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The simple depiction of geometric population growth checked by famine and disease that achieved fame or notoriety through Malthus's First Essay of 1798 was anticipated in the work of a number of other writers. Some of these predecessors Malthus acknowledged in the preface to his much‐enlarged Second Essay of 1803: Montesquieu, Benjamin Franklin, James Steuart, Arthur Young, and Joseph Townsend. Other names could be added to such a list: Giovanni Botero perhaps most notably, in the late sixteenth century. Another name, less well known in this context, would also warrant notice: Sir Matthew Hale.Hale (1609–1676) was a prominent English jurist, chief justice under Charles II, and author of some classic legal treatises, among them A History and Analysis of the common Law of England (1713). On the side, he also wrote (as he says) "at leisure and broken times, and with great intervals, and many times hastily," a study of the peopling of the world titled The Primitive origination of Mankind, Considered and Examined According to the Light of Nature. Internal evidence dates this book's composition to the 1660s; it was published in London in 1677, the year after Hale's death, and has not been reprinted (aside from a part of it that was included, under the title "Essay on Population," as an appendix to George Chalmers's Estimate of the Comparative Strength of Great Britain (1782)). Excerpts from three chapters, discussing population growth and positive checks to it, are reprinted below, with minor modernization of spelling and punctuation.Hale's idiosyncratic aim was to demonstrate that humans had a beginning—that they had not always existed—and that the course of population growth accorded with the Bible's account of Noah's descendants. The Primitive Origination adduces a broad range of "natural and moral evidences" bearing on this topic. It vividly illustrates the still‐easy coexistence in the seventeenth century of argument based on classical or scriptural authority with one based on evidence and experience. Hale's main support is the former (most of the omitted sections of the excerpts below are lengthy recitations of classical texts), but he is clearly pleased to be able to bring statistics to buttress his case—whether from the Domesday Book on population distribution in medieval England, from back‐of‐the‐envelope calculations of net reproduction, or from Graunt's empirical findings on mortality. (On Graunt's Observations upon the Bills of Mortality (1662), noted as "lately printed," Hale remarks that it gives "a greater demonstration of the Gradual Increase of Mankind upon the face of the Earth, than a hundred notional arguments can either evince or confute.") At the same time, he is broadly credulous of the classical authors (Plato on Atlantis perhaps an exception) and appears to accept the chronology and bizarre longevities contained in the biblical narrative.Hale's book is cited approvingly by Sir William Petty in his Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind (1686) and may have influenced Petty's own treatment of his subject. A century later, Malthus seems not to have known of it—or perhaps, as social scientist, scorned to recognize what was primarily a work of apologetics.

Abstract: In the last century, refl ections on contract law have been almost entirely dominated by classical contract theory and laissez–faire ideology, while open considerations of effi ciency and justice have played a marginal role. The rise of European contract law has gradually led to the abandonment of traditional arguments typical of national private laws and has sparked a growing debate on effi ciency and justice. This trend does not always contribute to the quality of the debate, as it is often ideologically polarized between 'right wing' arguments pleading in favour of marketoriented polices and 'left wing' arguments in support of consumers' rights, both proposing solutions inspired by so–called common sentiment. This is mainly due to the absence of any reference to a clearly outlined theoretical framework and to the fact that the refl ections of contemporary political philosophy are largely ignored in the current debate. An examination of the various contemporary conceptions of justice is the only possible route to identifying a European social model on the basis of which to set rules for contracts as well as to provide the legal discourse on European contract law with a solid, rationally viable theoretical framework. For this reason, this paper aims at expounding the distributive options proposed by the main schools of thought in political philosophy and attempts to conciliate the demands of effi ciency and justice through the balancing of interests. In the last part of the paper, the author will apply his reasoning scheme to a specific question: the penalty clause.
Résumé: Au siècle dernier, la réfl exion sur le droit des contrats en Europe a été dominée quasi exclusivement par la théorie classique du contrat et par l'idéologie du laissez–faire, alors que la réfl exion sur l'effi cacité et sur la justice contractuelle est restée en marge de l'attention. La naissance lors de la dernière décennie du droit européen des contrats a eu pour conséquence d'une part l'abandon progressif du raisonnement traditionnel propre aux droits privés nationaux et, d'autre part, l'intensifi cation du débat autour de la notion de justice. Ce changement n'a pas toujours abouti à une amélioration de la qualité du débat, souvent caractérisé par une polarisation idéologique entre une politique de droite, au service d'un droit à connotation mercantile, et une politique de gauche, soutenant les droits des consommateurs, ces deux courants politiques proposant des solutions fondées sur le «sens commun». L'auteur estime que ceci est dÛ principalement l'absence d'un cadre théorique clair. L'étude des diverses conceptions contemporaines de la justice –utilitarisme compris– proposée dans cet article est la seule voie permettant d'identifi er un modèle social européen sur la base duquel défi nir les règles régissant le contrat et pour apporter au débat juridique sur le droit contractuel européen un cadre théorique solide et contrôlable de façon rationnelle. Dans la dernière partie de l'article le système de raisonnement proposé s'applique à un cas spécifi que: la clause pénale.
Zusammenfassung: Im letzten Jahrhundert wurde das Vertragsrecht in Europa fast gänzlich von der Theorie des Rechtsgeschäfts und der Ideologie des, laissez–faire" bestimmt.

