - rund 942 000 Tonnen (762) [Abb.]: Der Erfolg der Land- und Seemacht Deutschland und seiner Verbündeten am Ende des dritten Kriegsjahres, Ende Juli 1917. Die bei der Kriegsbeute angegebenen Zahlen enthalten nur die nach Deutschland zurückgebrachte Beute, während außerdem eine auch nicht annähernd zu bestimmende Anzahl Geschütze, Maschinengewehre usw. gleich im Felde in Gebrauch genommen worden ist. ([764 - 765]) [Abb.]: Laden eines Torpedorohres. (767) [2 Abb.]: (1)Am Achtergeschütz eines Torpedobootes. (2)Kommando: "An die Schwimmwesten!" (768) [Abb.]: Alarm: "Dampf auf in allen Kesseln!" (771) [Abb.]: Ein Schwimmbock wird von seinem Liegeplatz geschleppt. (773) [Abb.]: Deutsches U-Boot, bei starkem Weststurm (Windstärke 9) in der Nähe Helgoland über Wasser fahrend. (774) [Abb.]: Minensuchboot im Kampfe mit feindlichen Fliegern. (775) [2 Abb.]: (1)Torpedobootsabwehr: Ausbringen des Torpedoschutznetzes auf einem Panzerkreuzer. (2)Der Chef einer Torpedoflottille gibt durch die Flüstertute Befehl nach rückwärts. (777) [Abb.]: Die Wirkungen des unbeschränkten U-Bootskrieges auf die Volkswirtschaft unserer Feinde: Frachtsteigerungen im Verkehr mit England von Ende Januar 1914 bis Ende Dezember 1917. (779) Der See- und Luftkrieg zwischen Deutschland und England vom 1. Juni bis 31. Juli 1917. - Amerikas Beteiligung am Kriege. (780) [15 Abb.]: Deutsche U-Bootführer. (1)Kapitänleutnant Marschall. (2)Kapitänleutnant Viebeg. (3)Oberleutnant z. S. Reinhold Salzwebel. (4)Kapitänleutnant Sieß. (5)Kapitänleutnant Moraht. (6)Kapitänleutnant Rohrbeck. (7)Kapitänleutnant Remy. (8)Kapitänleutnant Schwieger. (9)Kapitänleutnant Schneider. (10)Oberleutnant z. S. Launburg. (11)Oberleutnant z. S. Klatt. (12)Oberleutnant z. S. Korsch. (13)Oberleutnant z. S. Obermüller. (14)Oberleutnant z. S. Lohs. (15)Kapitänleutnant Meusel. (781) [3 Abb.]: (1)Im Heizraum eines deutschen Linienschiffs. (2)Munitionstransport an Deck eines kleinen Kreuzers. (3)Lecksicherungsgruppe beim Dichten eines Lecks. (783) [Abb.]: Admiral Scheer, der Chef der deutschen Hochseeflotte, begrüßt an Board eines Kriegsschiffes in Wilhelmshaven den türkischen Marineminister Dschemal-Pascha. (785) [Abb.]: Die Waffen unserer U-Boote: In einer Torpedofabrik. (787) [Abb.]: Eine Unterhaltungsstätte für unsere Truppen hinter der Front im Westen: Vortrag des Prologs bei der Eröffnungsvorstellung des in einer Scheune des Schlosses zu Grandpré eingerichteten Feldtheaters. (790) Die Kämpfe in Italien von Anfang Juni 1917 bis zum Ende der elften Isonzoschlacht. (791) [Abb.]: Hinter der Front auf dem westlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Sonntag in einer nordfranzösischen Stadt. (791) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ankunft eines Zeppelin-Luftschiffs im Heimathafen: Das kopflastige Schiff gibt Wasserballast. (2)In Erwartung der Ankunft eines Zeppelin-Luftschiffes im Heimathafen: Auslegen der Landungsgeräte. (793) [17 Abb.]: Deutsche Flieger. (1)Leutnant Lothar Freiherr v. Richthofen, der jüngere Bruder des Rittmeisters Manfred Freiherr v. Richthofen. (2)Oberleutnant Adolf Ritter v. Tutschek. (3)Hauptmann Kleine. (4)Leutnant Hans Klein. (5)Leutnant Horn. (6)Leutnant Gontermann. (7)Oberleutnant v. Cossel (x) und sein Flugzeugführer Vizefeldwebel Windisch. (8)Leutnant Bongartz. (9)Leutnant Buckler. (10)Kapitänleutnant d. R. Franz Georg Eichler †. Kommandant eines Marineluftschiffes. (11)Leutnant Dossenbach †. (12)Leutnant Almenröder. (13)Leutnant Max Müller. (14)Oberleutnant Frhr. Paul v. Pechmann. (15)Hauptmann Brandenburg. (16)Korvettenkapitän Strasser †. (17)Oberleutnant Dostler. (795) [2 Abb.]: (1)Großflugzeug vor dem Bombengeschwaderflug. (2)Kampfflugzeug mit zwei Motoren. (797) Beginn der russischen Revolution. (798) [2 Abb.]: Bei den Feldluftschiffen: (1)Einholen des Ballons. (2)Ein Fallschirm, der bei Fliegergefahr vom Ballonbeobachter zum Absprung aus dem Fesselballon benutzt wird, entfaltet. (799) [Abb.]: Bei den Luftschiffern: Flicken der verletzten Ballonhülle. (800) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Flieger auf feindliche Fesselballone. (801) [Abb.]: Auf dem Flugplatz einer Fliegerabteilung im Felde: Rückkehr einer Jagdstaffel nach erfolgreichem Luftkampf. (803) [Abb.]: Reichskanzler Dr. Georg Michaelis. (805) [Abb.]: Im Ruhequartier: (807) Der Vatikan im Weltkrieg. (808) [2 Abb.]: (1)Flammenwerfer bei der Arbeit. (2)Ein von unseren Fliegern und unserer Artillerie zerstörter feindlicher Munitionszug in der Nähe eines Munitionslagers, das bei dem Angriff ebenfalls vernichtet wurde. (Die drei mit Wasser gefüllten Sprengtrichter kennzeichnen den Ort der bisherigen Munitionsdepots.) (809) [Abb.]: Nachrichtenübermittlung bei Abwehr eines feindlichen Nachtangriffs. ([810 - 811]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Alarm in einem flandrischen Küstenort. (2)Minenwerfer bei der Arbeit in den flandrischen Dünen. (3)Ein Maschinengewehr wird von den Sturmtruppen in Stellung gezogen. (813) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen im Westen: Ein im Dachgeschoß eines Hauses angelegtes Maschinengewehrnest wird von den deutschen Truppen gesäubert. (815) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen an der Westfront: Sturmtrupp beim Einbruch in die feindliche Stellung. (816) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen an der Westfront: Vorgehende Sturmbatterie. (817) [Abb.]: Unsere Pioniere bei der Arbeit: Brettertrupp beim Überbrücken genommener feindlicher Gräben. (819) [Abb.]: Beobachtungsposten von Minenwerfertruppen im vordersten Sappenkopf. (820) [Abb.]: Wiederaufbau der nach Stellungswechsel zerlegt beförderten Minenwerfer. (821) Die Kämpfe an der deutschen Westfront im Juni und Juli 1917. (821) [Abb.]: Der moderne Krieg: Minentrichter. Dieser Minentrichter hat einen Umfang von 80 m; die Löcher im Krater sind Einschläge der Granaten, mit denen nach der Sprengung die am Rande entlang laufenden Gräben belegt wurden. (823) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen beim Eingraben vor der feindlichen Stellung in Westflandern und beim Aufziehen von Schnellhindernissen. (824) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Hofe einer Reparaturwerkstätte für Geschütze hinter der Front im Westen. (2)Granatenwerfer. (826) [Abb.]: Transport einer Batterie auf einer von unseren Truppen erbauten Kleinbahn in den Vogesen. (827) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen in Südtirol: Die Wiedereroberung des Monte Ortigara und der Porta Leyozze am 25. Juni 1917; österreichisch-ungarische Sturmpatrouillen dringen überraschend in die italienischen Stellungen ein und besetzen die Grenzkämme Sugantal (829) [Abb.]: In einer Barackenküche auf dem westlichen Kriegsschauplatz. ([830 - 831]) [Abb.]: Der Durchbruch bei Tolmein: Deutsche und österreichisch-ungarische Truppen, voran das deutsche Alpenkorps, erstürmten die aufs stärkste ausgebaute Tal- und Höhenstellung der Italiener am 25. Oktober 1917. (833) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf der Piazza Palmanova vor der Porta Aquilea in Udine. (2)Die Piazza Vittorio Emanuele in Udine am Tage der Einnahme der Stadt. (834) Die italienischen Kämpfe vom 1. Juni bis Ende des Jahres 1917. (835) [Abb.]: Panik der Italiener bei Codroipo. (837) [2 Abb.]: (1)Einmarsch deutscher Truppen in die italienische Ebene; das Natisonetal mit dem brennendem Cividale. (2)Die deutschen Truppen in Udine. (839) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fertigstellung der von den Italienern angefangenen Brücke über Tagliamento. (2)Übergang des deutschen Alpenkorps über den Tagliamento bei Pinzolo. (840) [2 Abb.]: (1)San Martino, in der Palagruppe, gegen den 2604 m hohen Monte Colbricon, von dem ab als Folge der Durchbruchsschlacht im Flitscher Becken die italienische Front bis zum Adriatischen Meer zusammengebrochen ist. San Martino di Castrozza wurde am 5. November 1917 von österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen besetzt. (2)Zu dem erfolgreichen Vordringen der Heeresgruppe des Feldmarschalls Conrad v. Hötzendorf: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme des Kampfgebietes. (841) Die Umwälzungen in Rußland von Mai bis Ende 1917. - Die Stockholmer Konferenz. - Der Suchomlinow-Prozeß. - Die Kämpfe an der deutschen Ostfront von Juni bis Ende 1917. (842) [2 Abb.]: (1)Angriff österreichisch-ungarischer Truppen im Monte-Tomba-Gebiet; im Hintergrund die Piave. (2)Das Kampffeld an der Piavefront mit dem von deutschen Truppen am 12. November 1917 erstürmten Brückenkopf Vidor auf dem östlichen Piave-Ufer. (844) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stellungen der österreichisch-ungarischen Truppen am Piave-Damm bei San Dona. (2)Erstürmung der italienischen Stellung am Monte Asolone im Grappamassiv durch österreichisch-ungarische Truppen am 18. Dezember 1917. (847) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Infanterie im Kampf mit italienischen Nachhuten an der Straße nach Latisana am Tagliamento. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Trotzky. (2)Lenin. (849) [Abb.]: Eine Sitzung des Arbeiter- und Soldatenrats in der Duma zu St. Petersburg. (850) [Abb.]: Wie es in St. Petersburg zuging: Eine authentische photographische Aufnahme eines Zusammenstoßes zwischen den Anhängern Lenins und Kerenskis auf dem Newskij-Prospekt, bei dem auf die Menge mit Maschinengewehren geschossen wurde. (851) [Abb.]: Von der mißglückten russischen Offensive zur Eroberung von Lemberg: Stoßtrupp wirft in die österreichisch-ungarischen Gräben eingedrungene Russen zurück. (853) [Abb.]: Nach dem deutschen Durchbruch an der Dünafront bei Riga: Rückzug der russischen 12. Armee auf der Straße Riga - Wenden. (855) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf Riga vom Turme der Petrikirche aus. (2)Deutsche Truppen an der Fährstelle des Dünakanals. (857) [Abb.]: Zur Einnahme der Festung Dünamünde am Rigaischen Meerbusen durch die deutschen Truppen am 4. September 1917: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme der Befestigungsanlagen. (858) [Abb.]: Zur Eroberung der Insel Oesel im Rigaischen Meerbusen: Einschiffung des Landungskorps im Heimathafen. (859) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausschiffen der ersten Truppen vor Oesel am 12. Oktober 1917. (2)Das Arensburger Schloß auf Oesel, vom Meer aus gesehen. (860) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall Prinz Leopold von Bayern, der Oberbefehlshaber Ost, beim Unterzeichnen des Waffenstillstandsvertrags. (861) [Abb.]: Das Gebäude, in dem die Verhandlungen über den Waffenstillstand stattfanden. (863) Die deutschen Kolonien von Anfang des Krieges bis Ende des Jahres 1917. (864) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte über die Westrecken, die von den Truppen des Generals von Lettow-Vorbeck seit Beginn der großen feindlichen Offensive (März 1916) bis Ende Juni 1918 in Deutsch-Ostafrika und Portugiesisch-Ostafrika zurückgelegt worden sind. (865) [Abb.]: Blick auf Dar-es-Salam. (866) [Abb.]: Blick auf den Massoko-See. Im Vordergrunde Major v. Langenn-Steinkeller. (867) [Abb.]: Ein Zeltlager der Askari. (868) [Abb.]: Brieftaubenübung unter Oberst v. Estorff. (869) [2 Abb.]: (1)Geschützstellung in Kamerun. (2)Oberst v. Estorff hält in Windhuk (Deutsch-Südwestafrika) eine Ansprache. (871) [Abb.]: Schießübung der Askari. Links: Major v. Langenn-Steinkeller (verwundet beim Angriff auf Karonga). Rechts: Feldwebel Graumann (gefallen beim Angriff auf Karonga). (872) [4 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant Franke, Kommandeur der Schutztruppe für Deutsch-Südwestafrika nach dem Tode des Obersten v. Heydebreck. (2)Oberst v. Heydebreck † Kommandeur der Schutztruppe für Deutsch-Südwestafrika während der ersten Kriegszeit. (3)Oberleutnant Zimmermann, Kommandeur der Schutztruppe für Kamerun. (4)General v. Lettwo-Vorbeck. (873) [Abb.]: Panzerkreuzer im Dock. (875) Der Krieg Deutschlands mit England und Amerika und ihre Vasallenstaaten vom 1. August bis zum Ende des Jahres 1917. (876) [Abb.]: Der am 6. Dezember 1917 von einem deutschen U-Boot in der Kriegszone versenkte amerikanische Zerstörer "Jacob Jones". (876) [Abb.]: Auf einem Großkampfschiff während großer Fahrt. (877) [Abb.]: Vernichtung eines englischen Geleitzuges nebst zwei Zerstörern bei den Shetlandinseln durch deutsche Seestreitkräfte am 17. Oktober 1917. (879) [Abb.]: Deutsches Großkampf-Linienschiff im Feuer. (881) Die Kämpfe an der deutschen Westfront vom 1. August bis zum 31. Dezember 1917. (882) [14 Abb.]: (1)Generalmajor Maercker. (2)Generalleutnant Rauchenberger. (3)Generalleutnant Philipp v. Hellingrath. (4)General v. Maur. (5)Generalleutnant v. Schöler. (6)Generalleutnant v. Alten. (7)General der Infanterie z. D. v. Bacmeister. (8)Generalmajor Lequis. (9)Generalmajor Meckel. (10)General der Infanterie Freiherr v. Soden. (11)Generalleutnant v. Berrer. (12)General der Infanterie Oskar v. Hutier. (13)General der Infanterie Riemann. (14)Generalmajor v. Sauberzweig. (883) [Abb.]: Bau einer Brücke über die Putna. ( - ) [Abb.]: Pioniere bein Schleudern von geballten Ladungen, die Breschen in die feindlichen Drahthindernisse reißen sollen. (885) [Abb.]: Vom westlichen Kriegsschauplatz: Angriffstruppen überschreiten den Chemin-des-Dames. (887) [Abb.]: Von dem Kampf einer Reserve-Division bei Cambrai. Im Kampf um Crèvecoeur. (889) Der Krieg im Orient während des Jahres 1917. (890) [Abb.]: Hinter der Front in den Argonnen: Wehrhafte Kirche in St.Juvin (Ostseite). (891) Der Friede von Brest-Litowsk. - Ausgang des Krieges mit Rumänien. - Friede von Bukarest. (892) [Abb.]: Blick auf das heißumstrittene Dorf Fontaine bei Cambrai nach der Wiedereroberung; auf der Straße einer der vielen von den deutschen Truppen erbeuteten englischen Tanks. (893) [Abb.]: Nächtliche Szene aus dem Kampfgebiet bei Cambrai: Gestörte Verwundetensuche mit Sanitätshunden. (895) [Abb.]: Fernschreibersaal bei einer hohen Befehlsstelle. (896) [3 Abb.]: (1)Beisetzung eines gefallenen englischen Fliegeroffiziers durch deutsche Truppen in Palästina. (2)Türkischer Divisions-Kommandeur vor seinem Zelt in Palästina. (3)Lebensmitteltransport an die Front durch Kamele in Palästina. (897) [Abb.]: Exzellenz Liman von Sanders in seinem Standort (Palästinafront). (898) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Höhlenunterstand an der Palästinafront. (2)Verwundetentransport auf einem Kamel an der Palästinafront. (899) [Abb.]: Bahn- und Wegebau in Syrien. (900) Wilsons Friedensvorschlag. - Der Seekrieg im ersten Vierteljahr 1918. (901) [Abb.]: Die Türkei im Weltkrieg: Rast an einer Wasserstelle in den Bergen Kleinasiens. ([902 - 903]) [Abb.]: Ochsen als Vorspann für ein steckengebliebenes Automobil in Palästina. (904) [Abb.]: Karl I., Kaiser von Österreich, als apostolischer König von Ungarn Karl IV. ( - ) Der Krieg in Italien vom 1. Januar bis 1. Oktober 1918. - Zustände in Österreich unter der Regierung Karls I. (906) [Abb.]: Von den Friedensverhandlungen in Brest-Litowsk: Die Vollsitzung am 1. Februar zur endgültigen Klärung der Stellungnahme der beteiligten Regierungen gegenüber der ukrainischen Zentralrada; der ukrainische Delegierte Lubynsky bei der Erwiderung auf die gegen die Zentralrada gerichteten Ausführungen Trotzkys. (907) [Abb.]: Von der Offensive gegen Italien: Erstürmung der italienischen Stellungen am Monte Asolone im Grappamassiv durch österreichisch-ungarische Truppen am 18. Dezember 1917. (909) [Abb.]: Schwere Funkenstation im Aufbau auf dem italienischen Kriegsschauplatz. (911) [Abb.]: An der Piave-Front. (913) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bei den Feldluftschiffen: Der "Elephant der Luft" in seinem Waldversteck. (2)Der Beobachter im Ballonkorb schießt mit der Leuchtpistole nach der Erde zu ab. (914) [Abb.]: Der Ballon mit geöffnetem Entleerungsloch. (915) Beginnende Zersetzung des deutschen Heeres. - Der Krieg in Frankreich und Flandern vom 1. Januar bis zum Waffenstillstand. (915) [2 Abb.]: (1)Prüfen des Ballon-Ventils. (2)Entleeren des Ballons. (916) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zum Schutz gegen Fliegersicht mit Netzen überzogener Kraftwagen. (2)Mit Netzen als Fliegerdeckung überspanntes englisches Langrohrgeschütz. (917) [Abb.]: Besprechung mit dem Ballonbeobachter vor dem Aufstieg. Am Ballonkorb ist die Karte des Geländeabschnittes angebracht. (918) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Luftschiffhalle, die mit einer Landschaft und farbigen Streifen an den Seitenwänden bemalt ist. (2)Deutsches schweres Eisenbahngeschütz, dessen Wagen mit bunten Farben angestrichen sind. Im Vordergrund ein Maschinengewehr zur Fliegerabwehr. (919) [Abb.]: Vernichtung englischer Tanks durch deutsche Stoßtruppen. ( - ) [Abb.]: Übergang über die Somme bei St.-Christ im März 1918. (921) [Abb.]: Im Sommetal zwischen Péronne und Eléry am 25. März 1918. (922) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsches Lager vor Miraumont. (2)Deutsche Truppen auf dem Marktplatz in Bapaume vor dem Sockel des Faidherbe-Denkmals. (923) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick auf den Marktplatz der Stadt Noyon, die am 26. März 1918 erobert und in blutigem Straßenkampf vom Feinde gesäubert wurde. (2)Die Kathedrale der am 26. März von den deutschen Truppen eroberten Stadt Albert. (925) [Abb.]: Die Bedienung eines außer Gefecht gesetzten Maschinengewehres empfängt den Feind mit Handgranaten. (927) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches weittragendes Geschütz in Feuerstellung. (928) [Abb.]: Kampf mit Tanks in Hallu (südlich von Chaulnes). (929) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Marktplatz der am 16. April 1918 von den deutschen Truppen genommenen Stadt Baileul. (2)Ein Kampf am Douvebach, wo die Engländer wiederholt starke Gegenangriffe zur Wiedergewinnung des Kemmel unternahmen. (931) Politische und wirtschaftliche Zustände in Deutschland vom Beginn des ersten Kriegsjahres bis zum Friedensgesuch. (933) [Abb.]: Die Eroberung des Kemmel bei Ypern: Der Sturm des deutschen Alpenkorps auf den als uneinnehmbar bezeichneten Berg am Morgen des 25. April 1918. (934) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der erfolgreiche deutsche Vorstoß an der Marne: Durchbrechen der feindlichen Stellungen; rechts Sperrfeuer der deutschen Artillerie. (2)Vordringen von Minenwerfern durch das genommene Gelände. (935) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von der planmäßigen Räumung im Westen: Räumungsarbeiten in einer Artillerie-Werkstatt. (2)Rückverlegung einer Artillerie-Werkstatt. (936) [Abb.]: Abtransport von Kleinbahn-Lokomotiven. (937) [9 Abb.]: (1)General v. Eberhardt. (2)General der Infanterie Freiherr v. Lyncker. (3)General v. Webern. (4)Generalmajor Freiherr Prinz v. Buchau. (5)General Alfred v. Larisch. (6)Generalleutnant Sieger. (7)General v. Carlowitz. (8)Generaloberst v. Kessel. (9)Generaloberst v. Plessen. (939) [Abb.]: Brückensprengung vor der Siegfriedstellung, (941) [Abb.]: Auffahren eines schweren Geschützes in Schlamm und Regen im Kampfgebiet. (943) [Abb.]: Angriff eines feindlichen Fliegers aus niedriger Höhe auf den bis zum Eintreffen der Reserven heldenhaft ausharrenden kleinen Rest einer Grabenbesatzung. (944) [Abb.]: Feindlicher Flieger im Lichtkegel eines Flakscheinwerfers. (945) [Abb.]: Gewaltsame Erkundung. (947) [Abb.]: Im Schützengraben. (949) [Abb.]: Ablösung der Wache auf einem Vorpostenboot bei schwerem Wetter. Das Vordeck ist teilweise vollständig unter Wasser; um das Deck passieren zu können, werden Strecktaue gespannt, an denen man Halt findet. (950) [Abb.]: Kommando-Leitstand an der flandrischen Front. (952) Der Seekrieg und Luftkrieg vom 1. April bis Ende Oktober 1918. Meuterei der deutschen Flotte. (953) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Mole im Feuer. (2)Die Molenbatterie, feuernd. (953) [Abb.]: Übernahme von Minen von Minenprahm durch einen Minenleger vor der Ausfahrt. ([954 - 955]) [Abb.]: Alexander Malinow, bulgarischer Ministerpräsident und Minister der Auswärtigen Angelegenheiten. (957) Der Zusammenbruch Bulgariens, Österreichs und der Türkei. Die Kanzlerschaft des Prinzen Max von Baden. Waffenstillstandsverhandlungen. (958) [Abb.]: v. Hintze, Konteradmiral. (959) [3 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Georg Graf v. Hertling, Reichskanzler. (2)Prinz Maximilian von Baden Reichskanzler. (3)Die Reichstagssitzung am 5. Oktober 1918, die erste nach Einführung der parlamentarischen Regierungsform in Deutschland; der Reichskanzler spricht. (961) [Abb.]: Mathias Erzberger, wurde im Oktober zum Staatssekretär ohne Portefeuille ernannt. (964) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gustav Bauer, wurde im Oktober 1918 zum Staatssekretär des Reichsarbeitsamts ernannt. (2)Dr. Solf, früher Staatssekretär des Reichskolonialamts, wurde im Oktober 1918 zum Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen Amtes berufen. (965) Österreichs Zerfall. Zusammenbruch der Türkei. (966) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vizeadmiral Behnke. (2)Graf Brockdorff-Rantzau, wurde im Dezember 1918 zum Staatssekretär des Äußeren ernannt. (967) [Abb.]: Staatsminister Dr. Helfferich (969) Die Revolution in Deutschland. (970) [Abb.]: Die heimkehrenden Truppen werden von Kindern der an der Heestraße im Schwarzwald liegenden Höhe geschmückt. (971) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg begrüßt in Wilhelmshöhe die aus dem Felde zurückkehrenden Truppen vor ihrem Einmarsch in Cassel. (972) [Abb.]: General von Winterfeldt, Vertreter der Obersten Heeresleitung. (973) [Abb.]: Der Rat der Volksbeauftragten. Von links nach rechts: Barth, Landsberg, Ebert, Haase, Dittmann und Scheidemann. (975) [Abb.]: Die Eröffnungssitzung der vafassungsgebenden Nationalversammlung im Deutschen Nationaltheater zu Weimar am 6. Februar 1919: Der Volksbeauftragte, Reichspräsident Ebert, spricht. (977) [Abb.]: Oberst Reinhardt. (979) [Abb.]: Prof. Dr. Hugo Preuß. (980) [3 Abb.]: (1)Karl Kautsky. (2)Kurt Eisner. (3)Eduard Bernstein. (981) [Abb.]: Gustav Noske, seit Anfang 1919 Reichswehrminister. (982) [Abb.]: Nach der Revolution in Berlin: Am Potsdamer Platz. "Straße frei! - Es wird geschossen!" (983) [Abb.]: Der Einzug der Ostafrikaner unter Lettow-Vorbeck in Berlin am 2. März 1919 Begrüßung auf dem Pariser Platz. (985) Nachwort. (986) Register. (989) a) Namen-Register. (989) A - D (989) E (989) F - K (990) L (990) M - SCH (991) ST (991) T - Z (992) b) Orts-Register. (992) A (992) B (993) C (994) D (994) E, F (995) G (995) H, I, J (996) K (996) L (997) M (998) N (999) O (1000) P (1000) Q, R (1001) S (1001) SCH, ST (1002) T (1002) U, V (1003) W (1003) Y, Z ( - ) c) Karten. ( - ) [Abb.]: [Abgstürztes Jagdflugzeug] ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
