Ko je Lukijan (o. 120–192) napisal dialoško delo »Filozofi na dražbi«, je nedvomno vedel, kaj se bo dogajalo v zgodnjem 21. stoletju. Že takrat je predvidel kopico brezhibnih intelektualnih in političnih avtoritet, ki so se, vsaj nekateri, kar rodili s pravico, biti bog in se po božje obnašati, ker mi, pač statisti, ki spremljamo njihovo početje, tako ali tako lahko samo strmimo. Tako kot so v Lukijanovih dneh ocenjevali aplikativno vrednost filozofov in jih v skladu z njo plačali in nahranili, se dogaja novodobnim humanistom, da smo postavljeni na dražbe z razpisi, kjer smo glede na točke in impaktfaktorje ocenjeni in noben naš odgovor, da (o)cena ni pravična, ne velja, saj se lahko pritožimo samo na postopek (dražbe), kjer je odgovor vnaprej znan. Vsebina in pomen dela, v tem primeru intelektualnega dosežka, sta irelevantni kategoriji, to spoznanje je Lukijan grenko zabelil.
Lukijan, naš brat. Satiri se leta ne poznajo in čeprav je njena bistvena lastnost refleks posameznika na doživeto dogajanje, s katerim se ne sprijazni in zato nastavi ukrivljeno zrcalo, se vedno znova zalotimo pri misli, da je vsebina pravkar prebrane-videneslišane satire zato tako dobro znana, ker se je pač nedavno zgodila in jo poznamo v novi različici: njeno bistvo je človekovo početje in na odru satire se zamenjajo le igralci. Satira je imanentna svobodnemu človeku, prisotna je v vseh časih in pri vseh kulturah, v pisni, glasbeni, likovni, politični, znanstveni obliki, je hotena in naključna, ustvarjena v retrospektivnem postopku, je zrcalo avtorja, časa, okoliščin.
Naše branje starih satir je drugačno od branja oz. dojemanja v času njihovega nastanka. Zamenjale so se realne okoliščine, beremo jih s poznavanjem zgodovine, ki je sledila letom njihovega nastanka, s poznavanjem vpliva in percepcijskih dimenzij občinstev pred nami. Beremo jih z našimi nabranimi osebnimi in skupinskimi spomini, z izkušnjami in kritičnimi mislimi. Hkrati pa smo soočeni z nepopolnim poznavanjem pogojev življenja v času nastanka te satire in to je izgubljeni del sporočila. Radi pozabimo, da smo do starejše satire pogosto v položaju neveščega bralca, nepoučenega gledalca, zato se – kot se sicer pogosto dogaja – zatečemo k nad-interpretacijam.
Značaj satire se plete s humorjem, grotesko, ironijo, sarkazmom, burlesko, parodijo v večplastno stvaritev, satira je kot satireskna začimba prisotna tam, kjer je ne bi pričakovali in se lahko izkaže kot subverziven privid, namig, kot stereotip, pri čemer si zna vsaka od teh form oblikovati svoje življenje. Več avtorjev je mnenja, da je največjo žetev imela politična satira, ki se pase po polju, na katerem je prišlo do zdrsa, padca ali butalskega slučaja, kjer so se »sveti družbeni zakoni« znašli na svojem koncu. A to je le en vidik med mnogimi. Kakršna koli, raskava ali zavita v svilen papir, satira si praviloma želi popravljati moralno zgrešenost, zato – kot pravi Žarko Petan – ne računa na tiste, ki jih biča, ampak na mlade, da jim pokaže, kakšni ne bi smeli biti čez deset let. Evropski in slovenski okvir – izkušnje niso tako vsaksebi, da ne bi prepoznali večnih in vesoljnih zakonov človekovega dejanja in nehanja. Vendar: ali se še kdaj spomnimo na Pudelbal Feliksa Antona Deva (1732–1786), kjer je prek pustnega, maškeradnega plesa na pahljačo vseh mogočih tipov prižebljal ljubljansko »purgarijo« v literarni ringaraja, tako da je začetno lahkotno šopirjenje izzvenelo v nelahkotni antitezi o sprenevedanju, večnem laganju in podobnih značajskih odličnostih. Obolos baročnemu času je jezikovno bogastvo, kopičenje satirično-parodičnih oznak, ki jih je Dev nalepil paradirajočim osebkom na odru, iz katerih dehti moralna sprijenost. To je satira o malih dušah. In še brezkončni izvir, namreč briljantno pletenje Ivana Cankarja in mnogoobraznih satiričnih motivov, v dobršni meri izvirajočih iz politične odvisnosti in narodno-zavedne neurejenosti, tako da je v resnici »kostanj posebne sorte«, ki so se mu v različnih tonalitetah pridružila najboljša peresa prve polovice 20. stoletja. Cankarjevo satiropisje je veljalo »zlasti farizeju, hlapcu, dogmatiku, renegatu,« pravi Franc Zadravec, »maske snema z vsakršnih duhovnih in moralnih spak nekdanjih in sedanjih časov.«7 Satirik je po definiciji svojega početja brezkompromisni opazovalec človekovih dejanj.