This article examines U.S.-Cuban academic and educational exchanges from 1959 to 2005. The term International Educational Flows (IEFs) is introduced, defined as movements of individuals and/or organized groups across national boundaries for the primary purpose of studying, researching, expanding and/or sharing academic knowledge via any combination of institutional, organizational, and/or experiential delivery. The author argues that IEFs have not been given due attention as a ''signifying actor'' in the international arena to date. The case of the United States and Cuba is used to illustrate how IEFs can impact, and be impacted by, the broader contexts of bi-national relations as well as the actions of interested individuals and groups. U.S.-Cuban academic and educational IEFs during five chronological periods are examined: 1959–1976, 1977–1981, 1982–1996, 1997–2002, and 2003–present. For each period, U.S. and Cuban governmental approaches toward bilateral IEFs are discussed as well as the development of IEFs themselves. Information obtained via interviews with many of the key individuals involved in U.S.-Cuban IEFs provides interesting commentary and illustrates the significant role that dedicated individuals and groups have played over time. Mention is made of the current (2005) sui generis situation, attributable primarily to U.S. governmental policies. Resumen Este artículo examina los intercambios académicos y educacionales entre Estados Unidos y Cuba desde 1959 a 2005. Se introduce aquí la expresión International Educational Flows (IEFs), que se define como los movimientos de individuos y/o grupos organizados a través de fronteras nacionales con el propósito primordial de estudiar, investigar, expandir y/o compartir conocimiento académico por vías de cualquier combinación de intercambios institucionales, organizativos y/o como resultado de la experiencia. La autora sostiene que hasta la fecha los IEFs no han recibido la debida atención en tanto que un ''significativo actor'' en la arena internacional. El caso de las relaciones entre EE.UU. y Cuba se utiliza aquí para ilustrar cómo los IEFs pueden impactar, y a la vez ser impactados, por contextos más amplios de las relaciones binacionales, así como por las acciones de individuos y grupos interesados en ellos. Se examinan también aquí los IEFs académicos e institucionales de las relaciones EE.UU.-Cuba durante cinco períodos cronológicos: 1959–1976, 1977–1981, 1982– 1996, 1997–2002 y 2003 al presente. Para cada período, se discuten las actitudes de los Estados Unidos y de Cuba hacia los IEFs bilaterales, así como el desarrollo de los IEFs como tales. La información obtenida por vía de entrevistas con muchos de los individuos claves que han estado involucrados en los IEFs entre Estados Unidos y Cuba proporciona un interesante comentario e ilustra el significativo rol que dedicados individuos y grupos han jugado a lo largo del tiempo. Se menciona también la actual (2005) situación sui generis, atribuible primordialmente a las políticas gubernamentales de los Estados Unidos.

Au Québec, l'étiquette juridique accolée au harcèlement sexuel a connu plusieurs changements depuis la première décision canadienne dans ce domaine en 1980. La qualification juridique du harcèlement sexuel est passée de faute extracontractuelle en vertu de l'article 1053 du Code civil du Bas-Canada (maintenant art. 1457 du Code civil du Qué bec)à une atteinte au droit à l'égalité selon la Charte des droits et liberté s de la personne (art. 4, 10, 10.1, et 46) et la Charte canadienne des droits et liberté s (art. 15) à une lésion professionnelle au sens de la Loi sur les accidents du travail et maladies professionnelles (art. 2) à un problème de relations de travail (pour les travailleuses syndiquées) à du harcèlement psychologique selon les nouvelles dispositions de la Loi sur les normes du travail. Un comportement harcelant peut se voir accoler toutes ces étiquettes à la fois. Cependant, quelques-unes d'entre elles imposent le forum compétent. Dans certains cas, il s'agira de compétence exclusive; dans d'autres, de compétence concurrentielle. Enfin, dans d'autres, il n'est pas clair quelle instance a compétence. Le présent texte se penche, en tenant compte des rapports sociaux de sexe, sur les enjeux que ces changements d'appellations et de forum posent à l'accessibilité à la justice des victimes de harcèlement sexuel au travail. Les débats sur la compétence juridictionnelle, et les changements de catégories juridiques qui en découlent, en matière de harcèlement sexuel au travail ont-ils été positifs pour les femmes eu égard à leur accessibilité à la justice? L'auteure conclut que les changements se sont faits sans tenir compte des réalités et des besoins des victimes.
In Québec, the legal definition of sexual harassment has undergone many changes since the first Canadian decision in this area in 1980. The legal qualification of sexual harassment has gone from being an extra-contractual tort under article 1053 of the Civil Code of Lower Canada (now Art. 1457 of the Civil Code of Qué bec), a breach of equality rights under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (art. 4, 10, 10.1, and 46) and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (section 15), an employment injury as defined in section 2 of the Act respecting industrial accidents and occupational diseases to a labour relations problem (for unionized women workers) or psychological harassment under the terms of the new amendments to the Act respecting labour standards. Harassing behaviour can come under all of these legal qualifications at the same time. Some of these laws, however, impose a single jurisdiction. In certain circumstances, the jurisdiction will be exclusive; in other instances, parallel jurisdictions are available. Finally, in other cases, it is not yet clear which tribunal has jurisdiction. This article analyzes the issues raised by these many changes in labeling and in forum, from a gender perspective, with respect to access to justice for victims of sexual harassment in the workplace. Have these debates on jurisdictions and consequent changes in legal qualifications had a positive effect on women's access to justice? The author concludes that these changes have been made without taking into account the realities and needs of victims.

SUMMARY:
Addressing the factor of post-Soviet Islam in Central Asia, Adeeb Khalid argues that for decades Islam was envisioned as an archetypical opposition to communism, while the study of Central Asian societies was the prerogative of nationalities studies as a subdiscipline of Sovietology. Despite the emergence of several profound studies of Islamic societies in the (former) USSR, the view that automatically ascribes political meaning to Islam still predominates, now turning it from a victim of Communism into a major threat to regional security.

Arguing against a view of Islam as a rigid system independent of local context, Khalid maintains that responsible research into Islamic societies of Central Asia must take into account Soviet history: as the USSR fell apart, the re-Islamization of the region proceeded along with the persistence of ethno-national identities in a way specific to the early 21 st century.

According to Khalid, during the Soviet period Islam and tradition were attacked, Islam was provincialized, and Soviet Muslims were cut off from the rest of the Muslim world. At the same time, the transmission of religious knowledge was limited. Nevertheless, the authorities established the Central Asian Spiritual Administration for Muslims (SADUM), quite in disregard of Islamic tradition, in 1943. SADUM did help train a small number of theologians and maintain a minimal presence of Islam in Central Asia, while the Soviet-promoted national intelligentsia focused on developing and sustaining ethno-national identities.