The College Mefcuty. VOL. IV. GETTYSBURG, PA., APRIL, 1896. No. 2. THE COLLEGE MERCURY', Published each month -during the college year by the Students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. STAFF. Editor: D. EDGAR RICE, '96. Associate Editors : EDNA M. LOOMIS, '96. GRAYSON Z. STUP, '96. HENRY W. BIKLE, '97- WEBSTER C. SPAYDE, '96. WILLIAM E. WHEELER, '97. HERBERT D. SHIMER, '96. ROBBIN B. WOLF, '97. Alumni Association Editor: REV. D. TRANK GARLAND, A. M., Baltimore, Md. Business Manager: WILLIAM G. BRUBAKER, '96. Assistant Business Manager: E. A. ARMSTRONG, '97- """. (One volume (ten months). . . . $1.00 iMtMb. jSin.gie copies 15 Payable in advance. All Students are requested to band us matter for publication. The Alumni and ex-members ot the college will favor us by sending Information concerning their whereabouts or any Items hey may think would be Interesting for publication. All subscriptions and business matters should be addressed to the business manager. Matter Intended for publication should be addressed to the I Editor Address, THE COLLEGE MEECUKY, Gettysburg, Pa. CONTENTS. EDITORIALS, 16 THE LOVE OF FAME AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS, - - IS THE RELATION OF THE STUDENT TO THE PROFESSOR, - 20 OBJECTIONS TO STUDENT GOVERNMENT, 22 "To THAHARCHUS," 23 COLLEGE LOCALS, -"* - - ' - 23 LUMNI NOTES, - ._._-_- 25 ATHLETICS, - 27 RATERNITY NOTES, --- 1 28 TOWN AND SEMINARY NOTES, - - ' - - - - 29 LITERARY SOCIETIES, - - --- 30 EXCHANGES, - - - - - - - - -'--30 EDITORIAL. THE time has almost arrived when the elec-tion will be held for positions on the MERCURY staff. With a 3'ear's experience on the staff we wish to make a few suggestions which we hope will commend themselves to the literary societies as at least worthy of their consider-ation. In looking over our exchanges we find that in a great many of the college journals positions on -the editorial staff are honors worth striving for, and that to be elected to such positions the applicants must have contributed a certain amount of acceptable matter to the paper, or in other cases the3r are-subjected to competi-tive examinations. In Pennsylvania College, on the contrary, work for the MERCURY seems to be considered as a burden, and instead of there being an over-supply of applicants, it is occasionally a difficult matter to get enough students who are willing to devote even a small portion of their time to our monthly: Without making any personal insinuations, the natural result of this arrangement is that oc-casionally some are elected to positions oil the staff who have really no interest in their work, and consequently do not put forth a great amount of effort. Another apparent defect in our arrangement is that positions on the staff do not continue for more than one year, and thus an entirely new board may be elected each year. Of course, where seniors are elected this is neces: sary, but in cases where under-classmen" are chosen, if they show ability in' their work* the)' should not be subject to an annual change. By the time a new staff gets accus-tomed to its duties; and is just in good run-ning order, it is again about time for an elec-tion and its consequent changes. ■mBBBM^^HMI 17 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 1 We believe these defects mentioned could be remedied by following the example of many other college journals, and making positions on the staff the reward of a little special effort in journalistic work. We feel safe in saying that no outside work in the whole college course is more profitable than work on the col-lege journal can be made, and we are quite sure that there are men of ability among us, who are not thought of as available for jour-nalistic work, who would devote their best efforts to it if some competitive system were used in selecting editors, and who would take so much interest in their work, that the stand-ard of the paper could be decidedly improved. We feely deeply impressed with the neces-sity of adopting some plan by which a greater interest in the paper may be created on the part of the members of the staff, and believing that the competitive system is best calculated to secure that object, we most earnestly com-mend it to the serious consideration of the literary societies at their next joint meeting. *** FROM the reports received concerning the Oratorical Contest at Swarthmore we believe our representative compared very favorably with those from some of the other colleges. Although we did not come in for a share of the honors, we need not feel so badly over it, when we remember that we made as good a showing as Franklin and Marshall, whose lit-erary societies receive such well deserved praise, and which was so confident of winning. The result is indeed encouraging, and snows us that with a little more effort we may hope to be winners. It is a fact that the proper interest was not taken in the preliminaries this year. Those who were willing to go in probably did their best, but the fact that there were only two entries from one of the societies makes us feel that the contest in college might at least have been made much more close. Not one of those who were recognized as the best speak-ers from that society at the Junior Oratorical last year entered the preliminaries, and neither was the Junior Class represented. We would urge on both societies that next year a greater effort be put forth and that preparation begin in good time. If we wish to continue our membership in the Oratorical Union, it is the duty of all those who can speak to take an in-terest in the preliminaries and see to it that all the oratorical ability in the college receives a fair test. If we do this, and yet are not suc-cessful, we can at least have the satisfaction of knowing that we were not defeated on ac-count of our indifference. For fear we may be misunderstood, we wish to explain that no implication is made that we were not sufficiently well represented in the recent contest, but simply that more students should have entered the preliminaries, and es-pecially that there should be more next year. * * * ONCE more vacation is over and work is be-gun. Once more the records of the term's work have been received and commented on. Another term lies before us and its record is to | be made. Although good resolutions are pro-verbially broken, there is much in a good be-ginning. A good term's work must be good ill the beginning, the middle and the end ; good throughout. The duties of every day must be met and fulfilled. It does not pay to depend upon a fine examination to make up deficiencies in recitation. Examinations are uncertain at best ; there is no depending upon them, and the safest way is to let the tens in recitations make up for possible or probable deficiencies in examinations. It is very true that ambition to earn a fine grade is, in itself, a childish and a vain thing ; but, on the other | hand, why do students go to college? Sup-posably, at least, to get an .education. Hon-est work, regularly done, must be shown in I the grade ; the grade is not the measure of the man ; far from it. It is only a measure of one side of the man, but that side is not to be de-| spised. L. THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 18 THERE is something interesting in the study |of class spirit and college spirit. On the one band, no class is so wonderful as our own be-cause we belong to it. No college is quite the Isanie as ours because that is our Alma Mater. |On the other hand, we are important because ve belong to such or such a class, and we [sometimes base our reputation on "Old Penn-sylvania." Yet, what gives a reputation to the class or the college if not its individual I members ? We give a reputation to the col-lege ; the college can not give us ours. Its [diploma may give us a start, but how little the [sheepskin is worth unless there is something jto back it up. If we have a real regard for our college ; if we have real college spirit, we |will take care that when we say "I am from Pennsylvania College" she will not blush to jclaim us. There is college spirit and again, jthere is college spirit. One kind is mere [empty talk and the other is what makes the j institution flourish. L. THE LOVE OF FAME AMONG} COLLEGE STUDENTS. That the desire for recognition exists in our college students, no one who has had even a slight acquaintance with them will deny. To understand fully the reason of this desire, it is lecessary first to consider the ultimate cause jof the love of prominence among men in gen-leral, viz: society. It is impossible to imagine how an individ-ual, alone, without intercourse with his kind, could advance far beyond his pristine condi-tion. To the formation of organized commu-nities, inducing an interchange of ideas, the riction of mental activity, do we owe the first larked advances in intelligence. From these communities have sprung nations, wealth, civ-ilization, learning, sympathy, reverence for the moral law, the spirit of leadership. As a rule, small communities and great cities are extremes which meet and agree in this: there is little incentive to achievement. In the one there is nothing to seek after ; in the other, every place has a host of appli-cants, and one is lost in the multitude. The peculiarity of college society is this: a com-munity not large numerically, but in which each member, since embarked upon the same voyage and stimulated by the same kind of activity, wears an exaggerated importance. Scarcely does a young man arrive at college before inquiry is made concerning him, his ac-quaintance sought, and his measure taken. There springs up immediately the desire to be of some importance, to command the respect of one's fellows, to be the object, at some time, of those exuberant bursts of applause of which the college students are so prodigal, no mat-ter how slight the occasion. The young man who can come to college and not feel well up within him the desire to become known in some sphere of college activity; who can be content to remain uuesteemed, insignificant, must be totally wanting in those qualities which characterize every noble human soul. Such a young man, we may safely predict, can never amount to anything anywhere. Despite the number of colleges which have sprung up over the enlightened world within the last fifty years, a thorough education is by no means a common possession. We have not yet reached that happy period when by an equality of opportunity every one who desires may get an education; later still will be the time when all shall desire it. Therefore, the world bows respectfully to the college student, acknowledging his superiority, and the student has accepted the homage as his due. The student is right; it is remarkable what a change takes place in the earnest student ; his development is not one-sided but complete in body and mind. Even on his return to spend his first vacation, do the parents and friends notice that he has changed; his manners are more polished, his speech can be weighty. It is strange that learning is not more com-mon. True, all have not the opportunity, but the majority do not possess it for mere want of effort. Of all the sins for which we will some day be required to answer, this one sin of lazi-ness is the most heinous. Placed here to de- MHHi^BiM^B 19 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. velop ourselves to the utmost, to enlarge the capacities of the mind and spirit for useful-ness ; how infinitesimal are the attainments of the many, how utterly unworthy of their powers ! It is the line of cleavage which sep-arates the successful and respected man from the worshiping multitude. For this reason is the student regarded with interest and treated with deference. Again, the association with exceptional men tends to develop a love for fame. Before the young man enters college, he bows with the multitude in deference to the learning and wisdom of his elders. At college he meets these men under the intimate relation of teacher and scholar. They slowly instruct him, give him the results of their thought and expe-rience, advise him, and later on acknowledge the value of his opinion. To the well-trained youth this familiarity is productive of the greatest blessings; while still reasonably ac-knowledging their superiority, his indebtedness to them, there has been begotten in him a cer-tain necessary degree of independence of thought and action, which shrinks not to en-ter whatever portal invites entrance into the kingdom of truth. Now will he be seen boldly, yet modestly, seeking the acquaintance of men wiser than himself, not fearing to hear them and ask questions. Familiarity, in its better sense, with learned and prominent men is one of the most useful of attainments, simply be-cause, other things being equal, it fits us for the same station with them, and produces the desire to occupy the position for which we are thus fitted. But while society is the ultimate cause of the love for fame, and the peculiar society found at college "tends to develop it, yet our best students, they who derive the most from their college course, are those who come impelled by a desire to rise into a higher sphere than the one in which they have been bred, and fill the measure of their usefulness in their gener-ation. Many, it is only too well known, are sent to college by parents who desire to get rid of them, or make something of them, whereas the youths themselves are indifferent and sim-ply allow their parents to do with them as I they please. These seldom make the most of their opportunities, but are simply carried along by the urging of others, content if they can secure a few temporary and empty lion-1 ors at college, and an easy means of living | afterwards. These two classes are nearly co-extensive I with two other classes into which students | may be divided, with the love of fame asfund-ameiitum divisionis, viz : Those who aim at I future and permanent distinction, and those| who desire merely present and temporary recognition. It is noteworthy how many of I our students are poor ; their education, ability, and earnestness are the only guaranty they have of future success, and they strain every nerve to attain that position to which these | alone can bring them. James shows that we may divide men into I grades according as they are influenced by considerations near or remote. The higher man ascends in the scale of intellectuality, the more he is guided in his thoughts and conduct by reasons which are more removed from pres-ent gratification. Undoubtedly, he alone is a true • student who looks forward to future achievement. He who is concerned only for his reputation among his fellows now, whether | in scholarship, athletics, or any other sphere, can hardly be said to possess a love for famel in the higher sense. And there is reason for! this difference of inclination ; it is the result of I that difference between men of which we I spoke above. The future recognition held up I as a goal to be attained, is so far distant that it requires perseverance, courage, confidence I in one's ability, in the favor of God and good I judgment of man, to keep a young man fromj fainting. Only a heroic spirit, one ready tol make sacrifices, ready to endure disappoint-ments and buffets, can ever hope to attain the| wished for success. The difference between these two classes | may be easily recognized. Few are the stu-dents who are so wrapped up in the desire tol THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Iknow, that they wear out their lives, dry up [their very heart's blood in the pursuit of [knowledge. This is often decried ; for fear {that a young man may go too far, he is urged too much the other way, and in excessive care-fulness for his physical well-being loses inter-est iu the pursuit of truth. It is an indubit-able mark of a noble spirit to wear away itself nn the thirst for knowledge ; to feel the over- [powering sense of limitation, and in the desire |to get free from restraint to mount on eagle's pings into the blue empyrean. But we do lave many young men who, while taking care lof the body, yet encroach upon their sleep and jburn the midnight oil. Of course, there is |some risk ; it may in a few cases be carried to the extent of bodily debility, but as a rule a lealthy young man seldom suffers from study-ing till midnight. It is still true, as Eongfel- |low said : , The heights by great men reached and kept, Were not attained by sudden flight, But they, while their companions slept, Were toiling upwards in the night. iNever was there a time when success depended [so much upon extra work ; and the disposi-tion to do extra work is a characteristic of the imbitious and successful student. Probably the seekers after present distinc-tion are most easily recognized by their eager-aess for place while at college. It is marvel-lous how eager the least capable ones are to mold offices whether in the class, upon com- [mittees, or upon editorial boards. Athletics are a fruitful source of emulation. So luch is made of athletes, they are petted and courted, that to shine in athletics becomes lany a student's ideal, and the mirage carries aim away from those nobler pursuits and ngher aims which should alone dominate the pfe of a young man, especially of a student. Athletics have their proper place only when ^hey are regarded as of secondary importance. The difference in ideals manifests itself in the manners of their devotees. The earnest student usually is retiring, seldom demands recognition, does not obtrude his acquaintance, 3Ut lets his abilities speak for themselves. On the other hand, his opposite is bolder, more aggressive, more prompt to speak and act, seeking distinction among his fellow-students rather than the commendation of his instruc-tors. Here is one who seeks distinction as a base-ball, player, another seeks to shine as a singer, and so on as low as the aim to be known as a "sport" with a fine head of hair. Since youth, including the years spent at college is the formative period, the instructors may possess almost demiurgic power. This love for fame should be fanned and trained. Nothing makes study so pleasant, makes achievement so desirable, as a word of com-mendation. Our instructors owe a duty not to their scholars alone, but to the nation and world. Men look for great things from col-lege students, and society cannot afford to have those who possess the opportunity to educate themselves waste their abilities. Without the shadow of a doubt, the future of the world, its progress, its condition of freedom or of slavery, is in the hands of .its educated men. By all means then foster this love for fame, turn aside the inclinations from those objects which are not worth}' and enter them upon those paths which lead to greatness and use-fulness. G. F. A., '97. The Eslation of the Student to the Professor. The caption indicates that we have taken only the one part of an important question. The relation of the professor to the student we leave to be discussed by those to whom it be-longs. Therefore, whatever we say is from the student's point of view. When about to decide whether we shall at-tend one of the larger colleges, such as Har-vard or Yale, or some one of our smaller col-leges, such as our own, there is no stronger argument possible in favor of the smaller col-lege than that of the closer contact with the personality of the heads of the various depart-ments, afforded by them for their students. For it is in these institutions that the student may have the advantage of that peculiar trait— THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 1 the individuality of the teacher, whatever it may be, which distinguishes him from his fel-low man. Assuming that these chairs are filled by live and competent men, as there is no reason why they should not be, the student of such a college has at his disposal one of the greatest advantages offered by the best univer-sities of the day. It is the soul of the teacher that kindles the soul of the student ; and the nearer we can approach it the greater its in-fluence over us. The question is a grave one, and we fear that it must be answered negatively, whether the students of the smaller colleges recognize this opportunity. The conduct in our own college and that in others of a similar class seems to bear out the conclusion that they do not. Nor is it our purpose here to assign any reason for it that would take us beyond our subject. But it is only for us to say what, in our opin-ion, would