Izhodišče za tematske prispevke v tej številki Ars et humanitas je dalo polju satire, satiričnega, satirikov itd. odprte poti. Kakršno koli je že naše vsakdanje delo, vsi smo se s temi temami srečavali v raznih konceptualnih in oblikovnih izrazih in pri razrešitvi vprašanja največkrat ni zadoščal pogled samo ene stroke. To povezovanje disciplin je temeljna lastnost te revije, ki goji načelo medkulturnih in interdisciplinarnih perspektiv, zato so bili prispevki dolžni spoštovati le nosilno besedo »satira«.
Si nous avons choisi les Îles-de-la-Madeleine comme terrain d'une enquête sur la pêche de type traditionnel au Québec c'est que les techniques de pêche côtière n'y avaient jamais été étudiées ethnologiquement dans leur ensemble et que s'y trouvaient réunies en un seul territoire plusieurs pêches traditionnelles gardant encore aujourd'hui une importance économique assez élevée pour ne pas être relayées au rang de survivances. La pêche côtière y occupe en effet 27% d'une population active de 3,361 personnes. Pour que la pêche ait pris une telle importance aux Iles-de-la-Madeleine, il fallait que certaines conditions particulièrement favorables y soient réunies. Les Iles présentent trois types de côtes. Si les hautes falaises de schiste ou de grès rouge sont inabordables, les très nombreuses plages ont rendu les côtes hospitalières et sont devenues presque toutes de petits havres de pêche : certaines ont été aménagées de quais, de plans de halage et de treuils mécaniques. Les lagunes comprises entre de longues flèches de sable servirent de port jusqu'à ce que leur ensablement les rendent inutilisables. En effet, exception faite pour le Havre-Aubert, les autres Iles ne possèdent aucun port naturel. Les plages ne valent comme anses de pêche que parce que les pêcheurs halent leurs bateaux chaque soir à terre. Mais quand le tonnage des bateaux augmente, comme c'est le cas aujourd'hui, 1 la question du port se pose continuellement et avec acuité, car celui de Havre-Aubert s'ensable régulièrement, le port artificiel de Cap-aux-Meules est trop petit et mal abrité et celui de l'Étang-du-Nord se trouve dans une zone de faible profondeur d'eau. Les havres de pêche se répartissent à peu près également autour des Iles, suivant en cela le territoire de pêche: celui-ci dans sa plus grande étendue, est compris à l'intérieur d'une cote de profondeur d'eau de 20 brasses, cote qui se situe à 15 milles au large des Iles. La différence d'inclinaison de ce plateau, forte au sud et au nord où elle est de 90 pieds au mille, faible sur les façades est et nord-est, en particulier dans la baie de Plaisance, a déterminé une première spécialisation géographique des types de pêche. Les ports du nord et du sud, zones où les grands fonds sont proches de la côte, se consacrent à la pêche de la morue alors que ceux de la Baie de Plaisance sont spécialisés dans celle du hareng et du maquereau. Les fonds à homards, par contre, se répartissent aussi bien au nord qu'au sud, mais uniquement là où les fonds sont rocheux. Les eaux qui baignent les Iles offrent des conditions hydrologiques et biologiques constituant non seulement un habitat propice aux homards, mais aussi un milieu favorable au passage de bancs de différentes espèces de poissons. En effet l'organisation des pêches madelinoises est déterminée d'une part par l'alternance des saisons et principalement par l'arrivée et le départ des glaces, mais aussi par le cycle écologique constitué par les passages et séjours successifs des différentes espèces de poissons dans les eaux madelinoises. Les Madelinots ne pèchent donc que lorsque les bancs de poissons viennent très près des côtes: nous avons vu que leur territoire de pêche ne dépassait pas 15 milles à la ronde. Cette soumission aux migrations des poissons présente cependant plusieurs inconvénients. Les dates de passage de ces bancs ne sont que plus ou moins prévisibles et, parfois, le hareng arrive plus tôt que d'habitude, ne reste que quelques jours aux Iles et les quitte avant que les trappes aient pu être mouillées. Si les conditions ne sont pas favorables en faible profondeur, le poisson se maintient en grande eau et la pêche est nulle pour les Madelinots. L'automne, il y a de grandes migrations de hareng au large des Iles : aujourd'hui seuls les seineurs modernes peuvent en profiter alors qu'autrefois cette richesse était inexploitée. La pêche côtière s'est donc modernisée mais son organisation continue d'adhérer au cycle écologique. Nous allons voir maintenant comment les Madelinots en ont développé les différents types et, surtout, quelles ont été les grandes transformations techno-économiques qui sont à la base du système actuel.