Soviet authority did not mean the annihilation of local communities, which often assumed a Soviet form as collective farms or other institutions. It was through these communities that Islam was often transmitted. Sufism became widespread for it was well suited for informal existence. As a result, Islam became a marker of local and national identity, without requiring a Muslim to subscribe to religious rules and regulations.

Khalid stresses that this situation was widespread among premodern societies. In Central Asia, the Jadid movement attempted to reform and reinvigorate Islam in the 19 th century. Yet, the Soviet "localization" of Islam was not just a return to the pre-Jadid situation: during the Soviet period Islam became part of the cultural heritage of the nation.

Adeeb Khalid sees the Soviet experience of intervening in Islamic life and tradition as part of a broader context (although the Soviet case was unique in its longevity and fortitude). The author notes that discussions of post-Soviet Islam in Central Asia are conducted in the context of a "return" to original national culture, of which Islam is a part. Discussions of Islam demonstrate that references made to it are possible only in the context of some other topics (progress, education, culture, etc). The disintegration of the Soviet Union saw the persistence of party nomenklatura riding the national rhetoric. Khalid briefly surveys the role played by Islam in contemporary Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, describes these regimes' struggle against various Islamic movements, and concludes that ethno-national identities in contemporary Central Asia appropriated Islam as their own.

The modern security threats in Europe, and especially in the transitional region of Southeastern Europe, are considerably different from the traditional military threats arising from statehood-related aspirations of the minorities, or from unresolved border issues between neighbours, or between regional aspirations of the former superpowers. Today's security threats emanate primarily from organized crime and terrorism, two curses that have spread their realm across the globe, and that threaten to establish breeding grounds in Southeastern Europe, due to the relatively soft and porous borders, unresolved status of ethnic communities in neighbouring states, internal instability and weakness of the institutions in the region?s states, as well as contradictory and sometimes counterproductive signals that are sent to the region by the large international organizations and influential countries. A particular danger for the region arises from the newly developing "netted" structures of organized crime, which present organized criminal gangs not only as an alternative "industry" to various legitimate social services, an industry whose parts mutually compete, but increasingly as an aspiring government in itself, namely an industry whose parts cooperate, rather than competing, and which tend to reduce the level of competition and increase the level of cooperation across the region, thus threatening the very foundations of the state, and hijacking the state agenda by co-opting various state agencies and officials through corruption, intimidation, or manipulation into collusion. This paper briefly outlines the main currents of development of the structures and aspirations of organized criminal gangs in the region their changing roles in the region's societies, and the perspectives of their organized synergy with terrorist organizations occurring. It also discusses the most effective methods to address these problems and the conditions for their development and implementation in the region. Namely the paper espouses a central argument that aims to show that the logic of development of terrorism in Europe implies that, sooner or later, especially Islamic terrorist organizations will be faced with a very real dilemma of whether or not to establish systematic cooperation with organized crime. Such cooperation would offer tremendous operational advantages to terrorists, with logistics for terrorist actions being provided by organized crime, while at the same time terrorism could provide an umbrella of "political legitimation" through "service to the right cause" of those who see themselves as structurally oppressed, for the classic operations of organized crime. Such quasilegitimation is already commonplace in Latin America, where traders in poppy flower, who pass the produce on to enter the chain of production and trafficking of heroin to the western markets sometimes enjoy the status of those who care for the entire communities of poor, poppy-growing Latin American farmers. Similar structures of quasilegitimation could be established in areas populated mainly by Islamic inhabitants, should the international offensive led by the US against Islamic countries continue unabated, and synergies with organized crime could be used by the particularly "entrepreneurial" leaders of certain terrorist groups. The author warns against allowing such synergies to take place by the continuing aggression on the international front, which causes an increase in terrorism through the simple action and reaction mechanism.

SUMMARY:
Vladimir Bobrovnikov's article focuses on the reconstruction of Islamic traditions on a collective farm in Dagestan. Based upon fieldwork done in the early 1990s in the Dagestani aul of Khustada, Bobrovnikov's article first explores the concept of tradition in Soviet ethnography and Western social studies.

Khushtada was chosen for research because it is one of the centers of Islamic life in Dagestan. The village houses a seventeenth century mosque, Sufi monuments, and many praying houses. Local memory often refers to the role of the Khustada people in the spread of Islam in Dagestan and links Islam to local events. A popular local narrative refers to volunteers from the village who joined Imam Shamil, while another one describes a Naqshbandi sheikh killed by the Soviet authorities. During Soviet times, Islamic traditions, the Koran, and Sufism were taught illegally in Khushtada. Despite the stress on resistance to the Soviet authorities, the local population remembers nostalgically the Soviet collective farm, which survives today as a form of communal self-organization ( dzhamaat ) centered on the mosque and run by the local Islamic elite, and contributes to the maintenance of the local mosque. The dzhamaat also received the land that belonged to the collective farm.

Islamic authorities not only control the village administration but also implement the shari'a and, although the dzhamaat has no means to enforce its decisions, the force of public opinion secures its authority. However, the judicial authority of the local Islamic administration covers only minor cases, while for serious cases the people of Khushtada address the militia and courts in the district center. However, in mid-1990s the Islamic community of Khushtada has been split between "Sufists" (followers of the local Islam) and "Wahhabists" (followers of the reformer al-Wahhab).

According to the author, despite the revival of Islam based on the legacy of Soviet collective farms, "Islamic traditions" in Dagestan cover a great number of ruptures and discontinuities (such as prolonged periods when mosques were closed or Sufi educational patterns broke down). Russian has replaced Arabic, and few people can read old manuscripts. Today's basis for Islamic revival, the Soviet collective farm, though, appears to have emerged as an heir to the local self-government unit, introduced by the Russian imperial administration in the 1860s. And yet, the collective farm, which replaced the dzhamaat during the Soviet period, itself profoundly changed in the last half century.