be the proper deportment of the student in this particular relation. Is this ideal possible ? It is not an ideal ; but an actual possibility, a thing already real-ized by some, being realized by others and pos-sible for everyone. However, to accomplish this the student must see in his teacher a true friend, anxious to promote his welfare and better his condi-tion ; he must see in the subject pursued a means to some useful end ; and he must real-ize that his obligations to his teacher cannot be measured by money but are payable only by respect and gratitude, and that the careful and faithful prosecution of any subject will bring a return far greater than the time and energy spent on it. In short, the student must have his heart in his work. It is not so much his ability to learn as his love, which makes his relation to his professor a pleasant and a profit-able one. Let the student then love and re-spect the professor and be interested and de-voted to the subject studied and his deport-ment in this relation will not be far from right. "At the feet of Gamaliel," said Paul, speak-ing of his education, "Twas brought up." The very thought of one like Paul placing himself in such a position to his teacher ought at least arouse in us a profound respect and a | reverence for those who are our instructors. And so we find the best young men in the days I of Socrates willing to humble themselves be-fore him, despised and ridiculed by the leaders| of the city, in order that they might be in-spired by that same powerful influence which I distinguished Socrates from other men. The| objection may be made that we have no Gam-aliel and no Socrates these days ; but we have I those who are their peers ; for when was there ever such wonderful achievements in science as to-day, and when had the world ever a bet-ter knowledge of the classics than at present? The trouble is this : we are not looking for a Gamaliel or a Socrates, nor would they, if it were possible to'find them, be able to influence us even as much as some of our present teach-ers. For, sad as the fact is, a large number of | our students have developed a disposition al-most insensible to the most powerful influence I which the best teacher can exert. And what is this strange influence which deprives us of I our greatest privilege? Is it a thoughtlessj error, is it a legacy bequeathed to us by our predecessors, or is it pure indifference ? May it be hoped that it is one of the former, for the latter is worse than suicide, strange as it mayf seem. . Let it be what it may, it is the deadliest en-emy to the possible and complete efficiency of I our smaller colleges. Its presence in the class- \ room is as destructive as water in a powder I magazine. It forbids the instructor laying! aside the secondary matters in the class-room I and the concentrating of all the power and en-ergy of body and soul on the subject underI consideration. It refracts, distorts and almost! obliterates those rays of genius radiating from! the mature and master mind, which alone are! able to fire the dormant energies of the un-| tutored student. Will the students ot these institutions never | awaken to a proper appreciation of their owr interests and advantages until they are foreverl R0ffi> THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 22 lost ? Can generation after generation be nur-tured and sustained by a delusion? The life of an error may be long, but its death is cer-tain. So in this abuse which means so much to the success and life of the student a reform is inevitable. And may the time not be dis-tant when the students of these institutions shall again assume the proper relation to their instructors, and restore to these colleges in actual fact what is to-day only a cherished tra-dition. Let each student then ask himself these questions: How far have I unconsciously been led by this delusion ? What have I lost myself? What have I robbed others of? What is my duty? And let him be a man, who, when he knows his duty, has moral cour-age enough to do it. L., '98. OBJECTIONS TO STUDENT GOVERNMENT. In a recent number of the MERCURY there appeared quite an extended article on ' 'Stud-ent Government," in which mainly the de-sirable qualities were set forth. It may be of interest to those who are strongly advo-cating the system to give a moment's time to a few of the obstacles which will be in the way of the new system. But it may be added, however, that these hindrances are not of such a nature that they cannot be overcome. The main feature of this system of students' self-government, which had its origin at Am-herst College, is a student senate, the members of which are elected from the four classes by the entire student body. Just here is the first and greatest draw-back to the success of the system, viz., the election of the members of the senate. Among college students espec-ially, there are all classes and every tempera-ment. Among them can be found those who were "born with a silver spoon in their mouth," as also those born of the humblest parentage in the land ; those clothed in "soft clothing," who have all the luxuries and en-joyments that kind parents and wealth can give, and who consider it their great pleasure and privilege to deride and unsympathetically to embarrass their less (?) fortunate fellows, as well as those who wear plain yet neat attire and who, wholly unwilling to offend or dis-obey, put forth an honest endeavor to make the best of their great privilege, which has been bought with many years of hard manual labor. With such a difference the election of the members of the senate will always be one-sided. It will be a source of continual wrang-ling, and instead of uniting the student body it will only increase the ill-feeling among the different classes. Usually in setting forth the advantages and benefits of the system Amherst College is cited as an example to show that the system can be made successful. But here the senate ceased to act more than two years ago. It was not suppressed by action of the Faculty, but by the action of the students themselves it has been given up. And again the decisions of the senate are to be referred to the Faculty for approval or dis-approval. That the decisions of the senate will seldom if ever be reversed by the action of the Faculty is not quite so sure, since stu-dents are too much inclined to make their tasks as light as possible, whether it will be of most advantage to themselves or not. Measures have already been undertaken by the student body to induce the Faculty to yield to their de-sires, but in almost every instance nothing was gained thereby ; and it may be added that in many cases it would have been folly to grant the requests. Often the poor plea is made that under the present system the students' truth and honor receive so little recognition that there is very little occasion, if any, to preserve them. But certainly there is none whatever for breaking them. Can the Faculty be ex-pected to trust the students in the new system if they are unfaithful in the present ? Only he that is faithful in the least will be faithful in that which is greater. Our worthy president has given the students full opportunity to 23 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. prove themselves obedient and trustworthy. Has the recent attitude of the students been such as to warrant his full confidence in them ? If students' truth and honor are sacred enough to be kept in the greater are they any less sacred in the less ? Only he that is faithful in a few things will be made ruler over many. Gold is tried in the fire to test its quality. Only where the students are mature, manly and morally thoughtful, does such a system have any decided advantages. N. "TO THALIARCHUS. Behold the snow-clad mountains, and observe The force of frigid Boreas' driving sleet O'er all the landscape ; then divert Thy gaze into the forest where the trees Labor 'neath the burden of the snows. The river, too, is frozen, and instead Of sparkling liquid surface, which beneath The sun and moon doth oft transparent seem Thou seest a stream congealed, upon which oft The maiden and the youth in pleasure glide Upon the crystal ice. But coldness, too. Within my dismal chamber reigns supreme ; And bids thee, Thaliarchus, forth to bring The wood from its receptacle to feed The dying embers and thaw the nipping cold. Then bring forth,Jrom Sabiuejars, the ruddy Vine-juice, four mellowing summers old, 'twill cheer The dull despondent mind, and cause the soul To live in pleasure To the gods resign Whatever else there be ; for unto them The winds pay tribute ; quick at their command They cease to war on oceans or among The ash and cypress trees. In thought be young ; Nor think of doubtful future ; and when days Are in succession on thy life bestowed. Count them as favors worthy to commend. Despise not youthful loves, nor yet refuse To dance, to court, to love as long as age Withholds its grip from thee. Skip to the park And meet the girls; then through green lanes and pleas-ant walks. Where merry laughs betray them, let thy steps Conduct thee ; nor forget the whispered word Which often in their bosom does inspire Responsive love. Think of how the ring "Upon her dainty finger will attest And prove thy plighted love ; then think of how The bashful maiden will approve and smile, And, by an anxious look, ask for the day J. H. K./99. COLLEGE LOCALS. GKAYSON Z. STUP and ROBBIX B. WOLF, Editors. At last it came—the snow. In spite of all the vain wishes for a good sleighing snow dur-ing the Christmas holidays and the earlier part of last term it came not until all hopes were buried in the final work of the term. But just as the boys were getting ready for base ball and the campus walks fit to be trodden upon, along came the snow and spread a white cover-ing of about eighteen inches over our part of the earth. Then buried hopes revived and merry sleigh bells announced that the boys were making the most of the occasion. Not only sleighing but all the other features of winter sports were seen—snow ball fights, broken windows,' smashed hats and umbrellas. Then ye pestiferous town boys got in their licks. But they were soon careful enough at whom they fired, after one, a Senior, nick-named Eddie, displayed his foot-ball courage and skill. In the language of Eddie, "They were cooled." We all gloried in the lesson thus given. It is a shame that students can-not wear decent hats up town, nor use their umbrellas without some lawless pests pelting them with snowballs. It went too far and the boys can take care of themselves if necessary. With the great fall of snow came the cor-responding amount of mud, and now, though the campus walks are being constantly im-proved, we shall have to tread muddy paths until April showers shall be dispelled by May sunshine. Vacation gave us a chance to prac-tise on country roads and other places. We were peculiarly unfortunate in the latter part of the term in our entertainments. The last of the Y. M. C. A. course was postponed once, because of a failure to get Dr. Willitts, and finally by the sickness of Representative Howard. The lecture will be given this term, and if possible Dr. Willitts will be procured. The Sons of Hercules were equally disap-pointed by the inclement weather. The ex-hibition was postponed twice on account of the drifting snow. They were in good con-dition to give a first-class entertainment. But they have decided to give it early in the term and hope to do better than they would have clone before. There are thirteen in the crowd and every one has some specialties. The work on the mats and in pyramids will be especially good. It is encouraging to find so many tak-ing an interest in these manly contests. What is better than a sound mind in a sound body? In spite of the falling snow on Wednesday, March n, the Senior dinner, given by the President to the class, came off and was a suc-cess in every particular. The boys were afraid a chill would be put upon it by the blizzard, 111 e n 6 .; r( K lii ■1! it] ai ; •s. til 'CM x !ei Jut Kill ■ '' tain Tun tot: wa\ you THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 24 It when iu the genial presence of our host forgot the storm without. The dinner be-lli about 8.30 P. M., and every member of [6 was present. The affair was unique in §tny ways. The class, as a whole, was at- ■red in evening dress, and made a good ap pearance around the convivial board. The dinner was very tastefully served, in six R)iirses. The table was beautifully decorated With roses and evergreens. ■ At each one's place was a white carnation, and a card bear-ing his name, tied with a bow of the class col- H-s. After partaking of the .sumptuous ban-quet, the following toasts were responded to. ■Our Host' and Hostess," Ship ; "Ninety-six in Athletics," Moser ; "Our Sports," Menges ; "The Faculty," Reitzell ; "Our Future," Rice. Then Toastmaster Eisenhart called upon the Doctor to give his impressions of '96. It w:as then that we learned for a cer-tainty of his intention to leave the college in Tune. He spoke very tenderly of his relations to us as a class, and said that he would be al-ways interested in us as his youngest boys and youngest girl. We feel very sorry to know that the Doctor is going to leave. We also feel that we are quite fortunate in being al-lowed to sit at his feet and receive instruction. His generous hospitality to the class endeared us still more to him, and we shall often refer, in talking over reminiscences, to our days spent with Dr. McKnight. The dinner was a very pleasant occasion, and in the future when we shall look back over the dim past it will be an especially bright one among the many happy clays we spent together in '96. I The musical organizations have been doing faithful practice during the past term, and if it is kept up during this one, there is no doubt but that the commencement concert will be Rry good. I Now is the time for out-door sports. Every fellow who can play base ball ought to be out trying for the team. Let us get up an in-vincible one and have some exciting games on our new field. Tennis, too, should be made a great deal of. We want good contests, and, if possible, track athletics at commencement. I The fourth annual contest of the Pennsyl-vania Intercollegiate Oratorical Union was held at Swarthmore on Friday, March 20th, in the presence of a large audience. Swarthmore ffiad spared no efforts to make the contest a Success, and it was undoubtedly the best yet held. - The colleges represented, the contestants and their subjects were as follows: Swarth-more, F. Grant Blair, "The Function of His-tory; " Muhlenberg, John F. Kramlech, "Liberty and Revolution;" Franklin and Marshall, S. H. Stein, "Education Obliga-tory;" Lehigh, Ross N. Hood, "The Pre-server of Religious Liberty;" Lafayette, Ellis H. Custard, "What will Europe Say?" Ursinus, A. C. Thompson, "The Revival of American Patriotism;" Gettysburg, I. O. Moser, "Lafayette, a Champion of Liberty." The judges of the contest were Dr. J. Max Hark, President of the Moravian Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa.; Professor George Bible, Prin-cipal of the State Normal School, Strouds-burg, Pa., and Rev. Luther S. Black, of Get-tysburg, who awarded the first prize of twenty-five dollars to Swarthmore and the second of fifteen dollars to Muhlenberg. Who said that Eddie did not own college on Thursday evening, March 19th? The Fresh-men looked upon him with a holy awe, and wondered if they could acquire such bravery by playing foot-ball. No doubt we shall have a strong team next fall. J. S., '99' has a great desire for ladies' rings. Some time ago he received one, after assurance that he would not lose it or be un-true to the owner. Now he is in quite a pre-dicament, for he has either lost it or given it to another girl. But he has overcome all dif-ficulties by buying another and asking her to keep quiet about it. H., '99—"Do you know what you are? " S., '99—"I am in bed." He must have been in that semi-conscious condition which psychologists say we are when we are enter-ing the realms of sleep. If anybody is looking for trouble he wants to call around to fourth floor. West Div. There he will find F., '98, ready to settle all disputes. All that cannot be amicably settled will be mended as well as possible with the fist. E., '99, has a very flattering opinion of him-self. The other day he said that he would go with whatsoever girl he pleased, and stay as long as he wished. In that case I guess the girl doesn't have much to say. K., '99, said that Mercury's mother was Jupiter. Mythology must be revised. Mr. S., '97, who was playfully invited by a 25 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. lady to take a ride on a child's bicycle, said, in his dignified air: "Indeed, I would, but I'm afraid it would lower my humility." Z. '98, in English Bible, said that they were going to concentrate the spoils of war. F. '98, said that the Caspian Sea is south of Palestine. Mr. A., '97 (returning from a sleigh'ride). "I didn't get to Two Taverns." S. '99. "I suppose one tavern settled you." H., '99. "This Lutheran Quarterly costs pretty much." S.'i '99 (Looking at the price). " 'Tis rather steep." H. "Why, one copy alone costs seventy-five cents." S., '99- "More than that, there are only three quarters in a year." The Phrena reading room is completed and ready for use. It is quite an improvement over the former room. Both the Philo and Phrena reading rooms are now in first-class condition and the boys, whether members or not, should take care of them and keep them in good order. The popular electives for the spring term are Baseballology and Tenni(y)s-on. Never did the boys feel happier over the ap-proach of vacation than last term. The term was a long, dreary one, and the lessons were hard and kept the boys studying hard. There were no out-door sports, and gym. work is not very refreshing to young men accustomed to play foot-ball, base-ball, etc. All however look forward to this term with pleasure. It will be only ten weeks long, and will be at-tended with all the joys of spring and summer. Don't fail to attend the exhibition to be given in the gymnasium by the "Sons of Hercules." Go both for the merits of the ex-hibition and because the proceeds are for the benefit of the Athletic Association. We are sorry to hear that one of Dr. Nixon's brothers died during the vacation. The MERCURY extends heartfelt sympathy to him in his bereavement. The Pennsylvania College Alumni Associa-tion of Western Pennsylvania will hold their annual meeting and banquet at Pittsburg, on May 5th. The annual Pen-Mar Lutheran re-union will be held Thursday, July 23rd. Y. M. C. A. NOTES. At the final business meeting of last teniij March 26th, the following officers were elected! for the ensuing year : President, G. F. Abelf Vice President, R. W. Woods ; Corresponding! Secretary, E. W. Meisenhelder; Recording Secretary, A. M. Stamets ; Treasurer, C. J.l Fite; Reporter, W. R. Stahl ; Organist, W,| C. Spayde. The schedule for the term has been preparedl and can be obtained from members of the De| votional Committee. ALUWINI. H. D. SHIMER AND H. W. BIKLE, Editors. '41. Col. C. H. Buehler died on March 24th! at his home in Gettysburg, Pa. He had beeil for many years a Trustee of Pennsylvania Colj lege. '53. Rev. Peter Begstresser, D. D., has book in press entitled "Baptism and Feet! washing." '57. Rev. H. L. Baugher, D. D., Presideul of the General Synod, will preach the baccaj laureate sermon for Irving College, Mechanics] burg, Pa. '57. Rev. L. A. Gotwald, D. D., of Wit| tenberg Theological Seminary, we are please to learn, has rallied from a recent relapse and] is enjoying about the same degree of strengtt| as before. '57. Rev. D. M. Gilbert, of Harrisburgl Pa., was in Gettysburg on Mar. 26th to atj tend the funeral of Col C. H. Buehler. '62. Rev. M. L. Culler is having success; pastor at Apollo, Pa. During the summd about $1200 are to be expended on the churclj building of his charge. '64. Geo. M. Beltzhoover, whose son wasd member of the class of '97, is very much in| terested in Gettysburg College. He writes tj the MERCURY, and wishes to be' rememberei kindly to all his college friends. '69. Rev. G. F. Behringer, of the class ol '69 till the end of the Junior year, has a verf interesting article in the April Lni/if/ui Quarterly on Luther's pecuniary resources dull ing the Reformation, and the way heexpendef his income. '70. F. J. Kooser, Esq., carried his count!! MMM THK COLLEGE MERCURY. 