In: Population and development review, Band 27, Heft 4, S. 781-789
ISSN: 1728-4457
Continuing below‐replacement fertility and projected declines in population size are demographic features of many European countries and Japan. They are variously met with complacent acceptance, calls for higher rates of immigration, or—often last and least—proposals for increasing the birth rate. Fertility was also low in the 1930s, and some of the policy debate from that period resonates today. In England and Wales, fertility then had been declining for half a century. Over the decade 1931–40, it averaged 1.8 children per woman—moreover, with net emigration. Worries over this situation and its likely consequences led to the setting up in 1944 of a Royal Commission on Population, charged with considering "what measures, if any, should be taken in the national interest to influence the future trend in population." In a memorandum submitted to the Commission in that year, the economist R. F. Harrod set out a detailed proposal to encourage childbearing through a scheme of family endowments. Part of the introductory section of Harrod's submission, arguing the case for state intervention and for material rather than 'spiritual' measures, is reproduced below.An evident problem in offering economic incentives for childbearing is that, to induce a given behavioral change, well‐off families would require much larger incentives than the poor. Hence child endowments that aspire to effectiveness across the income distribution have to be skewed toward the upper end. Harrod argues that this is as it should be, that policy should establish neutrality between large and small family sizes, and that this is a conceptually separate issue from poverty alleviation. 'We should seek a re‐distribution of national income favourable to the parents of larger families and the plan should be put into effect whether or not another re‐distribution as between rich and poor is proceeding at the same time.' He remarks on the implausibility of the government's being able to 'talk up' fertility— thereby generating some kind of costless ideational change, a 'spiritual aufklärung.'Later pans of the submission not reprinted here cover the specific details of the proposal. The proposed annual benefit per child (intended for every child after the second, with half‐rates payable for the second child) is paid for 18 years. It is substantial and increases with the child's age—at ages 13–18, for most of the income range it amounts to 20–30 percent of the father's income (or mother's, if hers is higher). Harrod also discusses further the rationale for making the endowments (and the compulsory contributions—a flat 5 percent of income—that finance them) proportional to income. To make his case Harrod draws on the dysgenic and population‐quality arguments popular at the time: worry about 'race decline' and 'a general lowering of standards and of efficiency if the parents who are best equipped in experience, knowledge and culture are relatively infertile.'In the event, the Commission recommended a flat schedule of family allowances, together with tax exemptions for dependent children calculated to provide some income‐based benefit. These were justified on population as well as equity and welfare grounds, 'since the handicaps of parenthood have played a large part in the fall of average family size below replacement level.' Population quality issues—the subject of several other submissions—were sidestepped by calling for further research. By the time the Commission's report was finally published, in 1949, the baby boom was well underway: average fertility over 1946–50 was 2.4.Roy Forbes Harrod (1900–78) was one of the foremost economists of his day. His career was largely spent at Christ Church College, Oxford. A student and sometime colleague of Keynes, his best‐known early work was centered on identifying a dynamic equilibrium growth path for the economy—building on Keynes's static equilibrium analysis. As stylized (by others), this came to be called the Harrod‐Domar growth model, a formulation basic to growth theory. Harrod was editor of the Economic Journal for the period 1945–66. He was active in politics and as an economic adviser to both Labour and Conservative governments. He was knighted in 1959.The extract is reprinted from volume 5 of the Papers of the Royal Commission on Population (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1950), pp. 80–85.
Après avoir connu un regain d'activité du printemps 1985 à l'été 1986 l'économie française est, depuis lors, revenue vers un rythme de croissance nettement inférieur à 2 % en taux annueL Le retournement de la consommation des ménages, qui était attendu, la quasi-stagnation de l'investissement et la langueur des exportations expliquent cette inflexion. L'ajustement des stocks, accumulés involontairement au second semestre 1986, devrait encore déprimer l'activité au début de cette année, malgré la reprise de la demande hors stocks. Il faudrait donc attendre le second trimestre pour qu'une reprise modérée de la croissance intervienne sous l'impulsion de l'investissement et des exportations. La consommation des ménages devrait en revanche être peu dynamique compte tenu des faibles gains de pouvoir d'achat. Le ralentissement de la demande mondiale, supposé intervenir en fin d'année, pèserait à nouveau sur la croissance en 1988. Au total le PIB marchand croîtrait de 1,7 % en 1987 et 1,3 % en 1988. Dans ce contexte la considérable amélioration des profits constatée en 1985-1986 ne serait que partiellement utilisée pour accroître l'investissement productif. Les risques d'une reprise de l'inflation en France au cours des trimestres qui suivent nous paraissent très limités. La politique de rigueur salariale dans la fonction publique, conjuguée à la montée du chômage, devrait en effet conduire à une progression modérée des salaires : le taux de salaire horaire, hors primes, augmenterait de 2,8 % en glissement en 1987 et 2,4 % en 1988. Les prix de production cesseraient de croître plus vite que les coûts unitaires, sauf dans le secteur tertiaire qui n 'a pas encore retrouvé un taux de marge comparable à celui observé au cours des années soixante-dix. Dans l'hypothèse où le prix du baril de pétrole se stabiliserait autour de 16 dollars à partir du second trimestre la hausse des prix à la consommation serait de 2,7% en 1987 et 2,4 % en 1988. Dans l'hypothèse où il remonterait progressivement à 20 dollars d'ici la fin de 1988 l'inflation pourrait avoisiner 3 % cette année et l'an prochain. Dans les deux cas la désinflation, mesurée par l'évolution du prix du PIB, ne serait pas remise en cause, puisque la hausse de celui-ci passerait, en moyenne annuelle, de 5 % en 1986 à 3 % en 1987 et 2,5 % en 1988. En dépit de la croissance