Bobrovnikov concludes that his research into the transformations of the community in Khushtada allows arguing that there is no "primordial" Islamic tradition in Dagestan. These traditions emerged in response to colonial and Soviet transformations and modernization. The invented traditions of an Islamic and a Soviet past merged in the collective farm / dzhamaat . Bobrovnikov concurs that it is in local communities that the dynamics of Islamic life and the transmission of Islamic knowledge are defined, yet he does not agree that these local communities are necessarily in opposition to the state. Soviet authorities attempted to use traditionalist discourse and to maintain local communities in a new form. In doing so, they helped the carriers of these "invented traditions" to grab power.

When Flight Lieutenant J.J. Rawlings and a group of junior officers seized power in December 1981 from the corrupt Peoples National Par ty, their action was widely celebrated throughout Ghana. Their policies for progressive reforms and programme for the revolutionary transfor mation of Ghanaian society marked a high point in the politics of the country, comparable only perhaps with the heyday of Kwame Nkrumah and the Independence Movement.* But now, six years on, many of those involved in the 'December In tervention' have been forced into exile and others have been imprison ed, while national debate and criticism of the Provisional National Defence Council's (PNDC) government (a feature of the early regimen) is being stifled, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) is gaining influence over economic policy. The most significant gesture of the PNDC's early commitment to working people was the proclamation of People's and Workers' Defence Committees in the cities and countryside. And it is their radicalising impact that has been slowly eroded since 1983. Initially, these committees, similar to the dynamising groups in Mozambique and Cuba functioned as social and economic units, setting in motion waves of radical popular action aimed at improving living conditions and confronting exploitative foreign companies and local bureaucracies. The consolidation of the popular committees was hindered by the ac tivities of right-wing infiltrators and by ultra-leftist initiatives — pro blems further compounded by numerous attempts, in 1983, to over throw the government. (The committees posed a serious threat to the neo-colonial order and the interests of foreign companies. The US, in particular, made a number of efforts to destabilise the PNDC and the revolutionary process.) Attempts to overthrow the PNDC were followed by government purges and the flight into exile of leading cadres of the Intervention. The popular committees were then restructured and deradicalised, with the emphasis being placed on economic productivi ty and 'national reconciliation'. The national secretariat of the popular committees was also dissolved. All this meant that the organisational base of the progressive movement in the government had been weaken ed. And the corporate power of the army, which Rawlings, particularly, had been so keen to transform into a popular political force, was re- affirmed. Within the PNDC and the Left serious disagreements emerged over a broad range of issues — the nature and pace of social and political change, the role of the army and its corporate power. But the most vex ed question was how to save an economy on the verge of collapse. After the failure to raise capital from non-western sources, appealing to the IMF appeared to most members of the reconstituted PNDC to be the most pragmatic option. Yao Graham, one of the leading figures of the 'December Interven tion', and author of the following article on Ghana's relationship with the IMF, in which he raises central issues about radical transformation in the Third World, is in jail. He has been detained without trial or even official acknowledgement since July 1987. Detained with him are pro minent journalist and broadcaster Kwame Karikari, trade union leader Adu Amankwa, former Secretary for Agriculture Ndebugre, Akoto Ampaw and Kwesi Pratt.

AbstractThe trend towards reorganisation of part time farms in continental Europe is slow and weak. Many farmers simply stick to tradition, some fear the risks involved in change and some intend giving up their land later on in order to enjoy an easier life. If, however, the general economic structure of the country is such that greater food production is required and waste of land cannot be tolerated, and if part time farmers are firmly resolved to hold on to their farms, rational reorganisation of part time holdings becomes economically necessary, and should be fostered. The author deals with the problems of why, where and how to foster the adjustment of pan time farms to multiple job holding in such a way that work loads are reduced and yields do not fall below those of full time farms in the same size class. While primitive methods, remaining more or less within the traditions of peasant‐like, subsistence mixed farming, do not lead to higher yields or to more rational use of land, a substantial reorganisation of farms towards modem, specialised, commercial production may reduce labour requirements and still increase yields. It may, with further labour saving developments in agriculture, contribute to the progressive merging of village and town.RésuméEn Europe continentale, la tendance à restructurer l'agriculture à temps partiel s'avère faible: la plupart des agriculteurs sont rivés à la tradition, certains craignant tout pari sur le changement, d'autrcs attendant simplemcnt de vendre leur tcrre pour améliorer leur niveau de vie. Or, quand la structure économique d'un pays lui impose d'augmenter sa production alimentaire et done de ne pas gaspiller la tcrre, et lorsquc, par ailleurs, les agriculteurs à temps paniel se monttent très attachs à leuts exploitations, il devient nécessaire de réorganiser ce type d'agriculture. LCARauteur traitc des conditions susceptiblcs de provoquer l'adaptation de l'agriculture à temps partiel à la pluriactivité, de manière telle que les charges de travail soient réduites et que les rendements restent comparablcs à ceux des autres exploitations de dimensions équivalcntes. Les méthodes ancestrales, plus ou moins inscrites dans les traditions paysannes, bref l'agriculture mixte de subsistance ne permet pas en effet ni un rendement eleve, ni un usage rationnel du sol. La restructuration doit done s'orienter vers des exploitations modernes, spécialisées, tournées vers le marché, qui n'cxigeront pas trop de travail tout en accroissant les rendcments. En permettant de préserver l'emploi agricole dans le futur, cette réorganisation contribuera aussi à une intégration croissante de la ville et de la campagne.KurzfassungDer Trend zur Umstellung von Ncbenerwerbsbetrieben in Kontinentaleuropa ist langsam und schwach. Viele Landwine halten an der Tradition fest, einige fürchten das Risiko, das mit einer Veränderung verbunden ist und einige neigen zur späteren Aufgabe ihres Landes, urn sich ein einfacheres Leben zu machcn. Wenn jedoch die allgemeine ökonomische Situation eines Landes eine vermehrte Nahrungsmittelprodulction erfordert und ungenutztes Land nicht toleriert werden kann, und wenn Nebcnerwerbslandwirte sehr ent‐schlossen an ihrem Bctrieb festhaltcn, wird eine rationelle Umstellung der Nebenerwerbs‐betriebe notwendig und sollte gefördert werden. Der Autor behandelt die Probleme warum, wo und wie die Anpassung von Nebenerwerbsbetrieben an die doppelberufliche Tätigkeit so gefördert werden kann, daβ die Arbeitsbclastung gesenkt wird, ohne dass die Erträge unter diejenigen von Vollerwerbsbetrieben der gleichen Gröβenklassc fallen. Da einfache Verfahren im Rahmen der traditionellen bäuerlichen, subsistenzorientierten gemischten Land‐wirtschaft nicht zu höheren Erträgen oder zu einer rationelleren Landnutzung führen, kann eine gänzliche Umstellung der Betriebe auf eine moderne, spezialisierte und marktorientierte Produktion den Arbeitsbedarf reduzieren und dennoch die Erträge steigen lassen. So kann durch weitere arbeitssparende Entwicklungcn in der Landwirtschaft zur fortschreitenden Annäherung von Stadt und Land beigetragen werden.