26 (Somerset) by a majority of 1300 at the Re-publican primary election for Congressman from that district. '73. In looking over the Lutheran Woild for April 2, 1896, we found the portrait of Rev. W. S. Freas, D. D., president of the Board of Church Extension, York, Pa. '73. Rev. L. L- Sieber recently closed a series of meetings in St. John's Church, Steel-ton, Pa., which resulted in the conversion of some seventy persons. '74. Rev. F. W. Staley is a very energetic and successful minister at Middletown, Pa. During his pastorate at that place his good in-fluence ha3 been felt, not only in his congre-gation, but also in the town. '74. Dr. Geo. E. Titus writes to us from his home in Hightstown, N. J., that he is well and prospering, and extends a cordial invita-tion to his classmates and college-mates to visit him whenever convenient. He has not lost interest in them, or in the old college at Gettysburg, and does not wish any one to think that he has. '76. Rev. Geo. C. Henry has not lost inter-est in his class. In his last letter to us he writes: "I am hoping 'only that and nothing more' as yet, for a reunion of '76 at Gettys-burg this summer." '77. Rev. H. B. Wile has been pastor of the First Lutheran church, Carlisle, Pa., for ten years. During that time he has done a very encouraging work. '77. Rev. William M. Bamn, Jr., recently celebrated the thirteenth anniversary of his pastorate at Canajoharie. '78. Rev. A. R. Glaze was recently elected pastor at Maple Hill, Lycoming county, Pa., and has accepted the call to begin work April 5th. '80. Rev. G. W. McSherry, pastor of the Lutheran church atTaneytown, Md., preached his farewell sermon on Sunday, March 22d. '80. David McConaughy, of Madras, India, spent a short time in Gettysburg during last month. '83. Gov. Drake, of Iowa, lately sent to the Senate the appointment of Luther A. Brewer to be State Oil Inspector. The Senate in ex-ecutive session confirmed the appointment. '83. R. M. Linton, editor of the Somerset Democrat, delivered an address before the Pio-neer Lodge, K. of P., at Meyersdale, on the occasion of their fifteenth anniversary, March 25th. '83. Rev. H. L. Yarger, the efficient col-league of Rev. Weber in the Church Exten-sion work is doing excellent service as an evangelist among the western frontier mis-sions. '84. Rev. L. M. Zimmerman is a very en-ergetic minister of Baltimore, Md. He has lately prepared a series of "Stray Arrows," in the form of small cards, attractively printed, in several colors, for use among the discouraged, bereaved, convicted, etc. '86. Rev. W. F. Berger has been called from Camden, N. J., to Fairmount, Ind. '87. James S. Croll was in Gettysburg for a few days in the early part of March. '88. Rev. J. Milton Francis is now in Columbia City, Ind. Rev. Francis thinks that the MERCURY is a good tonic for his "home-sickness" out in that Wittenberg territory. '89. Rev. R. F. Fetterolf was installed as pastor of St. Paul's church of Millersburg, Pa., on Sunday, March 8. '90. We are glad to learn that Rev. L .T Snyder, of Orrstown, Pa., is getting along well, and doing good work. '91. Rev. M. L. Tate was married Thurs-day, March 12, to Miss Florence Heisler, of Harrisburg. Rev. Tate has just accepted a call to Millersville, Pa. '91. Prof. E. J. Wolf is the most popular Principal the schools of his native town ever have had. At the recent election for city councilmen he was elected to that body, re-ceiving the highest vote cast for any one on the ticket. '92. Rev. C. G. Bikle has changed his ad-dress from Hagerstowu, Md., to Glen Gardner, N. J. '92. E. W. Herman writes to the MERCURY from Annapolis, Md. We appreciate the kind interest he still has in our college paper, as well as in the college. '92. Rev. G. A. Getty has changed his ad-dress from Baltimore, Md., to East Schodock, N. Y. '93. Walter S. Oberholtzer has been seri-ously ill for some time. We are glad to re- ■■■■■■ THE COLLEGE MERCURY. port that he is getting very much better, and hopes to be out again in the near future. '93. William J. Gies is co-editor with Prof. Chittenden, of a biological magazine, recently established at Yale University. '93. Rev. Geo. Beiswanger, pastor of Cal-vary church, Baltimore, Md., is doing a noble work. The congregation was organized Sept. 22, 1895, with forty-six members, and one week later the Sunday school was organized with eighty-five scholars and teachers. There are now fifty-nine members of the congrega-tion, with a Sunday school of one hundred and eighty. The congregation recently purchased the lot on which the chapel is located for $4,000. The MERCURY extends to him its best wishes. '93. Rev. F. Hilton has accepted a call to Martin's Creek, Pa. He will begin his work at that place, some time in June. '94. C. F. Kloss is very much interested in Gettysburg College, and has paid us several visits this year. '95. Ivan L. Hoff is pursuing law at West-minster. '95. H. W. Shinier expects to take up a course of study in some western university next fall. '89. The success of Rev. J. F. Seibert in the organization of a church at Sedalia, Mo., is a source of much gratification to his friends. ■ During the recent meeting of the Kansas Synod an impromptu alumni banquet was held after one of the evening sessions. Those par-ticipating were Rev. H. L. Yarger, '83; J. N. Lentz, '84; J. F. Seibert, '89, and R. B. Wolf, '9i. ATHLETICS. WILLIAM E. WHEELER, Editor. The base-ball team and its prospects have been the principal topic of conversation since the opening of the term on April 7th. Some difficulty has been met and overcome, result-ing from the fact that several of the best ap-plicants have not permission to play. At this late date other players have been substituted and at the practice games during the past week, have shown up very well. A little weakness is noticeable in the infield, but this will be remedied by the time for the first game on April 17th, with Washington and Jefferson College. A good game is expected as both teams are about evenly matched, and this be-ing W. and J.'s first game at Gettysburg, each team will put forth every effort to win. Cap-tain Leisenring has the team out on the field each evening for practice and considerable anxiety is manifested as to the showing of the team. The field is being put in fine condition. The fence and backstop are being strengthened and the field rolled. The Athletic Association desired to enter the relay races to be held at Franklin Field,U. of P. on April 25th. A team composed of four of our best runners will represent us, and it is hoped that Gettysburg will make a good show-ing. Teams from the best colleges in the country will compete, and some surprises are looked for. Our team has been running daily, and the men are in fine condition for the race. This part of our athletics has not received the attention it should during the past, and the in-terest now manifested shows that the possibili-ties of a good track team are the very best. Tennis will soon become the leading event along a lighter athletic line. All the courts are being put in good condition, and several new ones are in course of forming and leveling. Manager Lark is now busy securing entries for the tournament, which will be held during the latter part of the term. These tournaments have always been a means of bringing out the best men and, at the same time, developed new ones. On the whole this season's work will without doubt be the best. Owing to a deficiency in the treasury of the association a plan was devised by several of the members by which money can and is be-ing laised. Weekly contributions, no matter how small, are paid by each college man. A man from each class makes these collections, and by the end of the term enough money will have been secured to place the association upon a sound financial basis. A new era is undoubt-edly dawning here along athletic lines, and from the interest taken in all measures to further the athletic spirit, there is no doubt that Gettysburg will be heard from oftener in athletic circles than ever before. "Prep" is filled with the athletic spirit to the extent that a base-ball team has been or-ganized, which promises to be an exception-ally strong one. Dates with other teams will be arranged if permission is obtained. Al-ready the prospects of a Prep track team and THIS COLLEGE MERCURY. 28 foot-ball eleven are being discussed. This is the true athletic spirit and speaks well for the [future college team. The exhibition which was to have been [given by the Sons of Hercules last term was : postponed, on account of the inclement weather, 1 to this term. A definite date has not yet been decided upon, but it will be given within the next few weeks. At a recent indoor contest, Grazier, '98, I broke the college record for the standing broad jump, making 10 feet 3^ inches. The interest manifested in cricket at Haver- I ford is shown by the contemplation of sending a team abroad this summer to compete with [the English public schools. A new feature of Harvard's foot-ball prac-tice will be inaugurated next fall. The eleven will line up for actual play but three times I a week, alternate days being given to some light form of exercise as different from actual [foot-ball as can be devised. Yale will send a crew abroad this summer to I enter in the Henley regatta which will be held |'on July 7, 8 and 9. T. Conneff, the champion mile runner of the world, has entered Holy Cross College. There are 230 men in training for Harvard's I track team. The University of Chicago will send a team feast this spring, and games have been ar-ranged with Yale, Princeton, Harvard, U. of 1. and others. FRATERNITY NOTES. PHI KAPPA PSI. ^ R. M. Culler, '98, visited Carlisle Indian School recently. L. P. Eiseuhart, '96, represents our chapter fat the Grand Arch Council, now in session at Cleveland, Ohio. F. M. KefFer, '95, also ex-pects to be in attendance. L. S. Weaver, '99, spent the vacation very pleasantly at Washington, D. C. E. C. Stiteley, '92, is studying law at the University of Maryland. C. T. Eark, '98, spent a day in Mechanics-burg, Pa., at the close of last term. PHI GAMMA DELTA. Bro. Neudewitz preached in Brooklyn on the morning of March 29th, and in St. John's Church, New York, in the evening of the same day. He also assisted his pastor in commun-ion on April 3rd. Bro. M. E. Young, Ph. D., had an article in the April number of the Reformed Quarteily Review on the subject, "Preaching Christ— the Theme and the Times." Bro. Fite visited Bro. H. L. Stahler at his home, at Norristown, for a few days during vacation, and with him spent a short time in Philadelphia and New York Bro. Baum reports a very pleasant time with friends in Harrisburg on his way back to col-lege. PHI DELTA THETA. W. G. Souders, Pa. Epsilon, Dickinson Col-lege, paid the chapter a visit the beginning of the term. G. W. McSherry has resigned the pastorate of the Lutheran Church, at Taneytown, Md. J. N. Lentz and R. B. WTolf are the Execu-tive Committee of the Luther League, of Kansas. E. J. Wolf is a candidate for Superintendent of the Public Schools of Centre county. Frank Barndt has been compelled to give up his studies at the University of Pennsylvania on account of his health. ALPHA TAU OMEGA. Charles B. Erb, '97, and William E. Wheeler, '97, were initiated into the Frater-nity March 14th. Charles W. Spayde, '99, spent part of his Easter vacation in Philadelphia. TOWN AND SEWJINARY NOTES. WEBSTER C SPAYDE, Editor. TOWN. A bill was introduced in the Maryland Legislature recently for the consolidation of the four electric companies that have secured the privilege of conducting lines between Bal-timore and Washington. The move for con-solidation is said to be part of the scheme for 29 THE COLLEGE MERCURY. the construction of an electric railroad system from Washington through Baltimore to West-minster, over the Blue Ridge, to the Cumber-land Valley and Gettysburg. Widener, El-kins and other capitalists interested in rail-ways are said to be connected with the pro-ject. Paul L. Levin, of Philadelphia, representing the Daughters of the American Revolution, was in Carlisle several weeks ago seeking per-mission to remove the body of Mollie Pitcher, which is buried there, to the Gettysburg battle field, where it is proposed to erect an expen-sive monument to her memory. Senator Cullom, of Illinois, introduced a bill on Friday, March 13th, appropriating $50,000 to the erection of a statue to Abraham Lincoln on the' battlefield at Gettysburg. The Secretary of War is authorized to con-tract for the erection of this statue, after a de-sign for the same and a suitable site on the battlefield have been selected. The selection of the design is entrusted to the Secretary of War, the commander-in-chief of the Army, the commander-in-chiefof the Grand Army of the Republic, and the Governor of Pennsylvania. In speaking of this bill, Senator Cullom stated that he thought there was no spot more suitable for a statue of the martyred President than Gettysburg. Rev. Dr. H. W. McKnight preached in Messiah Lutheran Church, Harrisburg, on Sunday morning, March 29th. It is said that the United States Battlefield Commission has notified the Gettysburg Elec-tric Railway that it holds no title to a part of the land on which its tracks are laid. A new route will have to be constructed, and the road may not be operated this summer. Mrs. Sarah Tawney-Robson will give an en-tertainment in Brua Chapel, "Angels, or the * Actress of Padua," a four-act play, by Hugo, under the auspices of the students of the Semi-nary, on April 16th. SEMINARY. On Thursday evening, April 2d, W. I. Red-cay preached at Watsontown, Pa. Rev. F. Hilton was assisting at the Cold Springs mission on Easter. Rev. J. M. Guss preached at Duncaunon, Pa., on Easter. Rev. H. E. Clare preached for his father, Rev. R. H. Clare, Abbottstowu, Pa., Sunday, March 29th. Rev. A. A. Kelly filled the pulpit of the Trindall Springs church, Mechanicsburg, Pa., on Easter. He confirmed 43 members. Rev. M. G. Richards preached at Round- Top, Sunday, March 29th. The Rev. Dr. Charles William Schaeffer, chairman of the faculty of the Lutheran Theo-logical Seminary at Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, died at his home in Germantown on Sunday, March 15th, from heart disease. He was born in Hagerstown May 5, 1813. He studied theology at the Seminary in this place, gradu-ating in 1835. During his life he was presi-dent of the General Synod and also of the general Council of the Lutheran church. For a number of years he was a trustee of the col-lege. Rev. W. F. Bare, of York, has been elected pastor of St. Mark's Lutheran church, Steel-ton, Pa. A committee of the West Pennsylvania Synod, appointed at its last session, to devise means for the liquidation of indebtedness of the Theological Seminary at Gettysburg, met recently in York. The members of this com-mittee are: Revs. W. S. Freas, D. D.; A. G. Fastuacht, D. D., of York; H. L. Baugher, D. D., of Gettysburg; D. T. Koser, of Arendtsville; Chas. M. Stock, of Hanover; Messrs. J. Burr Reddig, of Shippensburg, and J. L. Shelly, Mechanicsburg. A plan for the procuring of the necessary means was sub-mitted by Dr. W. S. Freas and after some dis-cussion it was adopted. The plan will be put into operation at once and it is believed will be very successful. The four speakers selected by the faculty from the graduating class of Gettysburg Semi-nary for Commencement day exercises to be held June 4, are: Revs. H. B. Stock, Car-lisle; M. J. Kline, Frederick, Md.; C. P. Wiles, Thurmont, Md., and J. T. Huddle, of Virginia. The graduating class consists of 23 members. Rev. A. J. Rudisill assisted Rev. Marion J. Kline in the Easter service at the Tabernacle church, Harrisburg, on Sunday, April 5th. Rev. E. H. Delk, of Hagerstown, will de-liver the annual address to the C. E. Society of Irving College, Mechanicsburg, on Sunday evening, June 7, and make the address before THE COLLEGE MERCURY. 30 fthe students, faculty and friends on Saturday [evening, June 6. [ Rev. A. R. Longanecker supplied the Shen-indoah charge, Virginia, on Easter. We are glad to hear that Rev. W. S. Ober-loltzer is convalescing. LITERARY SOCIETIES. EDNA M. LOOMIS, Editor. PHILO. The following members were initiated into Philo Society on Friday, March 13th : Albers, [99; Beerits, '99; De Yoe/'gg; C. H. Smith, [99; Weaver, '99. The Senior valedictory program will be jiven on Friday evening, April 17th. PHRENA. The reading room is now ready for use. It las been entirely remodeled, and presents a irery beautiful and attractive appearance. The bid carpet has been removed and the floor ptained. Wainscoting several feet in height aas been placed around the whole room. Ar-rangements have been made for better lighting ijy the introduction of Welsbach burners. With |he present system of arranging papers and periodicals, we think the reading room must Irove itself a very desirable and profitable place to the students. Phrena will render a special program in ibout two weeks. EXCHANGES. We are very sorry we have been unable to pay the attention to our exchanges which they deserve. We receive a large number of excel-lent journals, and enjoy reading them very luch, but want of both space and time pre-sents us from giving notices to even a limited lumber. We will try, however, to do so vhenever we are able, assuring all our ex-changes that they are highly appreciated. The Dickinsonian for March contains an _ litorial which strongly advocates the teach-ing of hypnotism in the regular curriculum. Another new exchange of considerable merit Is the Metceisburg Monthly, published at Mer-cersburg College. Among our new exchanges is the Holy Ghost College Bulletin, published by the stud-ents of Holy Ghost College, a Catholic insti-tution, located at Pittsburg. The article on Napoleon Bonaparte, which has been running in the College Student for several issues, strikes one as being just a little "heav5r" for a college paper. We have recently received a copy of the Waste Basket, a paper published monthly at Detroit, Mich. It is made up of contributions from writers who aim at journalistic work, but who do not yet show sufficient literary merit to have their articles accepted by the better mag-zines. The first number of the Orange and White has come to us from York Collegiate Institute. . If it is kept up to the standard of the initial number, the students of the Iustitue may feel well satisfied with their endeavor. The Wittcnberger of March 24th contains an excellent sketch of Pennsylvania College, by Prof. G. D. Stahley. WHAT HAVE I DONE? [Julie M. Lippmann, in The Sunday .School Times of April II, 1896.I Day after da}' Heaven, listening, hears men cry : "What have I done that such a fate as this Should follow me? What have I done amiss That clouds of Care should darken all my sky? That Pain should pierce, and that shrewd Poverty Should pinch me in that grievous grip of his, What time I tremble over the abyss, And long for death, yet, longing, dare not die? But when does Heaven, listening, hear men saj': "What have I done that in the blue-domed skies The evening star should shine, the spring clouds move, The world be white with innocence, that May Has set afield, and God in children's eyes, To win our hearts to wonder at his love?" NEATNESS. Without her leave he stole a kiss ; He did. Oh ! bliss ! A sharp command was promptly his, "Just put that back," I tell you this, "Where it belongs," spoke haughty miss. He did. Oh ! bliss. 3' THE COLLEGE MERCURY. Once a Freshman was wrecked on an African (70LLBGB OF coast, Where a cannibal monarch held sway ; And they served up the Freshman in slices on toast, On the eve of that very same day. But the vengeance of heaven followed swift on the act, And before the next moon was seen, By cholera morbus that tribe was attacked, For that Freshman was dreadfully green. PHYSICIANS i SURGEONS, 'Hast thou a lover," asked he, "Oh maiden of the Rhine?" She blushed in sweet confusion And softly faltered "Nein." He felt rebuffed, and knew not What best to say, and then A sudden thought came to him He pleaded, "Make it ten." THE EDITOR. The editor sat in his sanctum Letting his lessons rip, Racking his brains for an item, And stealing all he could clip. The editor sat in his class room As if he was getting over a drunk, His phiz was clouded with awful gloom For he had made a total flunk. His love, he said, was like the sea ; The maiden answered quick, She thought that he was right in that, Because it made her sick. Parvus Jacobus Horner Sedebat in corner, Edeus Christmas pie. Inserint thumb Extraxit plumb Clamarit, qui puer am I. The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Balti-1 more, Maryland, is a well-equipped school. Four ses-sions are required for graduation. For full informa-tion send for the annual catalogue, or write to THOMAS OPIE, M. D., Bean, Cor. Calvert and Saratoga Sts. c_£=aEstablished l8y6.t^r-^ WATCHMAKER AND JEWELER, Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, College Souvenir Spoons, | No. 10 Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PENN'A. WEIW 111 riowii& DEALERS IN Fresh Beef, Yeal, Lamb, Pork, Pudding, Sausage, HAMS, LARD, &c-., GETTYSBURG, F>E!MIM'A. ADVERTISEMENTS. YOU CAN EARX 840 TO $100 MONTHLY AND EXPENSES IF YOU WORK FOR THE NURSERY CO. Stock sold with a guarantee and replaced. [DURING VACATION GO TO CHAUTAUQUA F~F? ElE FULL INSTRUCTIONS. NO EXPERIENCE REQUIRED. H. B. WILLIAMS, Secretary, Geneva, N. Y. The Athletic Association of the Univercity of Pennsylvania n. LAU5S.V-- (acram. 'n c OIO. WHARTON PEPPER. ■»; C. JOHH NULL, 'n C PffiLADELrnu Mar* -7th, 189$ Messrs A. G. Spalding & Bi*0* 12IC Chestnut Stre«t Philada. Gentlemen: - I take pleasure in informing you that the Athletle Association of the University of Pennsylvania has again awarded you the contract for furnishing the Uniforms etc., for the base ball team during the coming season of 1896, at the prices and upbft the terms and conditions set forth in your estimate of Feb. 5th. The quality of the goods*furnished the base ball team and the prompt-manner in which you filled our orders wore entirely satisfactory last year and we therefore confidently renew our contract with you this season. Yours truly ^^-—J csh$£zU ~R.$H.$RE1NINGER,~ MERCHANT TAILOR. fIr?g tot Work at % Lowest fWces. Suits from $12,01 to {40,00. Pants from $4,00 to $12,00, Centre tSqixai-e.tiS^D NEXT DOOF{ TO POST OFFICE, UPSTAIRS. J. A. TAWNEY Is ready to furnish clubs and boarding houses BREAD, ROLLS, J) No. 6 S. Baltimore Street, GETTYSBURG, PA^ por all the lalesl styles in Suitings andTrousers, AND FULL LINE OF Gents' Furnishing Coods,| Call or, T). H. WELSH, York, F=a.