modeste de la demande intérieure et de la faible hausse des prix l'excédent du solde des biens et services constaté en 1986 (environ 21 milliards) se réduirait cette année en raison d'un nouveau recul d'une quinzaine de milliards de francs du solde industriel. La détérioration de la compétitivité externe, due à la baisse du dollar depuis 1985, serait la principale cause de nos pertes de part de marché. Celles-ci seraient toutefois plus limitées : 1,5 point en 1987 et 1 point en 1988, contre 3 points au cours des deux dernières années. La légère augmentation des effectifs du secteur marchand constatée au cours de l'année 1986 risque de s'interrompre du fait de la croissance modérée de la production et des effets pervers du plan « Emploi des jeunes ». Il est en effet à craindre que certaines embauches « anticipées » aient été effectuées en 1986 pour bénéficier des exonérations de charges sociales. Malgré les nouvelles mesures concernant les chômeurs de longue durée prises récemment, le chômage continuerait donc à croître sensiblement. Le nombre de chômeurs pourrait atteindre 2,8 millions au, printemps 1988. La reprise de l'investissement amorcée dans l'industrie en 1984-1985 se poursuivrait au cours des deux prochaines années (6,5 % en 1987 et 5,4 % en 1988 aux prix de l'année 1970 pour l'ensemble des entreprises non financières). Cette reprise est- elle suffisante ? Sans doute si on compare l'investissement à la croissance de la demande intérieure et extérieure, mais certainement pas si l'on tient compte des capacités d'autofinancement qui sont aujourd'hui considérables et qu'il serait pertinent d'utiliser pour augmenter la capacité concurrentielle du secteur productif. L'étude développée dans la dernière partie de l'article montre que la baisse de l'impôt sur les sociétés n'est pas une mesure susceptible, dans la conjoncture actuelle, de relancer de façon significative l'investissement. A coût budgétaire équivalent une aide fiscale directe à l'investissement sous la forme d'un crédit d'impôt aurait sur l'investissement productif un impact dix fois plus élevé. Mais les bénéfices d'une telle mesure n 'apparaîtraient qu'à moyen terme.
'A spectre,' wrote The Times on 16 July, 'has been haunting the Committee Corridor of the House of Commons each Tuesday morning for the past five weeks as the Select Committee on Defence has taken evidence on the workings of the D Notice system. The invisible presence in Committee Room 8 has been that of Bismarck, the maker of modern Germany.' The DPBC ( Defence Press and Broadcasting, or D Notice, Committee) consists of four top civil servants and 11 representatives of the British press and broadcasting organisations. Its origins date back to the period before the First World War when, as The Times put it, 'Bismarck's observation on the help French newspapers had given to the Prussian general staff in discovering the disposition of French troops in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 … convinced the British defence establishment of the need for a system of press censorship'. The Committee issues so-called D Notices giving details of information it does not wish published and relies on the voluntary cooperation of editors and journalists in suppressing the information. Interest in the system, in recent years largely forgotten, was reawakened in February this year by the publication in the New Statesman of a series of articles by Duncan Campbell on such topics as telephone tapping and the activities of the MI5 and MI6 intelligence agencies. Admiral Ash, Secretary of the DPBC, wrote to Bruce Page, Editor of the New Statesman, to remind him of the 'continuing validity' of D Notices Nos 10 and 11 on the need to protect information concerning the intelligence services. In an exchange of letters with the Admiral, Bruce Page queried the validity of the D Notice system, which Duncan Campbell, writing in the New Statesman on 4 April, called 'one of the greater mysteries of British journalism' – misunderstood or ignored by British journalists and considered by their American and other foreign colleagues to be a typical example of 'peculiarly British placid press complacency'. Many British journalists have, however, for some time now expressed criticism of the excessive secrecy with which the government and the civil service in this country conduct their affairs, campaigning for the abolition of Section Two of the Official Secrets Act ( see Index on Censorship 1/1978, pp 9–14) and for the introduction of Freedom of Information legislation. Prominent among them has been Harold Evans, Editor of the Sunday Times, and Bruce Page and Duncan Campbell of the New Statesman. In June and July this year a Sub-Committee on D Notices of the House of Commons Defence Committee held an enquiry into the workings of the D Notice system, with members of the DPBC, as well as other civil servants and journalists giving evidence. Some, including Richard Francis, BBC director of news and current affairs and a member of the DPBC ( see box on p 39), and Windsor Clarke, editorial consultant to the Westminster Press and vice-chairman of the Committee, spoke in favour of continuing the system. It could, said Mr Clarke, be discredited within a year if sufficient journalists criticised it, but that was most unlikely, 'as the arrangement enjoyed wide support in the press'. In a 20- page submission to the parliamentary sub-committee, Bruce Page and Duncan Campbell argue for the system's abolition. Its inception had coincided with the 'spectacular increase in the size and power of Britain's bureaucracy, which has continued almost without check until very recently'. The DPBC had increasingly become 'an outpost of the Ministry of Defence' losing rather than gaining in independence. Page and Campbell analyse the contents of the existing 12 D Notices, as well as dealing with several which have been abandoned, such as the one issued in 1967 in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent The Observer and Sunday Times from publishing the results of their investigations into the affair of the Soviet spy and former British Intelligence officer, Kim Philby. As in some other cases, the New Statesman journalists point out, the information was clearly known to the hostile power in question and would have been kept only from the British reader. Similarly, they describe D Notice No 9 as 'virtually valueless', as the British government itself publishes details of all major radio installations and the frequencies they use. 'It is ludicrous that a D Notice is issued to prevent the British press discussing information which the government furnishes for publication overseas'. Below, we print an edited version of the evidence given to the House of Commons Sub-Committee on D Notices by Bruce Page and Duncan Campbell.