Novelist, playwright and short story writer Milan Kundera is one of the many Czech authors who, though they represent the best in their country's contemporary literature, cannot publish their work in Prague. Acclaimed in France, where in 1973 he won a major literary prize for his last but one novel, and published in English, German, Dutch, Swedish, Finnish, Hebrew, Japanese and many other languages, he remains one of the 400 or more writers who are 'on the index' in post-invasion, 'normalised' Czechoslovakia. Born in Brno forty-eight years ago, Kundera was until 1969 a professor at the Prague Film Faculty, his students including all the young film makers who were to bring fame to the Czechoslovak cinema in the sixties with such movies as The Firemen's Ball, A Blonde in Love and Closely Observed Trains. In 1960 he published a highly influential essay, 'The Art of the Novel'. Two years later the National Theatre put on his first play, The Owners of the Keys. Produced by Otomar Kreja, the play was an immediate success and was awarded the State Prize in 1963. His first novel, The Joke, came out in 1967, being reprinted twice in a matter of months and reaching a total of 116,000 copies. This book, whose appearance was delayed by a long, determined struggle with the censor, opened the way to publication abroad, where Aragon called it one of the greatest novels of the century. After the Soviet invasion Kundera was forced to leave the faculty, his work was no longer published in Czechoslovakia, all his books being removed from the public libraries. Since then, his works have only come out in translation. Life Is Elsewhere ( see Index 4/1974, pp.53–62) first appeared in Paris in 1973, where it won the Prix Medicis for the best foreign novel of the year. The French version of his latest novel, The Farewell Party, was published last year. In 1975 Kundera was offered a professorship by the University of Rennes and obtained permission from the Czechoslovak authorities to go to France, which is now his second home. All his prose works now exist in English translation. (For an appraisal of his work, see Robert C. Porter's article in Index 4/1975, pp.41–6). Unfortunately, The Joke - published by Macdonald in London and Coward McCann in New York in 1969 - was drastically cut without the author's consent, forcing Kundera to write an indignant letter to the Times Literary Supplement, disclaiming all responsibility - an interesting case of a non-political, commercial censorship. The irony of the situation was certainly not lost on the author, who is a master of the genre. His collection of short stories, Laughable Loves ( with a foreword by Philip Roth) and his other two novels have since been published by Knopf, and The Farewell Party has just been brought out by John Murray in London. This selection of Kundera's stimulating and often provocative views on such topics as the writer in exile, committed literature, the death of the novel, the nature of comedy, and so on, has been compiled by George Theiner.

SummaryInstitutional Changes in Rural LifeIn dealing with institutional problems, particularly when referring to rural development, the sociologist should not avoid value‐judgements. With increasing institutional specialization and growth, an increase occurs in individual and collective social action of an intentional character. This intentionality calls for an explicitation of the values underlying the action. Sociology today is unable to meet this problem because of its 'ethical agnostic' approach.In choosing an explicitly non‐ethical‐agnostic approach, the societal trend towards emancipation or freedom is elected as a guideline for sociological analysis. Freedom is provisionally defined as: opportunity or possibility to consciously exercise control on one's own future. With some examples it is shown that rural sociological research at present does not acquire meaningful information about the interplay between individual and institutional intentional action which brings about socio‐economic development.A continuum of rigidity for the overall societal institutional context, as being the specifically institutional counterpart of the traditional‐modern continuum, is hypothesized as a tentative framework for discussing institutional changes. In order to show the validity of the hypothesis, two polar cases for the degree of rigidity in the overall institutional context, present within the same large class of fairly developed societies, Sweden and Italy, are compared. The illustration is tentative, because the author has had to resort to non‐sociological documentation. The conclusion is that the major differences between the two institutional contexts will be functionally related mainly with the type of institutional education and with the degree of authoritarian and autocratic thinking in either case.Passing on to examine a few recent institutional developments, it is stated that their importance for the development of the countryside can only be evaluated if the possibilities for change in collateral institutional fields are also taken into consideration.In the countryside, a process of formalization of functions into new institutions is to be noticed, but the process is not likely to have an equal intensity all over Europe. The continuum of institutional rigidity can help to explain several apparent contradictions in this field which have not so far been cleared by sociological research.Similarly, although educational standards are rising in the countryside everywhere, this is no yardstick for measuring educational development: the place of the society on the continuum should be taken into account.Finally, some overall institutional trends in developed countries are reviewed: the increase in autonomous forces, a shift of political power from the local to national (or 'higher') levels; the increasing importance of economic profitability in institutional development; the trends towards the forming of 'two‐layer'‐societies; the forming of an image of society as a 'firm‐like' organization.All through the discussion of these various points comments are made on the shortcomings in sociological research.In the conclusion some major contradictions in the ideology of a value‐free exercise of sociological research are briefly analyzed. Instead of taking the position of an uninvolved technician or judge of other people's doings, the sociologist should work on the basis of a professional ethic, whereby major tasks would be found in the study and discovery of social phenomena in as far as these are disfunctional for social emancipation or freedom.