The article by Chantal Medici that opens this issue of the magazine discusses critical contributions to the conventional theory of collective action inherited from the works seminars of Charles Tilly and the assumption of the sharpness of a hypothetical boundary between the public and the private, grouping them into three types of approach: those that emphasize the institutional activism of the State, those that do it in the construction of networks or communities of political attention and those that give special to the public / private articulation in the construction of the problem and in its implementation. Revised contributions are connected with a variety of approaches from Political Science, in particular the thesis of Lindblom on the relationship between states and markets in policymaking public, Migdal's statement about "the State in society" or, in our America, the Carlos Matus' theory on the complexity of the social game. Sofya Surtayeva's text shows the strategic role of the State in gestation and development of a public policy in a highly complex matter, in a country on the semi-periphery of the capitalism. Almost two decades ago our compatriot Hugo Notcheff demonstrated the close linking the dependent character of Argentine capitalism and the consequent fragility of science and technology policy, with the guidance of the economic leadership towards the appreciation of its capital by means of obtaining extraordinary profits from the exploitation of natural resources, the availability of cheap labor and the obtaining of subsidies and other state-owned, much more than the stimulus to innovation technological scientist and a policy aimed at its development. The corollary is a modernization of the economy based on the importation of innovations from the central economies, favored by close integration with foreign capital, with an effect on the fragility of scientific and technological development policies and the preservation of dependency. Taking as a common thread the role of the National Atomic Energy Commission in the development of nanotechnology the author shows the peculiarities of a process of innovation in a double facet: the promotion of an area of knowledge and the promotion by the CNEA of its own approach more akin to a sustainable development strategy and greater national autonomy. The article also provides a detailed approach to plurality of actors and interests, the relevance of leadership in the definition of politics and the gravitation of all this in the scientific-technological development and the insertion in the subject and the gravitation of the different possible responses in the insertion of Argentina in the global system. In this line of elaboration, Mariano Gil describes the public policies implemented in the province of Santa Fe to address problematic substance use. His work highlights the various public, private and community actors that intervene with unequal effectiveness in the construction of the problem, the incidence of that construction in the actions and organisms that will have to face it, the modifications that the adopted policy undergoes as it is being implemented and that same implementation introduces changes in the settings, in the subjects to whom it is addressed, in the state apparatuses and in the agents who are in charge of implementation. Bureaucrats, political decision-makers, non-governmental organizations, families, public security organizations, professionals and health technicians make up a wide range of subjects that intervene in the management of politics. For his part Miguel Alfredo and Pablo Granovsky deal with two experiences of training centers professional within the framework of actors that intervene at the intersection between education policies, labor policies and categorical organizations: the management cases of professional training policies of the UOCRA (Unión Obrera de la Construcción of the Argentine Republic) and the SMATA (Union of Mechanics and Transport Related Automotive). The article by Pablo Schamber and Francisco Suárez offers a detailed analysis of an experience of state / social actors articulation in the execution of a policy urban environment, through the inclusion of informal collectors of recyclable waste in the state policy of waste management. An experience that, in the opinion of authors, surpasses any other existing in the world. Beyond the specificity of their study topics, the three articles highlight the plurality of actors who participate from both "side" of the public-private differentiation in each of these topics, in the effort to configure a policy that is forever tool of a construction of power that, insofar as it institutionalizes some form of transaction between those who participate, is projected towards more broader than the specific ones. The promotion of public education is normally presented as a way for the reduction of levels of social inequality: a typical "window of opportunity". Judith Pinos Montenegro discusses this issue in her work on the promotion of basic education in Ecuador during the governments of the Citizen Revolution. The polysemy of the word equality stands out as it appears in official documents, increased due to the multiethnic nature of Ecuadorian society and the cultural contradictions and of class that are registered between public and private education. Jose Candelario Osuna García addresses the issue from the perspective of the temporary displacement of thousands of low-income Mexican families for work reasons, which leads to the interruption of the school career of the children and young people involved in these migrations and relativizes in this regard, the principle of equality in access to the right to education. Article focuses on the Education Program for Migrant Populations prepared by the government of the state of Baja California, in order to minimize the risks in terms of training school and cultural derived from the insertion of families in the cross-border structure of the labor market and the productive system. It is easy to see then that the mode of insertion in the social matrix conditions the effective access to rights. Poor peasants, migrant workers, native populations referred to in the preceding texts see their opportunities reduced education because of the position they occupy in that social matrix; in the absence of intervention state inequalities are strengthened because the educational system does not comply with these subjects the promotional function that should contribute to a change in their position in the structure. The political regime, with its own conception of equality, reinforces and expands or limits and neutralizes the dominant system of inequalities. Aristotle twenty-five centuries ago He emphasized that the prevailing ideas regarding equality and inequality and their causes vary according to the political regime, that is, to the organization and distribution of power. By changing the political regime, sooner or later the ideas of equality change, and therefore justice promoted by the State and public policies. The assumption in Uruguay in March 2020 of a neoliberal government implied important changes in policies social in general and care in particular, in sharp contrast to those that characterized to the fifteen previous years of government of the Broad Front. Ximena Baráibar Ribero analyzes the conceptualization of the new government's policy of assistance to populations in situation of poverty: a set of actions to encourage individual self-improvement and personal responsibility of those affected, and a residual role of the State. Poverty and inequality are, in the intellectual design of the new authorities, individual phenomena both in its causes as well as its effects. Social policies would have no other purpose than to facilitate a transit to individual opportunities that are assumed discursively, not discussed as reality and leave aside the question of the social, that is, collective, factors that create conditions for the gestation and development of individual situations. Carlos M. Vilas director ; El artículo de Chantal Medici con que se inicia este número de la revista discute contribuciones críticas a la teoría convencional de la acción colectiva heredera de los trabajos seminales de Charles Tilly y del supuesto de la nitidez de una hipotética frontera entre lo público y lo privado, agrupándolas en tres tipos de abordaje: las que ponen énfasis en el activismo institucional del Estado, las que lo hacen en la construcción de redes o co[1]munidades de políticas y las que dan especial atención a la articulación público/privado en la construcción del problema y en su implementación. Las contribuciones revisadas entroncan con una variedad de enfoques desde la Ciencia Política, en particular la tesis de Lindblom sobre la relación entre estados y mercados en la formación de las políticas públicas, el planteo de Migdal sobre "el Estado en la sociedad" o, en nuestra América, la teoría de Carlos Matus sobre la complejidad del juego social. El texto de Sofya Surtayeva muestra el rol estratégico del Estado en la gestación y desarrollo de una política pública en un asunto de alta complejidad, en un país de la semiperiferia del capitalismo. Hace casi dos décadas nuestro compatriota Hugo Notcheff demostró la estrecha vinculación del carácter dependiente del capitalismo argentino y la consiguiente fragilidad de la política de ciencia y tecnología, con la orientación de la cúpula del poder económico hacia la valorización de su capital por la vía de la obtención de ganancias extraordinarias de la explotación de recursos naturales, la disponibilidad de trabajo barato y la obtención de subsidios y otras preferencias estatales, mucho más que del estímulo a la innovación científico tecnológica y a una política encaminada a su desarrollo. El corolario es una modernización de la economía basada en la importación de innovaciones provenientes de las economías centrales, favorecida por la estrecha integración con capitales extranjeros, con efecto en la fragilidad de las políticas de desarrollo científico y tecnológico y la preservación de la dependencia. Tomando como hilo conductor el papel de la Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica en el desarrollo de la nanotecnología la autora muestra las particularidades de un proceso de innovación en una doble faceta: el impulso a un área de conocimiento y la promoción por la CNEA de un enfoque propio más afín a una estrategia de desarrollo sostenible y mayor autonomía nacional. El artículo brinda asimismo una detallada aproximación a la pluralidad de actores e intereses, la relevancia del liderazgo en la definición de la política y la gravitación de todo ello en el desarrollo científico-tecnológico y la inserción en el tema y la gravitación de las diferentes respuestas posibles en la inserción de Argentina en el sistema global. En esta línea de elaboración, Mariano Gil describe las políticas públicas ejecutadas en la provincia de Santa Fe para el abordaje del consumo problemático de sustancias. Su trabajo destaca los varios actores públicos, privados y comunitarios que intervienen con desigual eficacia en la construcción del problema, la incidencia de esa construcción en las acciones y organismos que habrán de encararlo, las modificaciones que la política adoptada experimenta a medida que va siendo implementada y esa misma implementación introduce cambios en los escenarios, en los sujetos a quienes se dirige, en los aparatos del estado y en los agentes que tienen a cargo la implementación. Burócratas, decisores políticos, organizaciones no gubernamentales, familias, organismos de seguridad pública, profesionales y técnicos de la salud integran un arco amplio de sujetos que intervienen en la gestión de la política. Por su parte Miguel Alfredo y Pablo Granovsky se ocupan de dos experiencias de centros de formación profesional en el marco del entramado de actores que intervienen en la intersección entre políticas de educación, políticas laborales y organizaciones categoriales: los casos de gestión de políticas de formación profesional de la UOCRA (Unión Obrera de la Construcción de la República Argentina) y del SMATA (Sindicato de Mecánicos y Afines del Transporte Automotor). El artículo de Pablo Schamber y Francisco Suárez ofrece un detallado análisis de una experiencia de articulación estado/actores sociales en la ejecución de una política ambiental urbana, a través de la inclusión de los recolectores informales de residuos reciclables en la política estatal de gestión de los residuos. Una experiencia que, a juicio de los autores, supera cualquier otra existente en el mundo. Más allá de la especificidad de sus temas de estudio, los tres artículos destacan la pluralidad de actores que participan desde uno y otro "lado" de la diferenciación público-privada en cada uno de esos temas, en el empeño de configurar una política que es siempre herramienta de una construcción de poder que, en la medida en que institucionaliza alguna forma de transacción entre quienes participan, se proyecta hacia ámbitos más amplios que los específicos. El fomento de la educación pública es presentado normalmente como una vía para la reducción de los niveles de desigualdad social: una típica "ventana de oportunidades". Judith Pinos Montenegro discute este asunto en su trabajo sobre la promoción de la educación básica en Ecuador durante los gobiernos de la Revolución Ciudadana. Destaca la polisemia del vocablo igualdad como aparece en los documentos oficiales, incrementada por la naturaleza pluriétnica de la sociedad ecuatoriana y las contradicciones culturales y de clase que se registran entre la educación pública y la privada. José Candelario Osuna García encara el tema desde la perspectiva del desplazamiento temporal de miles de familias mexicanas de bajos ingresos por razones laborales, que lleva a la interrupción de la trayectoria escolar de los niños, niñas y jóvenes involucrados en esas migraciones y relativiza a su respecto el principio de igualdad en el acceso al derecho a la educación. El artículo enfoca el Programa de Educación para Poblaciones Migrantes elaborado por el gobierno del estado de Baja California, con el fin de minimizar los riesgos en materia de formación escolar y cultural derivados de la inserción de las familias en la estructura transfronteriza del mercado de trabajo y el sistema productivo. Fácilmente se advierte entonces que el modo de inserción en la matriz social condiciona el acceso efectivo a derechos. Los campesinos pobres, los trabajadores migrantes, las poblaciones originarias a quienes se refieren los textos precedentes ven reducidas sus oportunidades de educación por la posición que ocupan en esa matriz social; en ausencia de intervención estatal las desigualdades se potencian porque el sistema educativo no cumple respecto de esos sujetos la función promocional que debería contribuir a un cambio en su posición en la estructura. El régimen político, con su propia concepción de la igualdad, refuerza y expande o acota y neutraliza el sistema dominante de desigualdades. Hace veinticinco siglos Aristóteles destacó que las ideas predominantes en materia de igualdad y desigualdad y sus causas va[1]rían de acuerdo al régimen político, es decir a la organización y distribución del poder. Cambiando el régimen político, cambian antes o después las ideas de igualdad, y por tanto de justicia promovidas desde el Estado y las políticas públicas. La asunción en Uruguay en marzo 2020 de un gobierno de corte neoliberal implicó cambios importantes en las políticas sociales en general y asistenciales en particular, de fuerte contraste con las que caracterizaron a los quince años precedentes de gobierno del Frente Amplio. Ximena Baráibar Ribero analiza la conceptualización de la política del nuevo gobierno de asistencia a poblaciones en situación de pobreza: un conjunto de acciones de estímulo a la superación individual y la responsabilidad personal de los afectados, y un papel residual del Estado. Pobreza y desigualdad son, en el diseño intelectual de las nuevas autoridades, fenómenos individuales tanto en sus causas como en sus efectos. Las políticas sociales no tendrían otro fin que facilitar un tránsito a oportunidades individuales que se asumen discursivamente, no se discuten como realidad y dejan de lado la pregunta sobre los factores sociales, es decir colectivos, que crean condiciones para la gestación y desarrollo de las situaciones individuales. Carlos M. Vilas Director
When Ebenezer Howard imagines his Garden City, he is looking for a response to what his contemporaries in the second half of the 19th century considered an "urban crises without precedence". The big cities are overpopulated and force the working classes to live un disastrous conditions. Land speculation in the urban periphery races out of control. Howard's invention is based on the idea of the "people's return to the land". The idea is to encourage city dwellers to migrate out to a network of interconnected satellite cities that propose the best of urban and country life, via the railroads. His work consists in part in the organization of this migration away from urbans centers. In his new cities, all the land would be collectively owned. This collective ownership would inhibit speculative development and permit instead to reinvest in the community. The architects Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin design the first Garden City. They create picturesque architecture that fits into its geography and context, with nature as a structuring element of the city's organization. The Garden City has an immense influence on the theory of urbanism, influencing urban planning in numerous Latin American countries, including Mexico. A group of architects and engineers – such as Carlos Contreras, Ignacio Bancalari, José Cuevas Pietrasanta – use the Garden City model to plan a post-revolutionary Mexico fitting with its principles. Inspired by the Garden City Association, they create the National Association for the Planning of the Republic of Mexico, which aims both to promote the model and to put it into practice at a national scale. The government, intergovernmental organization – including UN-Habitat – and numerous think tanks all agree on a set of urban challenges faced by Mexico. In the end, these challenges differ only slightly from those which Ebenezer Howard sought to resolve. Still in the wake of the Agrarian Reform of the first part of the 20th century, individuals across Mexican society advocate for and deem necessary a new Urban Reform. This Thesis is based on the hypothesis that the Garden City could constitute a "reservoir of precedence" those implicated in this Urban Reform in Mexico could use as inspiration to push forward the transformation of their cities and territories. Although certain research accentuates the idea of the compact city and increasing the density of the existing urban fabric, this work defends the idea that it is possible to extend the city in a manner that is virtuous. Reflections inherited from the Garden City such as the Neighborhood unit or the more contemporary New urbanism are used to support the claim. More than a century after Howard published his proposals, our cities seem to be confronted by very similar issues. The ideas of Howard have never been effectively practiced at a large scale, despite the great success of the first materialization of the ideas in the English city of Letchworth. In the face of a status quo that has lasted for decades, the author asks if it is it not time to shake up our conception of the city as well as our current practices. The demonstration of such a hypothesis is separated into three parts:First, the research questions the theoretical notions of the model and its dissemination, thus defining the Garden city not only as a model of urban planning, but also as a social project that can propose new ways to imagine the cities and communities of tomorrow. This work posits that the reservoir of references found in the Garden City is constituted by a knowledge built both in theory and practice. The work traces the multiple examples of the Garden City, their principles and their materializations in order to define a set of social aspirations and spatial principles. Second, the research studies the dissemination of the model on the Mexican context. This phase of the work analyses the conduits of dissemination, their most important materializations, and certain legal limitations faced by these cases. The research shows that to reference the Garden City in the Mexican context is not only reasonable but recognizant of the importance of the model in the history of Mexican city planning. The research hope to contribute to the reservoir of references through the consideration of theses Mexican examples. Third, the work imagines how this reservoir of precedence can transform Mexican cities today. Here, the architectural and urban project is used as a means of inquiry capable of creating knowledge. It is an inquiry that can produce an understanding of a certain place, and then, imagine a prospective future for this place. This last part of the research is focused on the creation of possible scenarios. These possible or probable futures can be compared and can be used to help inform the planning process.This last part of the research project elicits the creation of a methodology and the novel research tool of the project. The research questions if the pertinent transformation made of one space could be equally pertinent in another? Rather than relying on an existing site as the locus of exploration of the various scenarios, this research fabricates an urban environment constructed of elements typical of Mexican cities in which to set the experiment. This process necessitates the observation of multiple Mexican cities and the identification of generalities and typical traits. The research thus creates a site that does not exist – ou topos – that combines these characteristics. This site is used both as an illustration of the complexities of these urban environments and as a context for the experimentation of the proposed transformations – notably through the process of drawing. ; Cuando Ebenezer Howard imagina su Ciudad Jardín, busca una respuesta a lo que los contemporáneos de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX consideran como «una crisis urbana sin precedentes». Las grandes ciudades están superpobladas e imponen unas condiciones de vida desastrosas a las clases trabajadoras. La especulación del suelo lleva al crecimiento incontrolado de la periferia urbana.Su invención consiste en el «retorno del pueblo a la tierra».Defiende la migración de las poblaciones urbanas a una red de ciudades satélite interconectadas que combinen las cualidades de la ciudad y el campo. El ferrocarril es la herramienta de esta migración. Debe organizar el desplazamiento de las personas de las zonas urbanas que se han convertido en la tumba de la condición humana. En estas nuevas ciudades se establece la propiedad colectiva de la tierra. Debe impedir que los especuladores se apropien del aumento del valor del terreno y permitir su reinversión en beneficio de la comunidad. Los arquitectos Barry Parker y Raymond Unwin espacializan la Ciudad jardín. Eligen una arquitectura pintoresca, trazados adaptados al contexto geográfico y utilizan la naturaleza como elemento estructurador de la organización urbana.La Ciudad Jardín tiene una gran influencia en las teorías de planificación urbana y se difunde en muchos países de América Latina, incluido México. Un grupo de arquitectos e ingenieros – entre los que se encuentran Carlos Contreras, Ignacio Bancalari y José Cuevas Pietrasanta – utilizan el modelo para planificar un México posrevolucionario conforme a sus ideales. Inspirados por la Asociación de Ciudades Jardín, crearon la Asociación Nacional para la Planeación de la República Mexicana, que se interesa tanto en la difusión del modelo como en promover una planeación a escala nacional.El gobierno, las organizaciones intergubernamentales – incluido ONU Hábitat – y varios think tanks coinciden en una serie de retos urbanos a los que se enfrenta México. Desafíos que no están muy alejados de aquellos a los que Howard busca respuestas. Tras su famosa Reforma agraria al inicio del siglo XX, México defiende ahora la necesidad de una Gran Reforma urbana. Esta tesis doctoral se basa en la hipótesis de que la Ciudad jardín podría constituir un «fondo de precedentes» en la que los actores