In: Decision analysis: a journal of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences, INFORMS, Band 7, Heft 3, S. 322-325
ISSN: 1545-8504
Samuel D. Bond (" Improving the Generation of Decision Objectives ") is an assistant professor at the College of Management, Georgia Institute of Technology. He received his Ph.D. from the Fuqua School of Business, Duke University. Professor Bond's research focuses primarily on judgment and decision making in consumer settings. In prior work, he has examined confirmatory processing during the decision process and prescriptive methods for mitigating the effects of irrelevant context. More recently, he has been involved in various projects related to objectives-based decision making, focusing on impediments to the generation or elicitation of objectives. In other work, Professor Bond is exploring the interplay of intuitive and reason-based approaches to information processing and preference formation, and he is examining the ways in which descriptions of an experience can alter consumer forecasts, experience, and memory. Professor Bond teaches courses in marketing management and consumer behavior at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Address: College of Management, Georgia Institute of Technology, 800 West Peachtree Street NW, Atlanta, GA 30308-0520; sam.bond@mgt.gatech.edu . Kurt A. Carlson (" Improving the Generation of Decision Objectives ") was born in Kenosha, Wisconsin. He has a B.S. and M.S. in agricultural and applied economics from the University of Wisconsin–Madison and a Ph.D. from Cornell University. He has worked for the Wisconsin Center for Dairy Research and Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board, and most recently he was on the faculty at Duke University from 2001 to 2009. Dr. Carlson is an assistant professor at Georgetown University. Dr. Carlson's research focuses on the intersection of economics and psychology, with a specific emphasis on individual decision processes. Though much of his research explores consumer decision making, he also studies how voters, jurors, and managers make decisions. His research has been published in several top journals in marketing, psychology, and management. Dr. Carlson teaches courses on market intelligence, consumer behavior, and marketing management. Address: McDonough School of Business, Georgetown University, 578 Hariri Building, Washington, DC 20057; kc377@georgetown.edu . Michel Denuit (" Bivariate Stochastic Dominance and Substitute Risk-(In)dependent Utilities ") is a professor at the Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium), Institut de Statistique, Biostatistique et Sciences Actuarielles. He has done extensive research in the area of actuarial risk theory, especially in stochastic inequalities and dominance relations. Address: Institut de Statistique, Biostatistique et Sciences Actuarielles (ISBA), Université Catholique de Louvain, 20 Voie du Roman Pays, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium; michel.denuit@uclouvain.be . Louis Eeckhoudt (" Bivariate Stochastic Dominance and Substitute Risk-(In)dependent Utilities ") received a Ph.D. in economics from Michigan State University in 1970. Since then and until his retirement in 2004 he taught economics at the Catholic Faculties of Mons, Belgium. He now holds a research position at IÉSEG School of Management (Lille, France) and is also a research associate with CORE (Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium). His work deals mostly with the economics of risk and the analysis of risk attitudes. Address: IÉSEG, 3 Rue de la Digue, F-59000 Lille, France; louis.eeckhoudt@fucam.ac.be . Charles M. Harvey (" Cardinal Scales for Health Evaluation ") is a retired professor from the Department of Decision and Information Sciences at the University of Houston. He received his Ph.D. in pure mathematics at Stanford University. Soon afterward, he changed his research interests to applied mathematics, and a decade later— after writing the textbook Operations Research, published by North-Holland in 1979—he focused on decision analysis. His research has been primarily in the development of prescriptive models in which preferences are shown to satisfy certain conditions if and only if they are represented by functions having a certain structure. Sections 4–7 of the present paper present models of this type. He is a proponent of new theory that is applicable. He has taught at six universities and has held nonteaching positions at the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis. Address: 5902 NW Pinewood Place, Corvallis, OR 97330; cmharvey1@earthlink.net . Ralph L. Keeney (" Improving the Generation of Decision Objectives ") is a research professor at Duke University, Fuqua School of Business, Durham, North Carolina. Professor Keeney's areas of expertise are decision analysis, risk analysis, and management decision-making. He is an authority on decision making with multiple objectives. His experience includes corporate management problems, risk analyses, public policy, large-scale siting studies (e.g., airports, power plants), and environmental studies. Dr. Keeney has been a consultant for several organizations including Fair Isaac, Seagate Technology, American Express, British Columbia Hydro, Pacific Gas and Electric, Kaiser Permanente, GTE, Hunton & Williams, the Electric Power Research Institute, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, and U.S. Department of Energy. Address: Fuqua School of Business, Duke University, P.O. Box 90120, Durham, NC 27708-0120; keeney@duke.edu . L. Robin Keller (" From the Editor… ") is a professor of operations and decision technologies in the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine. She received her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in management science and her B.A. in mathematics from UCLA. She has served as a program director for the Decision, Risk, and Management Science Program of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and is now on the Scientific Advisory Committee for the USC Homeland Security Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorist Events. Her research is on decision analysis and risk analysis for business and policy decisions and has been funded by NSF and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Her research interests cover multiple attribute decision making, riskiness, fairness, probability judgments, ambiguity of probabilities or outcomes, risk analysis (for terrorism, environmental, health, and safety risks), time preferences, problem structuring, cross-cultural decisions, and medical decision making. She is currently Editor-in-Chief of Decision Analysis, published by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). She is a Fellow of INFORMS and has held numerous roles in INFORMS, including board member and chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. She is a recipient of the George F. Kimball Medal from INFORMS. She has served as the decision analyst on three National Academy of Sciences committees. Address: Merage School of Business, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-3125; lrkeller@uci.edu . Alen Nosić (" How Riskily Do I Invest? The Role of Risk Attitudes, Risk Perceptions, and Overconfidence ") recently completed his Ph.D. at the University of Mannheim in the area of behavioral finance. In his current research he focuses on determinants of risk-taking behavior in investment decisions and on the question of which factors drive changes in risk-taking behavior over time. Address: Chair of Business Administration, University of Mannheim, L 5, 2, 68131 Mannheim, Germany; alennosic@yahoo.de . Lars Peter Østerdal (" Cardinal Scales for Health Evaluation ") is a professor in the Department of Economics, University of Copenhagen. He received a Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Copenhagen in 2004. His research interests include health economics, welfare economics, and game theory. His current research focuses on rationing methods and cost-sharing methods, pricing in networks, quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) models, stochastic dominance theory, and studies of childhood poverty in Mozambique and Vietnam. He teaches courses in health economics, game theory, and general microeconomics. Address: Department of Economics, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, Building 26, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark; lars.p.osterdal@econ.ku.dk . Bjørn Sandvik (" Sensitivity Analysis of Risk Tolerance ") is an associate professor of economics at the University of Bergen and holds a Ph.D. from the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration. He teaches finance and does research in finance and public economics. Address: Department of Economics, University of Bergen, Fosswinckelsgate 14, N-5007 Bergen, Norway; bjorn.sandvik@econ.uib.no . Lars Thorlund-Petersen (" Sensitivity Analysis of Risk Tolerance ") is the Sparebanken Nord-Norge Professor of Financial Economics at the Bodø Graduate School of Business, Norway. He teaches courses in decision analysis and game theory. His research interests include game theory and strategic behavior of agents in the presence of incentive systems determined, for example, by specific cost-sharing or rationing rules. He investigates decisions under uncertainty, with emphasis on risk preferences, utility functions, and stochastic dominance. He received his Ph.D. in mathematical economics from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Address: Bodø Graduate School of Business, Mørkvedtraakket, N-8049 Bodø, Norway; lars.thorlund-petersen@hibo.no . Martin Weber (" How Riskily Do I Invest? The Role of Risk Attitudes, Risk Perceptions, and Overconfidence ") holds a chair for Banking and Finance at the University of Mannheim. Born in 1952, he studied mathematics and business administration and received his Ph.D. as well as his Habilitation for Business Administration from the University of Aachen. He spent about three years as a visiting scholar at UCLA, the Wharton School, Stanford University, and the Fuqua School of Business at Duke University. His main interests lie in the area of banking, behavioral finance, and its psychological foundations. He is the author of numerous publications in these areas and coauthor of textbooks on decision analysis and banking. He served as director (1997–2002) and deputy director (2003–2008) for the Sonderforschungsbereich 504 of the German National Science Foundation (rationality, decision making, and economic modelling), and he serves on the editorial board of various national and international journals. Dr. Weber was dean of the Faculty for Business Administration, University of Mannheim from April 2004 to March 2006, is a member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina, and is a member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. He was awarded an honorary doctoral degree by the University of Münster in June 2007. Address: Chair of Business Administration, University of Mannheim, L 5, 2, 68131 Mannheim, Germany; weber@bank.bwl.uni-mannheim.de .