Novel strategies with NRTIs‐sparing regimen in antiretroviral naïve HIV‐infected patients are currently used in clinical trials [1]. We previously presented preliminary results of this study [2] and here we present the 48‐weeks final results. Prospective, open‐label, randomised (1:1), multicenter, proof‐of‐concept trial. HIV‐infected naïve patients were assigned to once daily maraviroc (MVC) plus lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) or to tenofovir/emtricitabine (TDF/FTC) plus LPV/r. Objectives of the study were the 48‐weeks virological and immunological efficacy. Data were collected at baseline (BL) and at 4, 12, 24, 36 and 48 weeks. T cell subsets from frozen peripheral blood mononuclear cells collected at BL, 4 and 48 weeks were also evaluated. ANOVA for repeated measures performed and Greenhouse‐Geisser probabilities calculated. Results reported as median (Q1–Q3) or frequency (%). Fifty patients (26 in MVC group and 24 in TDF/FTC group) were enrolled and reached week 48. Similar BL characteristics were observed in the two study groups; age: 39.1 (34.2–44) years, 2/50 (4%) females, infected since 2.9 (0.8–5.3) years, CD4+ nadir 266 (242–315) cells/µL, BL CD4+ 295 (260–369) cells/µL; CD4% 18.6 (14.6–23), HIV‐RNA 4.4 (3.9–4.8) log10 copies/mL. At W48, all patients in MVC group and 22/24 (96%) in TDF/FTC group had HIV‐RNA<50 copies/ml (p=0.225). CD4+ trend during follow‐up was different between the two groups (p=0.046) with a higher CD4 gain of 286 (183–343) vs 199 (125–285) cells/mL in MVC and TDF/FTC, respectively (p=0.033). In MVC vs TDF/FTC group, we observed a higher expression of CCR5+CD4+ T cells [W48 change: +7.5% (−4.5/11) vs −5.4 (−15.1/−0.5), p=0.016] and a higher increase of CD4+ effector memory [W48 change: +1.6% (0.7/4.8) vs ‐4.4 (−13.5/−0.2), p=0.007]. No significant variations in naïve and central memory CD4+ T cells. Treatment was well tolerated, without grade 3 or 4 adverse events. No significant difference between the two groups as for the 48‐weeks trend of bone marrow function, AST, ALT and CPK values, creatinine value, glicyde profile (fasting glucose, fasting insuline) and lipid profile (total cholesterol, LDL and HDL cholesterol, tryglicerides). Results are shown in Table 1. In naïve‐patients, virological efficacy and tolerability of a NRTIs‐sparing regimen with maraviroc and lopinavir/ritonavir was similar to conventional treatment in addition to a better immunological recovery, in particular of the Effector Memory CD4+ cells subset.















Baseline
Week 12
Week 24
Week 36
Week 48
p‐valuea




CD4+ cells/mm3
MVC+LPV/r
292 (261–359)
438 (381–500)
517 (432–620)
533 (457–682)
614 (455–709)
0.046



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
297 (257–373)
450 (354–511)
496 (367–568)
470 (402–568)
505 (419–705)



CD4%
MVC+LPV/r
19.5 (16.3–24.3)
24 (18–29.5)
26.2 (22.2–29)
28.2 (21.3–32.2)
27.7 (21.6–33)
0.718



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
18.8 (14.3–22.3)
24.7 (18.4–26.2)
25.2 (21.3–30.1)
24.9 (21.5–31.6)
25.7 (22.1–30.2)



CD4/CD8 ratio
MVC+LPV/r
0.35 (0.25–0.48)
0.45 (0.3–0.62)
0.54 (0.4–0.67)
0.66 (0.4–0.82)
0.72 (0.47–0.93)
0.316



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
0.33 (0.26–0.4)
0.44 (0.33–0.55)
0.51 (0.39–0.66)
0.52 (0.48–0.7)
0.54 (0.49–0.72)



HIV‐RNA log10 copies/ml
MVC+LPV/r
4.42 (4.07–4.84)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
0.188



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
4.41 (3.84–4.76)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)
1.56 (1.56–1.56)



Haemoglobin (g/dL)
MVC+LPV/r
14.7 (13.7–15.1)
14 (13.5–14.6)
14.3 (13.7–14.9)
14.1 (13.3–15.1)
14.5 (13.6–15.2)
0.357



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
14.1 (13.8–14.9)
14.4 (13.5–15.1)
14.8 (13.5–15.3)
14.7 (13.7–15.3)
14.7 (13.6–15.2)



White blood cell (109/mm3)
MVC+LPV/r
5 (4.6–5.6)
5.6 (5.2–6.9)
5.8 (4.8–7.2)
5.9 (5–7.7)
5.9 (5–7.5)
0.806



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
4.5 (3.9–5.2)
4.3 (4.3–6.5)
5.1 (4.5–7.1)
5.1 (4.3–6.8)
5.5 (4.4–6.7)



Cholesterol (mg/dl)
MVC+LPV/r
178 (149–204)
–
202 (177–233)
–
218 (167–260)
0.794



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
160 (144–194)
–
189 (157–239)
–
199 (164–239)



Tryglicerides (mg/dl)
MVC+LPV/r
91 (64–126)
–
193 (113–254)
–
170 (105–270)
0.825



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
91 (66–148)
–
159 (106–203)
–
147 (110‐187)



Glucose (mg/dl)
MVC+LPV/r
84 (78–91)
–
86 (75–89)
–
84 (76–93)
0.200



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
81 (75–89)
–
85 (79–92)
–
82 (77–88)



Insulin (U/L)
MVC+LPV/r
5.7 (4–10.2)
–
7 (5.1–8.4)
–
6.8 (5.8–10.8)
0.554



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
7.2 (5.7–14.6)
–
6.8 (5.7–10)
–
5.8 (5.3–9.3)