mexicanos pueden inspirarse para impulsar la transformación de sus ciudades y territorios. Mientras que muchos informes abogan por la ciudad compacta y la densificación de sus tejidos existentes, este trabajo defiende que es posible extender la ciudad de forma virtuosa. En este sentido, invoca reflexiones heredadas de la Ciudad jardín, como la Neighborhood unit, o el New urbanism más contemporáneo.Más de un siglo después de las propuestas de Howard, nuestras ciudades parecen enfrentarse a problemas relativamente similares. Sus ideas nunca se han puesto en práctica a gran escala, aunque Letchworth – la primera materialización del modelo – ha demostrado su viabilidad. Frente al statu quo que ha durado tantas décadas, ¿no es hora de sacudir nuestro imaginario de la ciudad y romper con nuestras prácticas actuales?La demostración de tal hipótesis implica una reflexión en tres pasos.Primo, cuestionando las nociones teóricas de modelo y difusión, y luego definiendo la Ciudad jardín no sólo como un modelo urbano, sino también como un proyecto de sociedad capaz de proponer una nueva forma de imaginar las ciudades y los territorios del mañana. Este trabajo defiende que el conjunto de referencias de la Ciudad jardín se realiza en un perpetuo ir y venir entre la teoría y lo empírico. Recorre los diferentes precedentes que la componen, sus principios y sus materializaciones para definirla a través de una serie de aspiraciones sociales y principios espaciales.Secundo, estudiando la difusión del modelo en el contexto mexicano. Esta etapa analiza sus canales de difusión, sus materializaciones más significativas, y observa las transformaciones que conocen estas realizaciones. Quiere demostrar que hablar de la Ciudad Jardín en México no es una locura y que el país ya ha invocado ampliamente este precedente en el pasado. Pero también enriquecer el fondo de precedentes mediante la movilización de experiencias mexicanas.Tercio, imaginando cómo esta «fondo de precedentes» puede transformar la ciudad mexicana actual. La composición arquitectónica y urbanística se moviliza como una investigación capaz de crear conocimiento. Una investigación orientada primero a la comprensión de un lugar y luego a la prospección de un futuro para este lugar. La imaginación de escenarios está en el centro de esta última parte. Permite comparar ciertos futuros posibles y plausibles, y adoptar una postura.Esta última parte se traduce en la creación de una metodología y una nueva herramienta de composición. Una otra hipótesis le preocupa: ¿una transformación que es relevante para un lugar también lo es para otros lugares? En vez de basar sus escenarios en un lugar existente, prefiere crear un territorio urbano típico de las ciudades mexicanas para experimentar con sus ideas. Este proceso se enfoca en la observación de las especificidades de estas ciudades y en la generalización de sus rasgos típicos. Crea un lugar inexistente – ou topos – que combina todas estas especificidades. Este lugar típico se utiliza a la vez como ilustración de la complejidad de estos territorios urbanos, pero también como soporte para experimentar – a través del dibujo – las transformaciones propuestas. ; Lorsqu'Ebenezer Howard imagine sa Garden city, il cherche une réponse à ce que les contemporains de la seconde moitié de dix-neuvième siècle considèrent comme « une crise urbaine sans précédent ». Les grandes villes sont surpeuplées et imposent des conditions de vie désastreuses aux classes populaires. La spéculation foncière conduit à une croissance incontrôlée des périphéries urbaines.Son invention repose sur le « retour du peuple à la terre ». Elle prône la migration des populations urbaines vers un réseau de cités-satellites interconnectées qui conjuguent les qualités de la ville et de la campagne. Le chemin de fer est l'outil de cette migration. Il doit organiser le déplacement des populations depuis les zones urbaines devenues tombeaux de la condition humaine. Dans ces nouvelles cités, une propriété collective du foncier est mise en place. Elle doit empêcher l'appropriation des plus-values foncières par les spéculateurs, et permettre leur réinversion au profit de la communauté. Les architectes Barry Parker et Raymond Unwin spatialisent la Garden city. Ils font le choix d'une architecture pittoresque, de tracés adaptés au contexte géographique, et utilisent la nature comme un élément structurant de l'organisation urbaine.La Garden city a une immense influence sur les théories de l'urbanisme, et se diffuse dans de nombreux pays d'Amérique latine, dont le Mexique. Un groupe d'architectes et d'ingénieurs – parmi lesquels Carlos Contreras, Ignacio Bancalari, José Cuevas Pietrasanta – convoquent le modèle pour planifier un Mexique postrévolutionnaire en phase avec ses idéaux. En s'inspirant de la Garden city Association, ils créent l'Association Nationale pour la Planification de la République Mexicaine qui s'intéresse à la fois à la diffusion du modèle et promeut une planification à l'échelle du pays tout entier.Gouvernement, organisations intergouvernementales – dont ONU Habitat – et divers think tanks : tous s'accordent sur un certain nombre de défis urbains auxquels le Mexique fait face. Des défis finalement peu éloignés de ceux auxquels Howard cherche des réponses. Dans le sillage de sa célèbre Réforme agraire au début du XXe siècle, le Mexique prône aujourd'hui la nécessité d'une grande Réforme urbaine. Cette thèse s'appuie sur l'hypothèse selon laquelle la Garden city pourrait constituer « un réservoir de précédents » dont les acteurs mexicains peuvent s'inspirer pour impulser la transformation de leurs villes et territoires. Alors que de nombreux rapports mettent l'accent sur la ville-compacte et la densification de ses tissus existants, ce travail défend qu'il soit possible d'étendre la ville de façons vertueuses. Il convoque à ce titre des réflexions héritières de la Garden city telles que le neighborhood unit, ou le new urbanism plus contemporain.Plus d'un siècle après les propositions de Howard, nos villes semblent être confrontées à des problématiques relativement proches. Ses idées n'ont jamais réellement été mises en pratique à grande échelle, alors même que Letchworth – première matérialisation du modèle – a prouvé de sa faisabilité. Face aux statu quo qui durent depuis tant de décennies, n'est-il pas temps de bouleverser notre imaginaire de la ville et de rompre avec nos pratiques actuelles ?La démonstration d'une telle hypothèse passe par une réflexion en trois temps. Primo, en questionnement les notions théoriques de modèle et de diffusion, puis en définissant la Garden city non seulement comme modèle urbain, mais également comme projet de société en mesure de proposer une nouvelle façon d'imaginer les villes et territoires de demain. Ce travail défend que le réservoir de références de la Garden city se fabrique dans un perpétuel va-et-vient entre la théorie et l'empirique. Il revient sur les différents précédents qui le composent, sur ses principes, et ses matérialisations pour le définir au travers d'un certain nombre d'aspirations sociales et de principes spatiaux. Secundo, en étudiant la diffusion du modèle dans le contexte mexicain. Cette phase analyse ses canaux de diffusion, ses matérialisations les plus significatives, et statue sur les transformations que ces réalisations subissent. Elle souhaite montrer que parler de Garden city au Mexique n'est pas un insensé grand écart et que le pays a déjà largement convoqué ce précédent par le passé. Mais aussi à enrichir le réservoir de précédents en mobilisant les expériences mexicaines. Tercio, en imaginant comment ce « réservoir de précédents » peut transformer la ville mexicaine actuelle. Le projet d'architecture et d'urbanisme est mobilisé comme une enquête capable de créer de la connaissance. Une enquête d'abord orientée vers la compréhension d'un lieu, puis vers la prospection d'un futur pour ce lieu. L'imagination de scénarios est cœur de cette dernière partie. Elle permet de comparer certains futurs possibles et plausibles, et de nous positionner. Cette dernière partie se confronte à la création d'une méthodologie et d'un nouvel outil de projet. Une sous-hypothèse la taraude : une transformation pertinente pour un lieu, l'est-elle également pour d'autres lieux ? Plutôt que d'asseoir ses scénarios sur un lieu existant, elle préfère fabriquer un territoire urbain typique des villes mexicaines pour expérimenter ses idées. Ce processus s'attache à observer les spécificités de ces villes et à monter en généralité ses traits typiques. Il en fabrique un lieu qui n'existe pas – ou topos – qui combine l'ensemble de ces spécificités. Ce lieu typique est à la fois utilisé comme une illustration de la complexité de ces territoires urbains, mais également comme un support pour expérimenter – par le dessin – les transformations proposées.
Innovation in family firms is still a controversial issue within the academic community and poses some unique challenges for family business owners and managers. This special issue on innovation in family firms results from the cooperation of both academic and business guest editors, in a pioneering initiative that is not usual in academic journals. Indeed, a key feature of this Special Issue has been the collaboration with two family business leaders, who have been involved in the editorial process together with the academics.
The two business editors that we involved are Antonio Gallardo, Vicepresident of Almiralland former director of FBN-Family Business Network,andIgnacio Osborne, CEO of the Osborne Groupand Chairman of the Spanish Family Firm Institute.
In order to introduce the six papers that make up this special issue on innovation in family firms, we as academic editors are pleased to include some comments from the business editors that emerged during our interactions with the aim to make a step forward toward bridging the gap between research and practice on family business innovation, acknowledging the different perspectives and approaches adopted by academics and practitioners. As the business editor Mr. Osborne points: "Innovation issues in family firms are nowadays more important than ever, due to the rapid developments that are occurring in the business world and its corresponding technologies".
Despite being a topic analyzed by a number of authors over time (Feranita, Kotlar and De Massis, 2017; Aparicio, Iturralde and Sánchez-Famoso, 2020 in this issue; Chrisman, Chua, De Massis, Frattini and Wright, 2015), the study of innovation in family business still requires a greater volume of research to provide answers to the needs of family businesses. The distinctive nature of family firms results in a complex influence on the innovation process (De Massis, Frattini and Lichtenthaler, 2013), which is reflected in mixed research findings. For instance, the conclusions of the published research offer sometimes contradictory results, since family businesses can be considered innovative (Aronoff, 1998; Craig and Moores, 2006) or conservative (Sharma, Chrisman, y Chua, 1997; Zahra, Hayton y Salvato, 2004; Gómez-Mejía et al., 2007), with several studies that can support whatever of the two options.
Family businesses present a number of characteristics that, a priori, seem to favor innovation, such as long-term orientation (Tagiuri and Davis, 1996; Ward and Aronoff, 1994), the desire for continuity through the following generations (Miroshnychenko et al., 2020; Gallo, 1995), patient capital (De Massis, Audretsch, Uhlaner and Kammerlander, 2018; Sirmon and Hitt, 2003), and the long tenure of their main leaders (Lorenzo, 2020). The replacement of the prior generation by the next generation implies the access of younger people to the leadership of the company, who also often present a greater level of qualification (De Massis et al., 2008; Cabrera-Suárez, 2011). Young and qualified leaders would provide a new momentum to the firm, by means of the renewal of the firm (Núñez-Cacho and Lorenzo, 2020). Likewise, the successors receive an important legacy by means of the values of the family business (Erdogan et al., 2020), such as effort, perseverance, austerity, excellence, long-term orientation and entrepreneurial spirit, as basic foundations of their way of understanding business activity (Bermejo, 2008). Accordingly, the new generation managers could be in the best conditions to reinvent the company, since they know the business from within and they also provide the new vision of a person with a working life ahead. Another factor that favors the renewal impulse of the next generation is the familial support to carry out a prolonged tenure over time, which will not be as conditioned by short-term results as in other types of companies, by the so-called patient capital (Sirmon and Hitt, 2003) of the family business (Lorenzo, 2020). But, even if these ideal conditions are met in a specific family firm, it is not guaranteed that the company realizes the innovation it needs. Therefore, it is needed to shed more light about the determinants and conditions for innovation.
The editors of this special issue selected a number of papers to reflect the state-of-the-art on this topic, indicating some of the most promising research lines on innovation. According to the business editor Mr. Gallardo, "A very important aspect emerging from this special issue is that the papers published in it reveal that external contributions to the internal know-how of the family and the business are often vital to help produce the changes needed by a family firm for innovation to take place".
Innovation in the family business has been a phenomenon of great interest to researchers, especially in the last decade. This is highlighted in the article that opens this special issue by presenting a complete bibliometric review of the literature on innovation in family businesses. Generally, researchers have noted that the influence of the family is the factor that makes this type of businesses different from the other ones (Habbershon and Williams, 1999; Lorenzo and Núñez-Cacho, 2012). However, in order to conclude that this is really true, it is necessary to identify the nature of these differences and determine how and why they affect the innovative behavior of the family business.
The paper Innovation on family businesses: A holistic bibliometric(Aparicio, Iturralde and Sánchez-Famoso, 2020) offers an overview of the research field through an analysis of 207 articles that were published between 1994 and 2017. The authors complement other recent reviews such as those by Feranita, Kotlar and De Massis (2017) and Calabrò, Vecchiarini, Gast, Campopiano, De Massis and Kraus (2019), and reflect about the take-off of research on innovation that takes place since 2009. In the study two differentiated periods are highlighted: An initial one that covers the years 1994 to 2009, and one of expansion from 2010 to 2017. In addition, they identify the most influential journals, the most referenced articles, the most productive scholars -namely, De Massis, Frattini, Craig, Chrisman, Fang, Kotlar and Nordqvist appear as the most productive and referenced ones- and the main lines of research developed, providing a clear and synthetic map of innovation research in family businesses today. This paper approaches innovation from a more theoretical perspective, and also presents the lines of research that are currently being developed. These lines include the internal factors of the family business and its influence on innovation, as well as external factors, among others advances in research in the subject.
The paper An Analysis of Open Innovation Determinants: The Case Study of Singapore based Family owned Enterprises, by Koh, Kong and Timperio (2020, this issue) analyzes the drivers of open innovation by studying cases of family businesses in Singapore. The authors highlight the external determinants and catalysts of innovation projects, such as family and business culture, access to external funds, government support for initiatives, market dynamics and partnership between companies. In addition to these six external determinants, there are two other factors that have a great influence on open innovation. First, family capital, which is the main source of financing for innovative initiatives. Second, a strong external network, supported by Singapore's legal and regulatory framework that fosters innovation, promotes the development of an enabling business environment so that the spirit of innovation can truly thrive. Most of the surveyed companies' managers mentioned process innovation as the most critical aspect, and also organizational innovation. Process innovation is considered superior by the companies included in the sample due to their capabilities to drive product innovation, marketing and organizational structure (and people). Organizational innovation is also considered of utmost importance, due to the need to adopt technologies such as digitalization, robotics or automation, which require an adequate organizational structure. Some ideas from the surveyed managers highlight these statements, like: "The correct processes create the necessary conditions to shape the products, as well as the marketing and organization structures," as well as "Having cutting-edge processes underway is a key differentiator." This study also reflects the need to establish new financing mechanisms adapted to the peculiarities of innovation processes. External capital injection and stimulus policies are necessary, although not sufficient, since they must be combined with the determinants of the internal functioning of family businesses.
The relevance of the external network is also highlighted in the paper Collaborative innovation in the family SME: conceptualization, goals, and success factors, by Arzubiaga, Maseda, Uribarri and Palma Ruiz (2020, this issue), which analyzes the strategy of collaborative innovation that seeks the creation of knowledge, new product designs and Improving the efficiency of the production process.
Among the conditions of collaborative innovation, four groups stand out: The composition of the management team (in terms of family members percentage and number of generations involved in management), abilities (cognitive factors, absorption capacity and trajectory in innovation), attitudes, and legacy preservation, (referring to socio-emotional wealth and internal behavior). These factors of small and medium family businesses play a crucial role in the successful design and implementation of collaborative innovation. The main contributions of this paper can be summarized in the need for establish solid bases to deepen in the future the study of collaborative innovation. Moreover, a second contribution refers to the identification of the distinguishing characteristics of family SMEs. Arzubiaga, Maseda, Uribarri and Palma Ruiz (2020, this issue) also propose the analysis of the possible moderating effects of firm size and the sector to refine the impact of the variables in this model, looking to achieve excellence in collaborative innovation. As business reviewer, Mr. Osbornehave highlighted collaborative innovation as one of the relevant issues in order to reinforce the role of innovation in their companies.
Absorptive capacity is another aspect of great interest to researchers. There are numerous factors that condition it, some of them are features of the family character that make the behavior of family businesses paradoxical (Kotlar et al. 2020). The paper titled A mediating model of innovative capacity between absorptive capacity and family business performanceby Hernández-Perlines, Ariza-Montes and Araya-Castillo (2020, this issue) addresses the issue about absorptive capacity. Absorptive capacity is related to the identification, assimilation and exploitation of new knowledge by the company. Those family businesses that have these capabilities improve their performance. In addition, this effect is enhanced by the innovative capacity of the company, which acts as a mediator between absorption capacity and the company's performance, reinforcing this relationship. Thus, family business managers should focus their efforts on providing their organizations with the necessary skills to absorb and exploit knowledge. This will be easier if the company has developed innovative capabilities. In this sense, the business editor Mr. Gallardo points that: "There is also the possibility of establishing an advisory council with external collaborators that serves as a contrast to the company's board, in which oftentimes the weight of the family is too decisive."
The last two papers in this special issue address the role of family involvement in relation to innovation. Does too much love hinder innovation? Family involvement and firms' innovativeness in family-owned Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs), by Filippo Ferrari (2020, this issue) reflects on the role of family cohesion and its flexibility in the process of innovation, drawing upon the Olson Circumplex model (Olson, 2000) which is applied in a sample of Italian family businesses. The study indicates that unbalanced families show the lowest levels of innovation, although family cohesion and flexibility do not show a significant correlation with the overall level of organizational innovation. Flexibility shows a positive correlation with the process and behavioral innovation, which can be explained by the demand for new forms and organizational routines to deal with process innovation. Here the author suggests some human resources practices that promote flexibility, such as labor rotation (Ortega, 2001), or the development of a horizontal internal career (Ichniowsky et al. 1996, 1997, 1999). Families that lack cohesion show a negative correlation with strategic innovation and process innovation. Ferrari (2020, this issue) considers as disconnected family systems those in which family members are not cohesive and have little family loyalty. On the other hand, innovation in processes is encouraged with new ideas through contributions in terms of new ways of doing things. According to the authors, the Olson Circumplex model (Olson, 2000) offers a framework that can diagnose the extent to which family systems are balanced and how the effects of balanced or unbalanced family dynamics can affect the family business (Daspit et al. 2018). Business reviewers were especially interested on the conclusions of this paper, and also pointed that it would be necessary more research on that kind of negative influences stemmed from lack of cohesion within the business family.
Entrepreneurial orientation and product innovation: The moderating role of family involvement in management, by Fredyma, Ruiz Palomo and Diéguez (2020, this issue) addresses a classic concept closely linked to the study of innovation such as entrepreneurial orientation. The relationships between this variable and product innovation, incremental innovation and radical innovation are examined. The influence of family performance on the company is also analyzed. In their conclusions, Fredyma, Ruiz Palomo and Diéguez (2020, this issue) point out that family involvement weakens the positive effect of entrepreneurial orientation in product innovation, especially in case of radical innovation. Therefore, the family business must be aware of these weaknesses to correct them, professionalizing with non-family managers and including their participation in innovation decisions. This conclusion is stressed by both business editors, Mr. Osborne and Mr. Gallardo, who point out that: "Having a network of external collaborators, some of them generalists and others specialized in specific problems, is nowadays practically indispensable."
Finally, the academic editors sincerely appreciate the contributions of two prominent Spanish businessmen, who have contributed to enrich this special issue with a business perspective, which helps to overcome the division that is sometimes perceived between the academic world and the business one. Both Antonio Gallardo and Ignacio Osborne represent the entrepreneurial vision that they have been able to maintain in their families and in their companies for generations. We all know how challenging it is for a family business to be entrepreneurial across generations (e.g., De Massis, Eddleston and Rovelli, 2020). Last but now least, we want to express our gratitude to the editor of the European Journal of Family Business, Professor Vanesa Guzmán for her collaboration and contributions.