Author's introductionAlthough there has been a considerable body of research on families and family life in general, relatively little attention has been paid to family leisure, family time, and the role that leisure activities play within the family context. Evidence of increased time stress within families suggests that family time may be highly constrained. However, this situation may also have led to family time becoming increasingly desired and valued. Family leisure is deemed to be beneficial for families in a number of ways, because it provides a context for enhancing family relationships and strengthening family ties. Family leisure can also be seen to reflect and contribute to new and emerging ideologies about motherhood and fatherhood, with both positive and negative implications for parents and for families.Author recommends Daly, Kerry J. Families and Time: Keeping Pace in a Hurried Culture (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996).This classic work shows the importance of understanding the concept of time and how families use time and allocate time to a wide range of activities. The author discusses how the experience of time within families has changed throughout history and how perspectives of time are profoundly influenced by socio‐cultural factors. Parents today, it is argued, are caught between an increasingly 'hurried culture' and their own desire to protect family time. Control over time allocation is seen as a crucial, but challenging, aspect of family life. Samuel, Nicole (ed.). Women, Leisure and the Family: A Multinational Perspective (Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 1996).This book was one of the first to address the complex issue of family leisure. Moreover, its international perspective brings together research on this topic from different parts of the world, providing comparisons between countries in a variety of socio‐economic situations. The focus of the text is on women, highlighting the significant role that mothers play in facilitating family activities and the importance of family leisure to women. The constraints on women's personal leisure due to traditional ideologies and gender relations are also discussed, as well as the potential for leisure as a source of empowerment and autonomy. Kay, Tess (ed.). Special Issue of the Leisure Studies Journal: Fathering through Leisure (Milton Park, UK: Routledge, 2006).This volume is a collection of academic papers on leisure and fatherhood. Because much of the early research on family leisure focussed on women and mothers, this special journal issue represents a more inclusive gender analysis of this form of leisure. The collection of papers addresses a range of issues associated with fatherhood and leisure, including leisure as a context for fathering, changing ideologies of fatherhood, and how family leisure is practiced and experienced in different family situations. Hays, Sharon. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996).This is a widely acclaimed book that addresses the tensions and strains of contemporary motherhood. The author draws on a variety of sources, including historical data about mothering, analysis of the advice provided in recent childrearing manuals and in‐depth interviews with mothers of young children. She argues that the contemporary model of appropriate mothering reflects an ideology of 'intensive motherhood' in which mothers are expected to be both tireless and unselfish in their constant dedication to caring for their children. This situation creates considerable difficulties and ambivalences for women – particularly employed mothers – as they seek to live up to the unrealistic expectations of modern‐day motherhood. Marsiglio, William, Greer Fox, and Kevin Roy (eds). Situated Fathering: A Focus on Physical and Social Spaces (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005).This edited book reflects recent scholarship on fathering and fatherhood. Bringing together theory and data from different disciplinary perspectives, the volume provides insight into the diversity of meanings and experiences of fatherhood in contemporary society, as well as discussion of the father–child relationship and men's behaviour as fathers. Different fathering contexts are explored, including step‐fatherhood, non‐residential fathers, incarcerated fathers, and farm fathers. The volume extends earlier scholarship about men's involvement with their children, men's identities as fathers, and how fathering practices relate to cultural prescriptions of masculinity. Gatrell, Caroline. Hard Labour: The Sociology of Parenthood (Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press, 2005).This Open University Press book provides an excellent overview of the literature on motherhood, fatherhood, and family practices. It also reports on a study of the lives of mothers and fathers, all of whom were combining parenthood with careers. Particular attention is paid to mothers' and fathers' commitments to child care and child rearing as well as their commitments to the workplace. The book focuses on the willingness of parents to share the tasks associated with care‐giving and household labour. Although willingness to share is evident, the author argues that a change in societal attitudes towards equitable parenting is needed, as well as a collective sense of responsibility and support for parents and families. Bianchi, Suzanne, Lynne M. Casper, and Rosalind Berkowitz King (eds). Work, Family, Health, and Well‐Being (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005).This edited book includes a range of disciplinary perspectives on the study of work and family. It includes information on how families allocate time, the difficulties of managing family life and family time in the 24/7 economy, and 'workforce–workplace mismatch'. The particular challenges that face low‐income families and those who have to negotiate non‐standard work hours are addressed. The focus of the book is on health, including the well‐being of children, parents, and the family as a whole. The need for improved work and family‐related policies that would enhance family life and family well‐being is discussed.Online materials http://www.ifamily.ca/about/about.html The Vanier Institute of the Family is a national Canadian charitable organization dedicated to promoting the well‐being of all types and forms of families. Through access to a range of publications, reports, and links to statistical data, the website provides information and discussion on important issues and trends critical to the health and well‐being of families. The Institute is also involved in research, advocacy and educational work related to social and institutional policies that affect family life in a variety of ways. http://www.yorku.ca/arm/ The Association for Research on Mothering (ARM) promotes feminist scholarship on mothering and motherhood. It is also the home of Dementer Press and the Journal of the Association for Research on Mothering. The website provides information about journal articles and book publications, as well as upcoming conferences and other events. In addition to research promotion, ARM is also an outreach organization. It supports a mothers' group (Mother Outlaws) based in Toronto, a newsletter and various knowledge mobilization projects. Links to all these activities can be found on the website. http://www.fira.ca/ The Fatherhood Involvement Research Alliance comprises individuals, organizations and institutions dedicated to the development of and sharing of knowledge about fatherhood and fathering. It aims to build community–university alliances through providing linkages of communication between practitioners, academics, policy makers and the general public related to concerns and issues associated with father involvement. The website provides information on new research, as well as upcoming conferences, workshops, colloquiums, and other