Creatinine (mg/dl)
MVC+LPV/r
0.83 (0.77–0.95)
0.79 (0.72–0.85)
0.78 (0.69–0.87)
0.78 (0.71–0.86)
0.81 (0.75–0.87)
0.149



TDF/FTC+LPV/r
0.83 (0.78–0.98)
0.88 (0.79–1)
0.85 (0.75–0.93)
0.85 (0.77–0.92)
0.85 (0.74–0.95)

(S 7.4.1954) Guess what! Well, you'll never guess, will you?, so I'll have to say it instead: "WE'VE GOT A RADIO!" Isn't it ghastly! We've had it since Saturday. It's wonderful and you can hear terribly well. It's a portable radio, a Fazer. On Saturday evening I was here on my own and I listened to "Saturday Sauna" on the radio and I had a lovely evening all alone. (S 10.2.1955) Desirée's been made into a film! Or at least it was filmed a short while ago. It'll be on in America and every other country of course before it comes to Finland, for ages I expect. Just have to be patient. There's Jean Simmons as Desirée and Stewart Granger as Jean Baptiste! Wonderful! (K 22.5.1956) The journey (school outing to Turku) took three hours and we sang and ate and watched the scenery. The train went through Porkkala,1 and you can now ride through without pulling the blinds down. The area looked grim. There were bright blue and green hovels sticking up all untended in the middle of the fields, the trees had been chopped off three metres above the ground, and wherever you looked you saw the charred ruins of burnt-out houses. The houses looked so awful we were horrified. The only living thing we saw was a solitary hen. The Russkis certainly got an earful on this trip! 1 The area leased to the Soviet Union for a period of 50 years under the interim peace treaty signed in 1944. It was returned to Finland in already 1956. 2 EPILOGUE: A STORY OF THE TWO DIARIES 1951-1960 Once upon a time there were two young Finnish girls, Satu Koskimies (S) and Katarina Haavio (K) (the latter of whom is also the writer of this article, Katarina Eskola). And it so happened that these girls applied to and were accepted in the well-known secondary school for girls called the Girls' Normal Lyceum in Helsinki, and entered the same class in spring 1951. Although they did not at first sit side by side, they became - after bitter struggles of jealousy and friendship - the best of friends. For S, who was the only child of her parents, both musicians, this friendship meant entrance to a larger family. K was the second youngest child in an academic family of five children. The head of the family was the father; the mother had died in January 1951. The two girls loved to write. Apart from their diaries, they wrote poems and stories as well. Their dreams about their future professions were connected with writing. (And these dreams also came true: S became a poet and an editor, K a journalist and later a university scholar and teacher.) S and K kept diaries during the whole time they attended secondary school. K had started her diary just a few weeks before her mother died, in January 1951. S, in turn, wrote her first diary entries in February 1953. In 1951-1960 they filled the pages of as many as 22 diaries, which they have carefully preserved. Together, the diaries amount to 3100 pages. The friendship between S and K has continued up to this day. Today we live about one hundred metres apart in Käpylä, Helsinki, ring each other up every day, and meet as often as possible. When we turned 50 some years ago, we started, for some reason, to read our early diaries. This glimpse into our bygone selves and bygone worlds launched a longer process that we could not imagine at the time. It ended up in two thick tomes, 50-luvun tytöt (Girls of the fifties), which was published in 1992, and 50-luvun teinit (Teenagers of the fifties), which came out in 1994. The books consist of our authentic diaries from the years 1951-1960; and in addition, the latter volume contains the letters we sent to each other. Since our original diaries had over 3100 pages, we knew we would have to reduce the number of the entries. However, it was far from easy to decide what to drop. Everything felt important. When selecting the entries to be published in our joint volume, we therefore tried, first and foremost, to retain the everyday life in all its aspects, as recorded in the diaries, in the book as well. This made it necessary for us e.g. to accept some repetition. When abridging a manuscript, one also has the chance to censor the text. We decided to drop some epithets and sequences that we thought would be extremely delicate or insulting to the persons involved. Our choices were naturally very subjective; if someone else had abridged the manuscript, the result might have been different. However, even the reader of our book form diaries can, to some extent at least, see where the text has been cut, since the deleted parts of text have been marked with an extra space between lines. As a result, 50-luvun tytöt(Girls of the fifties) contains about 60 per cent of the text of our original diaries. In the volume 50-luvun teinit (Teenagers of the fifties), we included 80-90 per cent of the original material. We made no changes to the structure, language, spelling, or punctuation of the texts. Apart from the abridgements, the diaries were published as such, with all their clumsiness and errors.