The Osborne Group, founded in 1772, is one of the oldest family businesses in Europe. The group evolved from the original business of raising and exporting wines from Jerez to a wider food and beverage group which includes quality wines from various Spanish designations of origin, premium spirits, and products derived from Iberian pork, with a growing international acceptance, entering markets as demanding as China. Ignacio Osborne, a member of the sixth family generation, is the current president of the company since 2017, after 21 years as CEO. The company has been especially innovative in marketing, creating the symbol of the bull in the 50s, which has become a symbol that identifies the Spanish, transcending its initial origin as a reference for the winery.
Almirallis a pharmaceutical company founded in 1943. It is currently run by the second generation, which are giving way to the third. Although innovation is an essential requirement to compete in pharmaceutics, Almirall has managed to develop some well-known products in Spain, as Almax and Cleboril, becoming one of most innovative companies in the industry. Antonio Gallardo is honorary vice president of his company, which he chaired for 26 years. In addition, he was also president of the Family Council and the Family Office, as well as a member of the Executive Committee of the Family Business Network and vice president of the Family Business Institute.
Innovation in family firms is still a controversial issue within the academic community and poses some unique challenges for family business owners and managers. This special issue on innovation in family firms results from the cooperation of both academic and business guest editors, in a pioneering initiative that is not usual in academic journals. Indeed, a key feature of this Special Issue has been the collaboration with two family business leaders, who have been involved in the editorial process together with the academics. The two business editors that we involved are Antonio Gallardo, Vicepresident of Almirall and former director of FBN-Family Business Network, and Ignacio Osborne, CEO of the Osborne Group and Chairman of the Spanish Family Firm Institute. In order to introduce the six papers that make up this special issue on innovation in family firms, we as academic editors are pleased to include some comments from the business editors that emerged during our interactions with the aim to make a step forward toward bridging the gap between research and practice on family business innovation, acknowledging the different perspectives and approaches adopted by academics and practitioners. As the business editor Mr. Osborne points: "Innovation issues in family firms are nowadays more important than ever, due to the rapid developments that are occurring in the business world and its corresponding technologies". Despite being a topic analyzed by a number of authors over time (Feranita, Kotlar and De Massis, 2017; Aparicio, Iturralde and Sánchez-Famoso, 2020 in this issue; Chrisman, Chua, De Massis, Frattini and Wright, 2015), the study of innovation in family business still requires a greater volume of research to provide answers to the needs of family businesses. The distinctive nature of family firms results in a complex influence on the innovation process (De Massis, Frattini and Lichtenthaler, 2013), which is reflected in mixed research findings. For instance, the conclusions of the published research offer sometimes contradictory results, since family businesses can be considered innovative (Aronoff, 1998; Craig and Moores, 2006) or conservative (Sharma, Chrisman, y Chua, 1997; Zahra, Hayton y Salvato, 2004; Gómez-Mejía et al., 2007), with several studies that can support whatever of the two options. Family businesses present a number of characteristics that, a priori, seem to favor innovation, such as long-term orientation (Tagiuri and Davis, 1996; Ward and Aronoff, 1994), the desire for continuity through the following generations (Miroshnychenko et al., 2020; Gallo, 1995), patient capital (De Massis, Audretsch, Uhlaner and Kammerlander, 2018; Sirmon and Hitt, 2003), and the long tenure of their main leaders (Lorenzo, 2020). The replacement of the prior generation by the next generation implies the access of younger people to the leadership of the company, who also often present a greater level of qualification (De Massis et al., 2008; Cabrera-Suárez, 2011). Young and qualified leaders would provide a new momentum to the firm, by means of the renewal of the firm (Núñez-Cacho and Lorenzo, 2020). Likewise, the successors receive an important legacy by means of the values of the family business (Erdogan et al., 2020), such as effort, perseverance, austerity, excellence, long-term orientation and entrepreneurial spirit, as basic foundations of their way of understanding business activity (Bermejo, 2008). Accordingly, the new generation managers could be in the best conditions to reinvent the company, since they know the business from within and they also provide the new vision of a person with a working life ahead. Another factor that favors the renewal impulse of the next generation is the familial support to carry out a prolonged tenure over time, which will not be as conditioned by short-term results as in other types of companies, by the so-called patient capital (Sirmon and Hitt, 2003) of the family business (Lorenzo, 2020). But, even if these ideal conditions are met in a specific family firm, it is not guaranteed that the company realizes the innovation it needs. Therefore, it is needed to shed more light about the determinants and conditions for innovation. The editors of this special issue selected a number of papers to reflect the state-of-the-art on this topic, indicating some of the most promising research lines on innovation. According to the business editor Mr. Gallardo, "A very important aspect emerging from this special issue is that the papers published in it reveal that external contributions to the internal know-how of the family and the business are often vital to help produce the changes needed by a family firm for innovation to take place". Innovation in the family business has been a phenomenon of great interest to researchers, especially in the last decade. This is highlighted in the article that opens this special issue by presenting a complete bibliometric review of the literature on innovation in family businesses. Generally, researchers have noted that the influence of the family is the factor that makes this type of businesses different from the other ones (Habbershon and Williams, 1999; Lorenzo and Núñez-Cacho, 2012). However, in order to conclude that this is really true, it is necessary to identify the nature of these differences and determine how and why they affect the innovative behavior of the family business. The paper Innovation on family businesses: A holistic bibliometric(Aparicio, Iturralde and Sánchez-Famoso, 2020) offers an overview of the research field through an analysis of 207 articles that were published between 1994 and 2017. The authors complement other recent reviews such as those by Feranita, Kotlar and De Massis (2017) and Calabrò, Vecchiarini, Gast, Campopiano, De Massis and Kraus (2019), and reflect about the take-off of research on innovation that takes place since 2009. In the study two differentiated periods are highlighted: An initial one that covers the years 1994 to 2009, and one of expansion from 2010 to 2017. In addition, they identify the most influential journals, the most referenced articles, the most productive scholars -namely, De Massis, Frattini, Craig, Chrisman, Fang, Kotlar and Nordqvist appear as the most productive and referenced ones- and the main lines of research developed, providing a clear and synthetic map of innovation research in family businesses today. This paper approaches innovation from a more theoretical perspective, and also presents the lines of research that are currently being developed. These lines include the internal factors of the family business and its influence on innovation, as well as external factors, among others advances in research in the subject. The paper An Analysis of Open Innovation Determinants: The Case Study of Singapore based Family owned Enterprises, by Koh, Kong and Timperio (2020, this issue) analyzes the drivers of open innovation by studying cases of family businesses in Singapore. The authors highlight the external determinants and catalysts of innovation projects, such as family and business culture, access to external funds, government support for initiatives, market dynamics and partnership between companies. In addition to these six external determinants, there are two other factors that have a great influence on open innovation. First, family capital, which is the main source of financing for innovative initiatives. Second, a strong external network, supported by Singapore's legal and regulatory framework that fosters innovation, promotes the development of an enabling business environment so that the spirit of innovation can truly thrive. Most of the surveyed companies' managers mentioned process innovation as the most critical aspect, and also organizational innovation. Process innovation is considered superior by the companies included in the sample due to their capabilities to drive product innovation, marketing and organizational structure (and people). Organizational innovation is also considered of utmost importance, due to the need to adopt technologies such as digitalization, robotics or automation, which require an adequate organizational structure. Some ideas from the surveyed managers highlight these statements, like: "The correct processes create the necessary conditions to shape the products, as well as the marketing and organization structures," as well as "Having cutting-edge processes underway is a key differentiator." This study also reflects the need to establish new financing mechanisms adapted to the peculiarities of innovation processes. External capital injection and stimulus policies are necessary, although not sufficient, since they must be combined with the determinants of the internal functioning of family businesses. The relevance of the external network is also highlighted in the paper Collaborative innovation in the family SME: conceptualization, goals, and success factors, by Arzubiaga, Maseda, Uribarri and Palma Ruiz (2020, this issue), which analyzes the strategy of collaborative innovation that seeks the creation of knowledge, new product designs and Improving the efficiency of the production process. Among the conditions of collaborative innovation, four groups stand out: The composition of the management team (in terms of family members percentage and number of generations involved in management), abilities (cognitive factors, absorption capacity and trajectory in innovation), attitudes, and legacy preservation, (referring to socio-emotional wealth and internal behavior). These factors of small and medium family businesses play a crucial role in the successful design and implementation of collaborative innovation. The main contributions of this paper can be summarized in the need for establish solid bases to deepen in the future the study of collaborative innovation. Moreover, a second contribution refers to the identification of the distinguishing characteristics of family SMEs. Arzubiaga, Maseda, Uribarri and Palma Ruiz (2020, this issue) also propose the analysis of the possible moderating effects of firm size and the sector to refine the impact of the variables in this model, looking to achieve excellence in collaborative innovation. As business reviewer, Mr. Osbornehave highlighted collaborative innovation as one of the relevant issues in order to reinforce the role of innovation in their companies. Absorptive capacity is another aspect of great interest to researchers. There are numerous factors that condition it, some of them are features of the family character that make the behavior of family businesses paradoxical (Kotlar et al. 2020). The paper titled A mediating model of innovative capacity between absorptive capacity and family business performanceby Hernández-Perlines, Ariza-Montes and Araya-Castillo (2020, this issue) addresses the issue about absorptive capacity. Absorptive capacity is related to the identification, assimilation and exploitation of new knowledge by the company. Those family businesses that have these capabilities improve their performance. In addition, this effect is enhanced by the innovative capacity of the company, which acts as a mediator between absorption capacity and the company's performance, reinforcing this relationship. Thus, family business managers should focus their efforts on providing their organizations with the necessary skills to absorb and exploit knowledge. This will be easier if the company has developed innovative capabilities. In this sense, the business editor Mr. Gallardo points that: "There is also the possibility of establishing an advisory council with external collaborators that serves as a contrast to the company's board, in which oftentimes the weight of the family is too decisive." The last two papers in this special issue address the role of family involvement in relation to innovation. Does too much love hinder innovation? Family involvement and firms' innovativeness in family-owned Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs), by Filippo Ferrari (2020, this issue) reflects on the role of family cohesion and its flexibility in the process of innovation, drawing upon the Olson Circumplex model (Olson, 2000) which is applied in a sample of Italian family businesses. The study indicates that unbalanced families show the lowest levels of innovation, although family cohesion and flexibility do not show a significant correlation with the overall level of organizational innovation. Flexibility shows a positive correlation with the process and behavioral innovation, which can be explained by the demand for new forms and organizational routines to deal with process innovation. Here the author suggests some human resources practices that promote flexibility, such as labor rotation (Ortega, 2001), or the development of a horizontal internal career (Ichniowsky et al. 1996, 1997, 1999). Families that lack cohesion show a negative correlation with strategic innovation and process innovation. Ferrari (2020, this issue) considers as disconnected family systems those in which family members are not cohesive and have little family loyalty. On the other hand, innovation in processes is encouraged with new ideas through contributions in terms of new ways of doing things. According to the authors, the Olson Circumplex model (Olson, 2000) offers a framework that can diagnose the extent to which family systems are balanced and how the effects of balanced or unbalanced family dynamics can affect the family business (Daspit et al. 2018). Business reviewers were especially interested on the conclusions of this paper, and also pointed that it would be necessary more research on that kind of negative influences stemmed from lack of cohesion within the business family. Entrepreneurial orientation and product innovation: The moderating role of family involvement in management, by Fredyma, Ruiz Palomo and Diéguez (2020, this issue) addresses a classic concept closely linked to the study of innovation such as entrepreneurial orientation. The relationships between this variable and product innovation, incremental innovation and radical innovation are examined. The influence of family performance on the company is also analyzed. In their conclusions, Fredyma, Ruiz Palomo and Diéguez (2020, this issue) point out that family involvement weakens the positive effect of entrepreneurial orientation in product innovation, especially in case of radical innovation. Therefore, the family business must be aware of these weaknesses to correct them, professionalizing with non-family managers and including their participation in innovation decisions. This conclusion is stressed by both business editors, Mr. Osborne and Mr. Gallardo, who point out that: "Having a network of external collaborators, some of them generalists and others specialized in specific problems, is nowadays practically indispensable." Finally, the academic editors sincerely appreciate the contributions of two prominent Spanish businessmen, who have contributed to enrich this special issue with a business perspective, which helps to overcome the division that is sometimes perceived between the academic world and the business one. Both Antonio Gallardo and Ignacio Osborne represent the entrepreneurial vision that they have been able to maintain in their families and in their companies for generations. We all know how challenging it is for a family business to be entrepreneurial across generations (e.g., De Massis, Eddleston and Rovelli, 2020). Last but now least, we want to express our gratitude to the editor of the European Journal of Family Business, Professor Vanesa Guzmán for her collaboration and contributions. The Osborne Group, founded in 1772, is one of the oldest family businesses in Europe. The group evolved from the original business of raising and exporting wines from Jerez to a wider food and beverage group which includes quality wines from various Spanish designations of origin, premium spirits, and products derived from Iberian pork, with a growing international acceptance, entering markets as demanding as China. Ignacio Osborne, a member of the sixth family generation, is the current president of the company since 2017, after 21 years as CEO. The company has been especially innovative in marketing, creating the symbol of the bull in the 50s, which has become a symbol that identifies the Spanish, transcending its initial origin as a reference for the winery. Almirall is a pharmaceutical company founded in 1943. It is currently run by the second generation, which are giving way to the third. Although innovation is an essential requirement to compete in pharmaceutics, Almirall has managed to develop some well-known products in Spain, as Almax and Cleboril, becoming one of most innovative companies in the industry. Antonio Gallardo is honorary vice president of his company, which he chaired for 26 years. In addition, he was also president of the Family Council and the Family Office, as well as a member of the Executive Committee of the Family Business Network and vice president of the Family Business Institute.
THE NEW SERIES OF RESEARCH OF THE FACULTY If there is any way in which the university can give back to society what it deposits in it, it is the scientific elaboration of knowledge, which as such is important for any community. This Magazine, for example, confirms these efforts that are published every semester. And in this sense, our faculty of Law has taken up the even more difficult task of preparing and organizing a bibliographic series of advances or results of research, that is, books of our faculty researchers in the different branches of law and disciplines that adjoin the legal. For this purpose, since the month of April has counted on the editorial advice of Lizardo Carvajal, surpassed in the region in this type of process, to start with a seminar that has been called as "Drafting Table" where every afternoon of Wednesday during two months the main guidelines for the structuring of an academic text were provided. This space has served so that lawyers have approached the phenomenon of interdisciplinarity, and one more opportunity to put ourselves in line with the new academic-editorial requirements, especially those of the Administrative Department of Science and Technology (COLCIENCIAS). The results, being modest, could not have been better. Indeed, there are 16 titles that will be ready to be published, works that were submitted to a careful and demanding work of reviewing originals, reports on aspects of semantics, syntax, style and spelling. Regarding the cataloging on the web, under the basic criteria for the publication and accreditation of university books resulting from scientific research, compliance with the general requirements is met, in the sense of guiding the authors and editors in the publication work and thus it counted on the revision of academic pairs constituting a form of publicity of the documents produced in the undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the series, there has been a vast production in criminal law and related, which is not free since the Master of Criminal Law and the Master of Criminalistics and Forensic Sciences have led and made a presence in the editorial process. There are two titles that show the 80 researches coming from the theses of the aforementioned masters where indexes, authors, key words, juries and thesis presidents are indexed, and a brief review of the content of each thesis is made. Also in criminal matters, there is the Principle of Opportunity of Enrique Arteaga, trying to establish the impact that this institute has had against the new oral accusatory penal system. Maribel Lagos compiles five essays by ten researchers from the Research Group "Penitentiary and Prison Systems" with the title "Penitentiaries and Prisons" in diverse contexts. Theory of the crime is the contribution of Hernando Ordoñez to approach thematic like the social control, the imputability and inimputabilidad, the amplifying devices of the penal type, the punishability and the responsibility. On the other hand, María Inés Muriel, specialist in criminalistics, compiles essays in two papers: Criminalistics and forensic sciences in the Colombian accusatory system and the expert evidence in the Colombian accusatory criminal process. In the same criminalistics, Luis Guillermo González compiles research products in the Human Identification. The homicides in series of Iván Valencia, now in the key of criminology, realizes a theoretical foundation on the assassins in series and soon it describes the characteristics of two Colombian serial assassins. Already in co-authorship, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán, and Herman Gómez, contribute with their legal essays in Approaches to the current Colombian law; as well as those already named Hernando Ordoñez and María Inés Muriel, and Lilia Cortés and Maribel Lagos who took on the task of compiling works, the first with Exclusion of evidence in the Colombian accusatory system, and the second with La pena. Beyond the criminal, we find the political participation, education and responsibility of the Colombian State where the academic coordinator of our undergraduate compiles 6 essays on these topics. On her side, Lilia Cortés reflects on the academic educational strategies of the academic Ken Bain in university education. In the civil procedural law, Jaime Mendoza and Villa Angelly clarify whether the payment process as a procedural mechanism will serve to reduce the judicial default, an issue raised in the payment process, chimera or legal reality? Finally, moving away from the purely legal, and entering political science, we have the text Latin American Political Philosophy in which Ángelo Mauricio Victoria works as author and compiler of a series of essays about the notion of "good living" and its development in the Colombian, Ecuadorian, Mexican and Venezuelan context. As we can see, our efforts are aimed at enriching the science of law, and hence the right to sustain the high quality accreditation that we are seeking to ratify with the re-accreditation that we expect soon. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali ; Si existe alguna forma en que la universidad puede retribuir a la sociedad lo que ésta deposita en ella, es la elaboración científica del conocimiento, que en calidad de tal es importante para cualquier comunidad. Esta Revista, por ejemplo, constata estos esfuerzos que cada semestre salen a luz pública. Y en este sentido, nuestra facultad de Derecho se ha dado a la tarea más dispendiosa aún, de elaborar y organizar una serie bibliográfica de avances o resultados de investigación, esto es, libros de nuestros docentes investigadores en las distintas ramas del derecho y disciplinas que colindan con lo jurídico. Para este cometido, se ha contado desde el mes de abril con la asesoría editorial de Lizardo Carvajal, aventajado en la región en este tipo de procesos, para iniciar con un seminario que se ha dado por llamar como "Mesa de Redacción" donde cada tarde de miércoles durante dos meses se brindaron las principales pautas para la estructuración de un texto académico. Este espacio ha servido para que los abogados se hayan acercado al fenómeno de la interdisciplinariedad, y una oportunidad más para ponernos en la línea de las nuevas exigencias académico-editoriales, especialmente las del Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia y Tecnología (COLCIENCIAS). Los resultados, siendo modestos, no han podido ser mejores. Efectivamente, son 16 títulos los que estarán prestos a ser publicados, obras que se sometieron a un cuidadoso y exigente trabajo de revisión de originales, reportes en aspectos de semántica, sintaxis, estilo y ortografía. Respecto a la catalogación en la web, bajo los criterios básicos para la publicación y acreditación de libros universitarios resultado de investigación científica, se da cumplimiento a los requerimientos generales, en el sentido de orientar a los autores y editores en la labor de publicación y así contó con la revisión de pares académicos constituyendo una forma de publicidad de los documentos producidos en el programa de pregrado y los de posgrado. En la serie, ha habido una vasta producción en el derecho penal y afines, lo cual no es gratuito dado que la Maestría en Derecho Penal y la Maestría en Criminalística y Ciencias Forenses han liderado y hecho presencia en el proceso editorial. Hay dos títulos que muestran las 80 investigaciones provenientes de tesis de las maestrías mencionadas donde se indiza los títulos, los autores, las palabras claves, jurados y presidentes de tesis, y se hace una breve reseña del contenido de cada tesis. También en lo penal, está el Principio de oportunidad de Enrique Arteaga tratándose de establecer el impacto que este instituto ha tenido frente al nuevo sistema penal acusatorio de corte oral. Maribel Lagos compila cinco ensayos de diez investigadores del Grupo de Investigación "Sistemas penitenciarios y carcelarios" con el título Lo penitenciarios y carcelario en contextos diversos. Teoría del delito es el aporte de Hernando Ordoñez para abordar temáticas como el control social, la imputabilidad e inimputabilidad, los dispositivos amplificadores del tipo penal, la punibilidad y la responsabilidad. Por su parte, María Inés Muriel, especialista en criminalística, compila ensayos en dos trabajos: Criminalística y ciencias forenses en el sistema acusatorio colombiano y La prueba pericial en el proceso penal acusatorio colombiano. En la misma criminalística, Luis Guillermo González compila productos de investigación en la Identificación Humana. Los Homicidios en serie de Iván Valencia, ahora en clave de criminología, realiza una fundamentación teórica sobre los asesinos en serie y luego describe las características de dos asesinos seriales colombianos. Ya en coautoría, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán, y Herman Gómez, aportan con sus ensayos jurídicos en Aproximaciones al derecho colombiano actual; igual que los ya nombrados Hernando Ordoñez y María Inés Muriel, y Lilia Cortés y Maribel Lagos que se dieron a la tarea de compilar trabajos, los primeros con Exclusión de evidencias en el sistema acusatorio colombiano, y las segundas con La pena. Más allá de lo penal, encontramos La participación política, educación y responsabilidad del Estado colombiano donde la coordinadora académica de nuestro pregrado compila 6 ensayos sobre estos temas. De su lado, Lilia Cortés reflexiona sobre las estrategias educativas universitarias del académico Ken Bain en La educación universitaria. En el derecho procesal civil, Jaime Mendoza y Angelly Villa dilucidan si el proceso monitorio como mecanismo procesal servirá para disminuir la mora judicial, cuestión que se plantean en El proceso monitorio, ¿quimera o realidad jurídica? Finalmente, alejándose de lo meramente jurídico, e incursionando en la ciencia política, tenemos el texto Filosofía Política Latinoamericana en el que Ángelo Mauricio Victoria obra como autor y compilador de una serie de ensayos acerca de la noción del "buen vivir" y su desarrollo en el contexto colombiano, ecuatoriano, mexicano y venezolano. Como vemos, nuestros esfuerzos se encaminan a enriquecer la ciencia del derecho, y por ahí derecho a sostener la acreditación de alta calidad que estamos en pos de ratificar con la re-acreditación que pronto esperamos. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali ; A publicação da nova Série de Pesquisa de Faculdade Se houver alguma maneira pela qual a Universidade possa devolver à sociedade o que está depositado nela, é a elaboração científica do conhecimento que, como tal, é importante para qualquer comunidade. Esta Revista, por exemplo, confirma esses esforços cada semestre vêm à luz pública. Nesse sentido, nossa Faculdade de Direito assumiu a tarefa, ainda mais dispendiosa, de preparar e organizar uma série bibliográfica de avanços ou resultados de pesquisa. Isto é, livros de nossos professores pesquisadores nos diferentes ramos do direito e disciplinas que se aproximam do jurídico. Para este propósito, se conta a partir do mes de abril com o conselho editorial de Lizardo Carvajal, destacado na região neste tipo de processos, para começar com um seminário chamado "mesa de redação", onde cada tarde da Quarta-feira, se forneceram as principais diretrizes para a estruturação de textos acadêmicos e científicos. Este espaço serviu para que os advogados tenham abordado o fenômeno da interdisciplinaridade e mais uma oportunidade de nos alinhar com os novos requisitos acadêmicos e editoriais, especialmente os do Departamento Administrativo de Ciência e Tecnologia (Colciencias). Os resultados, sendo modestos, não poderiam ser melhores. Na verdade, existem 16 títulos que estarão prontos para serem publicados, trabalhos submetidos a um trabalho cuidadoso e exigente de revisão de originais, relatórios sobre aspectos de semântica, sintaxe, estilo e ortografia. Além da publicação no clássico e tradicional meio em papel, a Série será publicada na Web. Um site, que nos contatará com o mundo inteiro. Especialmente desenhado para consulta através deste meio e na Internet, colocará nossos autores e nossos livros em relacionamento com os estudiosos de todo o mundo. O conhecimento que surgiu da pesquisa básica aplicada ao desenvolvimento experimental em nossos grupos de pesquisa ou da academia, transcenderão por esse meio, os corredores e salas de aula, estarão disponíveis em todo o mundo, especialmente no de fala española. Com rigorosos protocolos para acreditação documental. Respeito à publicação e catalogação, de acordo com os critérios básicos de acreditação de livros universitários resultantes da pesquisa científica, é dado cumprimento aos requisitos gerais da comunidade acadêmica e das instituições do estado. Nesse sentido, orienta-se os autores e editores no trabalho de publicação, contando com a revisão por pares, sendo uma tarefa essencial no processo de validação, publicação e divulgação da produção acadêmica e científica da Faculdade e seus programas de pós-graduação. A Série contém produção intelectual em Direito Penal e Criminalística. Daí o nome: Coleção Direito Penal, Criminalística e Ciências Forenses. Isso não é gratuito, já que o Mestrado em Direito Penal e o Mestrado em Criminalística e Ciências Forenses lideraram e fizeram presença no processo de pesquisa e no editorial. O conteúdo da coleção. existem dois títulos que catalogam as 80 pesquisas provenientes das teses dos mestrados mencionados. Nestes dois livros de consulta e de referência, indexan-se os autores, palavras-chave, jurados e presidentes de tese. É feita uma revisão técnica do conteúdo de cada tese. Está disponível assim, uma verdadeira coleção documental e um catálogo de produção intelectual decorrente dos mestrados acima mencionados. Sua utilidade e bom uso resultarão no desenvolvimento da pesquisa nessas áreas pela nossa Faculdade. Também no penal está o livro O Princípio da oportunidade de Enrique Arteaga Córdoba. Neste trabalho, trata-se de estabelecer o impacto que este instituto teve contra o novo sistema penal acusatório de tribunal oral. Maribel Lagos Enríquez compila cinco ensaios de dez pesquisadores do Grupo de Pesquisa "Sistemas penitenciários e prisionais". Seu título, penitenciários e prisionais em diversos contextos. A teoria do crime é a contribuição de Hernando Ordoñez Ramírez para abordar questões como controle social, imputabilidade e inimputabilidade, amplificação de dispositivos de tipo penal, punibilidade e responsabilidade. Por outro lado, María Inés Muriel Puerto, especialista em criminalística, compila ensaios em dois trabalhos: Criminalística e ciências forenses no sistema acusatório colombiano y A prova pericial no processo penal acusatório colombiano. Na mesma linha criminalística, Luis Guillermo González compila produtos de pesquisa no livro identificação humana. Os homicídios em série de Iván Valencia, agora em chave da criminologia, realizam uma fundamentação teórica sobre os assassinos em série e logo descreve as características de dois assassinos em série colombianos. Já em co-autoria, Héctor Hernández, Adolfo Murillo, Julián Durán e Herman Gómez, contribuem com seus ensaios jurídicos em aproximações ao direito colombiano atual; bem como aqueles nomeados Hernando Ordoñez e María Inés Muriel, e Lilia Cortés e Maribel Lagos que assumiram a tarefa de compilar trabalhos, os primeiros com Exclusão de evidências no sistema acusatorio colombiano, e os segundos com a pena. Além do penal, encontramos a participação política, a educação e a responsabilidade do Estado colombiano, onde a coordenadora acadêmica da nossa graduação compila seis ensaios sobre esses temas. Por sua parte, Lilia Cortés reflete sobre as estratégias educacionais acadêmicas do acadêmico Ken Bain na educação universitária. No direito do Processo Civil, Jaime Mendoza e Angelly Villa, esclarecem se o Processo de Monitoramento, como mecanismo processual, servirá para diminuir o incumprimento judicial, uma questão que é levantada no processo de pagamento, "quimera" ou realidade jurídica? Finalmente, afastando-se do puramente jurídico e incursionando na Ciência Política, temos o texto de Filosofia Política Latino-Americana em que Ángelo Mauricio Victoria atua como autor e compilador de uma série de ensaios sobre a noção de "bom viver" e seu desenvolvimento no Contexto colombiano, equatoriano, mexicano e venezuelano. Como vemos, nossos esforços visam enriquecer a disciplina do direito, para sustentar com fatos a re-acreditação de alta qualidade, que estamos no interesse de ratificar com o (re)credenciamento que esperamos em breve. José Hoover Salazar Ríos Facultad de Derecho, Ciencias Políticas y Sociales Universidad Libre Cali
In contemporary economics companies operate in a fast changing environment which forces them to adapt constantly. The never ending development seems to constitute the necessary condition for achieving the ultimate purpose of a company's function - the maximization of shareholder wealth. Company value is the greatest overall measurement of its efficient functioning. Thus numerous approaches to value were created. For public companies the market value of equity changes constantly and is publicly available. Companies actively support the increase in the market value of equity by releasing positive news. In this context the role of innovation announcements is crucial for all companies. Issues concerning innovation are strongly embedded in the current worldwide scientific discussion. However different sectors are unequally represented. The discussion on innovation in low-tech industries and services has received relatively little scholarly attention. Tourism represents both categories. The investigation of innovation in tourism is especially essential for the economy of the European Union as the sector contributes significantly to GDP generation, employment and investment. Increasing the knowledge of innovation in tourism is of vital theoretical and practical importance. Thus it was addressed in the present book. The research problem in the present book was expressed in the following question: what is the relationship between innovation announcements and the market value of equity of tourism enterprises? The main objective of the research was to measure the short- and long-term impact of innovation announcements on the market value of equity of tourism enterprises. Research aimed also at creating and verifying empirically the model explaining the relationship between innovation and the market value of tourism enterprises. The research contributed to the knowledge on innovation in tourism in two ways. First, the author's model representing the relationship was created. Second, the empirical research allowed the measurement of the effects of innovation announcements and the verification of the significance of the predictors of the market value of equity. In this research a systematic model-building procedure was applied. It relied on summarizing the existing scientific evidence on the relationship studied in order to build a comprehensive framework whilst also adding the author's propositions of predictors in the next step. In order to build the exhaustive design the method of systematic literature studies SALSA was employed. The study covered the period between 2000 and 2015. It used five scientific databases. The precise four-step procedure including content analysis and meta-synthesis resulted in the indication of two innovation-level, two firm-level innovation-related and five control variables important in the context of the relationship studied. Seven theoretically related predictors proposed by the author complemented this sound conceptual framework. In total the model accounted for eleven predictors: patent, CSR, type, degree of novelty involved, source, stage and the communication of innovation, R&D intensity and the innovativeness of the implementing company, squared R&D intensity and the interaction between R&D intensity and innovativeness. It covered also 8 control variables: industry, size, volume, total cash dividend, operational experience, leverage, return on equity and growth. The empirical research covered all the tourism enterprises listed on the main markets of the most important stock exchanges in the European Union in the period between February 2011 and February 2016. There were 111 such companies. The abnormal changes in the market value of equity resulting from innovation announcements of tourism enterprises constituted the subjects of analysis. Content analysis of the 9,000 innovation announcements resulted in creating the sampling frame of 985 releases referring to innovation consistent with the definition adopted in the present research. The research was performed on the representative sample of 398 observations. As Berk et al. state the total market value of a firm's equity equals the number of its shares times their current market price [2014]. If the number of shares is constant the change in their price becomes the right proxy for the changes in MV [Damodaran 2012]. In the present study the abnormal change in the market value of equity constituted the dependent variable. In line with the above considerations and previous research it was operationalized as the abnormal return. It was calculated in the short and the long term. In the short term the event-study method was employed. In the long term the buy-and-hold abnormal returns method was used. The expected returns in the short-term study were computed using the Carhart four-factor model [1997]. The abnormal returns were cumulated over the event windows and standardised which led to more powerful tests. The statistical significance of the changes in the market value of equity was tested using the Z-test and the two groups difference of means test. In order to test the author's model response surface regression and hierarchical regression were employed. The first one relies on introducing higher-order and interaction effects. The second one allows the testing of scientific hypotheses on the significance of particular predictors by building successive regression models, each adding new variables. The statistical analysis of the changes in the market value has hardly been reported in previous research. Such a study was performed here. It included the methods of descriptive statistics: central tendency, dispersion, skewness and peakedness. The first result of the empirical research reported in the book is the indication of the positive relationship between innovation announcements and the market value of equity of tourism enterprises. In the short term the effect concentrated in the event windows directly surrounding the event. In the +/- 1 day event window, the statistically significant increase in market value of equity was 0,38%. In the 6-months period it was 3,94%. The outcomes demonstrated that the initial reaction to the innovation news was adjusted in time. In the short term the market tended to undervalue the announced innovation. The difference in short- and long-term changes in the market value of equity and the statistical significance of the second suggested that the investors did not incorporate the new information immediately and fully. It means that the assessment of the effects of innovation announcements on the market value of equity of tourism enterprises should be considered over a longer period. The research did not deliver supportive evidence for the existence of leakage and dissemination effect. The significant changes in MV occurred in the period following the announcement. The fluctuations of market value of equity in the two days directly preceding the release and in the -6/-1 day event window were statistically insignificant. There is a small risk of significant fluctuations resulting from investors' aggressive trading prior to the announcement and unwinding part of the acquired position after it. The positive effects of successful innovation announcements were greater in number and magnitude than the negative effects of unsuccessful ones. The difference was statistically significant. In the +/- 1 day event window a typical change in market value of equity fell between 1,92% and -1,5%. In the half-year period the typical area of variability ranged between 16,07% and -8,95%. The distribution of changes in the market value of equity was right-skewed. It indicated that it was more probable to experience a high positive change in the market value of equity than to experience high loss. The leptokurtic character of the distribution showed that more variance resulted from infrequent extreme abnormal returns. The heterogeneity of the changes in the market value of equity required further explanation. In order to study the relationship between innovation announcements and the market value of equity of tourism enterprises the author's model was tested. The statistical significance of the groups of predictors and of the single predictors was verified. The outcomes of the analysis performed with the use of hierarchical regression indicated that innovation-level variables predict the changes in the market value of equity above and beyond the effect of the control and innovation-related company-level variables. The company-level innovation-related variables increased significantly the model's predictive power in the short term. In line with the initial hypothesis the research demonstrated that the effect of product innovation on the changes in market value resulting from innovation announcements was greater than that of other innovation types. New products may directly increase sales and impact positively on the company's cash flow. Furthermore it pointed out the positive effect of the first innovation announcement in relation to second and further releases. The informative value of the announcements beyond the first one was relatively small and caused little market reaction. In the context of market reactions the delivering of new information is essential. Moreover it was ascertained that in the short term the market rewarded the high advancement of the announced innovation and the high R&D intensity of the announcing company. In the case of hardly innovative tourism enterprises the market responded slightly to the development news and waited for the proof in the form of the innovation introduction. The high level of R&D intensity allowed tourism companies to differentiate themselves and increase innovative capabilities which was positively perceived by investors. In the long term investors acknowledged the positive effects of developing innovation in collaborative structures as it allows companies to benefit from the experience of collaborators and diminishes the risk. Furthermore the research delivered some inconclusive indications typified by the statistically insignificant results. The market positively received patented innovation in comparison to the non-patented one but the effect of such protection was relatively small. Patents are especially important for highly advanced technological innovation which is rare in tourism. Besides investors seemed optimistic about the innovation's degree of novelty involved. In line with the hypothesis they rewarded radical innovation as it carries higher potential benefits but the result was statistically insignificant. In the case of tourism dominated by minor upgrades investors treated radical innovation carefully and followed the "high risk – high return" strategy to a small extent. In line with the prediction in the long term the market seemed to reward highly R&D intensive tourism companies but the result was statistically insignificant. Moreover the research did not deliver supportive evidence for the existence of the second-order effect of R&D intensity and the interaction between R&D intensity and innovativeness. The inclusion of such variables did not predict changes in the market value of equity above and beyond the effect of the control variables. In the long term the diminishing marginal returns to R&D intensity were suggested but the effect was statistically insignificant. It may result from the level of expenditure on R&D in tourism which is too low to strongly advocate the diminishing marginal returns. In addition to the above outcomes the research delivered some unexpected results. It seemed that innovation without the elements of CSR was perceived better than innovation carrying such elements. The results were statistically insignificant. First, the CSR elements may have been perceived as superficial. Second, some previous research suggested that in non-innovative companies the concentration on social responsibility instead of enhancing innovativeness leads to a decrease in consumer satisfaction and in turn in market value [Luo and Bhattacharya 2006]. It seems to be the case in tourism. The number of innovation announcements released within a year before the event day did not have any impact on the reaction to the current announcement. Investors did not perceive companies reporting numerous innovations better. In the case of tourism enterprises it may result from the relatively high number of minor upgrades. It seems that their implementation did not guarantee the perception of the company as innovative. Each innovation announcement was evaluated irrespectively of such defined innovativeness. The results were statistically insignificant. The research did not deliver the supportive evidence for the market to reward the reported high advancement of innovation in the long term. The results were inconclusive due to their statistical insignificance. The research indicated that in the long term the stage of innovation at the moment of release was less important than in the short term. One possible explanation is that the period of six months following the development release might cover also the actual implementation. In the short term the effect of innovation developed in-house on the changes in market value resulting from innovation announcements was minimally greater than that of innovation from other sources. The calculated parameter and thus the actual difference were small. In the long term investors did not appreciate tourism companies' own efforts. The research question was positively answered by indicating the positive impact of innovation announcements on the market value of equity of tourism enterprises. Based on the empirical study all the hypotheses were verified. The study was burdened with several limitations. The research relied on specialist databases. As far as data accessibility is concerned the small amount of information inaccessible through databases required it to be collected directly from companies. Moreover the choice of linear regression modelling might not necessarily allow the capture of all possible effects. Besides which although the advantages of covering the period of relative stability have been discussed in the book the determination of the time frame prevents the generalisation of results in a period of major economic downturns. The research covered comprehensive announcements reporting innovation consistent with the definition adopted. As discussed in the book such an approach offered numerous benefits. However the omission of imprecise, incomplete and partial releases may be considered a certain limitation as this kind of information may also stimulate market reaction to some extent. In the light of the results of the present research it seems that a promising direction for further research is the in-depth, qualitative analysis explaining why and how the predictors influenced the market value of equity. It should cover the reasons behind the statistical significance of the predictors demonstrated in this research. Also the growing potential of alternative trading systems suggests the need for the replication of the study in this context. It is especially important for tourism enterprises which are mainly relatively small. Furthermore it seems important to compare the effects of innovation on tourism companies with the effects on other low-tech companies. It could deliver insights into the discussion on the specificity of tourism companies. In the light of the results obtained in this study it seems necessary to deepen the research on the interaction between innovation and corporate social responsibility. The qualitative analysis of the possible synergic effects appears to be a valuable course for further investigation. Value is the most comprehensive measure of company activity. However it is not the only one especially since companies in different periods may pursue different strategies (e.g. profit maximization). The effects of innovation on different financial measures seem to be an important direction for further research. The research contributed to the current scientific discussion on innovation in services with special regard to innovation in tourism. It complemented the broader knowledge on the efficiency of capital markets by providing a conceptual overview and empirical evidence. The research introduced the author's model representing the relationship between innovation announcements and the market value of equity of tourism enterprises. Thus it added to the understanding of the predictors of the market value of equity. The research was based on a representative sample and provided firm support for previous research indicating the positive effects of innovation on tourism companies. ; National Science Centre, Poland