Book reviewed in this article:THE HOVERING GIANT: U.S. Responses to Revolutionary Change in Latin America. By Cole BlasierRATIONALITY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: Contributions to the Philosophy and Methodology of the Social Sciences. Edited by S.I. Benn and G.W. MortimorePOLITICAL OBLIGATION. By Richard E. FlathmanELECTORAL BEHAVIOR A Comparative Handbook. Edited by Richard RoseABORIGINES IN COLONIAL SOCIETY, 1788–1850: From 'Noble Savage' to 'Rural Pest'. Edited by Jean WoolmingtonBLACK VIEWPOINTS: The Aboriginal Experience. Edited by Colin Tatz assisted by Keith McConnochieKANT AND THE PROBLEM OF HISTORY. By William A. GalstonTHE MAKING OF INDIAN POLICY 1853–1865 Relations of the Court af Directors, the India Board, the India Office and the Government of India. By Prashanto K. ChatterjiTOLERATION. By Preston KingTHE GERMAN PUBLIC MIND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: A Social History of German Political Sentiments, Aspirations and Ideas. By Frederick HertzINSIDE THE MONSTER: Writings on the United States and American Imperialism. By José Martí. Edited and with an introduction and notes by Philip S. FonerPUBLIC POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION IN AUSTRALIA A Reader. Edited by R.N. Spann and G.R. CurnowPROBLEMS IN AUSTRALIAN HISTORY Religion in Early Australia: The Problem of Church and State. Edited with an introduction by Jean WoolmingtonW. DILTHEY: SELECTED WRITINGS. Edited, translated and introduced by H.P. RickmanTHE LAW IN CRISIS Bridges of Understanding. By C.G. WeeramantryBROADCASTING IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA. By Ian K. MackayNEW DIMENSIONS OF WORLD POLITICS. Edited by Geoffrey L. Goodwin and Andrew LinklaterTHE CABINET OFFICE TO 1945. By S.S. WilsonFREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE A Study of the Political Ideas of Hegel's Phenomenology of Mind. By Judith N. ShklarTHE SOCIAL PROBLEM IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF ROUSSEAU. By John CharvetJEAN BODlN AND THE RISE OF ABSOLUTIST THEORY. By Julian H. FranklinBLACK ARMADA. By Rupert LockwoodSIR MATTHEW NATHAN British Colonial Governor and Civil Servant. By Anthony P. HaydonTHE ART OF ANTICIPATION: Values and Methods in Forecasting. Edited by Solomon Encel, Pauline K. Marstrand and William PagePROGRESS AND PROBLEMS IN SOCIAL FORECASTING. Edited by Christopher Freeman, Marie Jahoda and Ian MilesTHE TRANSFER OF POWER, 1942–7, vol. VI, THE POST‐WAR PHASE New Moves by the Labour Government, 1 August 1945–22 March 1946. Edited by Nicholas Mansergh and Penderel MoonU.S. POLICY AND STRATEGIC INTERESTS IN THE WESTERN PACIFIC. By Yuan‐Li WuFOIJNDATIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE. By Peter B. HarrisINTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SCIENCE. Third edition. By Carlton Clymer Rodee, Totton James Anderson, Carl Quimby Christol and Thomas H. GreeneTHE STRANGE NEUTRALITY, SOVIET‐JAPANESE RELATIONS DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR, 1941–1945. By G.A. LensenLAND TENURE IN PRE‐REVOLUTIONARY CHINA Kiangsu Province in the 1920s and 1930s. By Robert AshA CRITICAL GUIDE TO THE KWANGTUNG PROVINCIAL ARCHIVES DEPOSITED AT THE PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE OF LONDON. By David PongSOCIETY AND POLITICS IN GERMANY 1500–1750. By G BeneckeIN THE ANGLO‐ARAB LABYRINTH: The McMahon‐Husayn Correspondence and its Interpretations 1914–1939. By Elie KedourieTHE ARABS IN ISRAEL. By Sabri JiryisTHE COMMUNIST MOVEMENT, FROM COMINTERN TO COMINFORM. By F. ClaudinWOMEN AS CITIZENS A Comparative Review. By Josephine F. MilburnWHITE ON THE MEDIA. By Brian WhiteMATHEMATICAL APPROACHES TO POLITICS. Edited by H.R. Alker, Jr., K.W. Deutsch and A.H. StoetzelSOCIALIST OWNERSHIP AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS. By Wlodzimierz Brus, translated by R.A. ClarkePUBLIC, TRADE UNION AND COOPERATIVE ENTERPRISE IN GERMANY: The Commonweal Idea. By Walter Hesselbach, translated from the German by Karl KuhneSOVIET FOREIGN POLICY, 1962–1973 The Paradox of Super Power. By Robin EdmondsA HANDBOOK TO ELECTIONS IN UTTAR PRADESH 1920–1951. By P.D. Reeves, B.D. Graham and J.M. GoodmanUNTO GOD AND CAESAR Religious issues in the Emerging Commonwealth 1891–1906. By Richard ElyLEADERSHIP IN FIJI. By Rusiate NayacakalouLOCAL POLITICS AND THE RISE OF PARTY: The London Municipal Society and the Conservative Intervention in Local Elections 1894–1963. By Ken YoungSOLDIERS AND POLITICS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: Civil‐Military Relations in Comparative Perspective. By J. Stephen HoadleyA BLANKET A YEAR. Bv Leonard Broom and F. Lancaster JonesABORKINAL HEALTH. By Peter M. MoodieKASHMIR IN TRANSITION 1885–1893. By Dilip Kumar GhoseA RESEARCH GUIDE TO AUSTRALIAN POLITICS AND COGNATE SUBJECTS (ARGAP). By Henry Mayer with Margaret Bettison and Judy KeeneMINDFUL MILITANTS The Amalgamated Engineering Union in Australia, 1920–1972. By T. SheridanTHE FUTURE OF AUSTRALIAN FEDERALISM. By Gordon Greenwood. Second editionMELBOURNE STUDIES IN EDUCATION 1976. Edited by Stephen Murray‐SmithROYAL COMMISSIONS AND DEPARTMENTAL COMMITTEES IN BRITAIN A Case‐study in Institutional Adaptiveness and Public Participation in Government. By T.J. CartwrightLEGISLATIVE STAFFING: A Comparative Perspective. Edited by James J. Heaphey and Alan P. BalutisTHE SILENT DICTATORSHIP The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918. By Martin KitchenTRIAL OF FAITH Religion and Politics in Tocqueville's Thought. By Doris S. GoldsteinVOTING FOR THE QUEENSLAND LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 1890–1964. By Colin A. Hughes and B.D. GrahamVOTING FOR THE VICTORIAN LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 1890–1964 (1975).VOTING FOR THE NEW SOUTH WALES LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 1890–1964 (1975).VOTING FOR THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN, WESTERN AUSTRALIAN AND TASMANIAN LOWER HOUSES 1890–1964 (1976).OUR PARTNERSHIP. By Beatrice Webb. Edited by Barbara Drake and Margaret I. Cole with an introduction by George FeaverA CONSTITUTION FOR THE SOCIALIST COMMONWEALTH OF GREAT BRITAIN. By Sidney and Beatrice Webb. With an introduction by Samuel H. BeerMETHODS OF SOCIAL STUDY. By Sidney and Beatrice Webb. With an introduction by T.H. MarshallTHE CORRESPONDENCE OF G.E. MORRISON, vol. I, 1895–1912. Edited by Lo Hui‐min