activities. http://www.childstats.gov/ This is the website of the US Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. The Forum collects data on a range of issues related to children and families and regularly provides updated statistics and reports on topics such as health care, safety, education and the social environment. The Forum's annual report, America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well‐Being can be found at the website. http://www.academyofleisuresciences.org/index.html This is the website of the Academy of Leisure Sciences, an honorary organization made up of academics who have been elected to the Academy in recognition of their contributions to knowledge about leisure and recreation. The website lists the areas of expertise and research interests of the members of the Academy as well as information about books and journal article publications. http://www.leisure‐studies‐association.info/ The UK‐based Leisure Studies Association (LSA) was formed in 1975 to promote interest and foster research in leisure studies and to advance education in this field. The Association facilitates the exchange of ideas on contemporary leisure issues and provides a communication forum for practitioners and students and researchers from a variety of disciplines. The website provides information about LSA conferences and publications, including the Leisure Studies journal.Sample syllabusFamilies and family life Section 1: A brief introduction to the study of families
Families in historical perspective Socio‐cultural perspectives on families Diversity in family forms, settings, and meanings
Section 2: Using theory to understand family life
The Parsonian family The family as a social system Class and gender dimensions of families Constructed families
Section 3: Motherhood and fatherhood
The cultural underpinnings of parenthood Changing ideologies and discourses of motherhood and fatherhood The expectations and contexts of contemporary parenthood
Section 4: The intersection of work and family
Work–family conflict The impact of parenthood on paid and unpaid work Gender equity and the division of household labour Work structures, labour policies and family policies
Section 5: Family time
Assessing family time use Time‐crunched families The purposive nature of family time and family leisure Divergent experiences and outcomes of family time Motherhood, fatherhood, and leisure
ReadingsBianchi, Suzanne M., and Sara B. Raley 2005. 'Time allocation in families.' Pp. 21–42 in Work, Family, Health, and Well‐Being, edited by Suzanne M. Bianchi, Lynne M. Casper and Rosalind Berkowitz King. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Craig, Lynn 2006. 'Children and the Revolution: A Time–Diary Analysis of the Impact of Motherhood on Daily Workload.'Journal of Sociology 42: 125–143.Kay, Tess 1998. 'Having it All or Doing it All? The Construction of Women's Lifestyles in Time‐Crunched Households.'Loisir et Société21: 435–454.Daly, Kerry J. 1996. 'Time Together: The Social Construction of Family Time.' Pp. 66–84 in Families and Time: Keeping Pace in a Hurried Culture, by Kerry J. Daly. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Harrington, Maureen 2006. 'Family Leisure.' Pp. 417–432 in A Handbook of Leisure Studies, edited by Chris Rojek, Susan M. Shaw and A. J. (Tony) Veal. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.Zabriskie, Ramon B. and Brian P. McCormick 2001. 'The Influences of Family Leisure Patterns on Perceptions of Family Functioning.'Family Relations 50: 281–289.Shaw, Susan M. 2008. 'Family Leisure and Changing Ideologies of Parenthood.'Sociology Compass: http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2007.00076.xCoakley, Jay 2006. 'The Good Father: Parental Expectations and Youth Sports.'Leisure Studies 25: 153–163. Section 6: Families, health, and well‐being
Time use, time stress, and health Taking control of family time Toward the development of health‐focussed family policies
Focus questions
What is meant by the terms 'family time' and 'family leisure'? How are these terms used in popular discourse (i.e., in the media or in everyday conversations)? How are these terms used in the research literature? What are the challenges that researchers face in assessing and/or measuring time use, family time and family leisure? What factors need to be taken into account? (e.g., the nature or meaning of an activity? the location? the social context?) What is the evidence for increasing time stress in contemporary families? What are the causes and consequences of time‐stressed families? What do researchers mean by the term 'ideology'? In what ways does this concept help us to understand the experiences and practices of parenthood? What are the contemporary ideologies of motherhood and fatherhood? How significant is family leisure for families today? What are the potential benefits of family leisure? What are the potential negative aspects? What are the relationships between family leisure, family time and ideologies of motherhood and fatherhood? In what ways do family leisure practices reinforce and/or resist these ideologies?
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The relevance of the research. The musical work of the well-known Ukrainian composer, a bright representative of the Kharkiv school of composers — Yurii Alzhniev — is widely known and respected in the modern musical culture of Ukraine. The artist is the author of a large number of large-scale and small-scale works for symphony and chamber orchestras, orchestra and ensemble of folk instruments, a significant number of choral, vocal, vocal-symphonic works, theatre music, separate compositions for various instruments and instrumental ensembles, etc. Today, the most significant samples of Yurii Alzhniev's works are deservedly within the scope of scientific and research attention of domestic musicologists. After all, these works are now increasingly being performed by leading Ukrainian groups and soloists, on concert stages in various regions of Ukraine and abroad. At the same time, many bright musical compositions of the artist, which were created by him in recent years and represent a high artistic value, remain out of research attention. One of such opuses in Yurii Alzhniev's creative portfolio is the choral concert "The sound of the Master's soul..." for a mixed unaccompanied choir, in which national features of Ukrainian traditional choral singing and original author's decisions regarding the organization of the compositional structure and stylistic filling of the work are skilfully and highly artistically interwoven.
The purpose of this article is to identify the compositional and genre-stylistic features of Yuri Alzhnev's choral concert "The sound of the Master's soul..." for a mixed a capella choir, through a musico-logical analysis of this work.
At the heart of the methodology of the work are the methods and techniques of musicological analysis used in theoretical musicology. In particular, this is a method of complex analysis, which is used in the implementation of a holistic analysis of a selected piece of music, as well as separate theoretical methods: genre and style analysis, analysis of musical form, intonation analysis, analysis of elements of musical language. In addition, systematic and system-forming methods, the method of comparative analysis, methods of systematization, synthesis, and generalization are involved in the work methodology.
The results obtained in the course of achieving the goals in this article are focused on revealing the compositional and genre-stylistic features of the choral concert "The sound of the Master's soul..." for a mixed a capella choir, through the musicological analysis of this work.
The novelty of the work lies in the fact that the choral work of the famous Ukrainian composer Yuriy Alzhnev in recent years has found its musicological interpretation for the first time in the form of his choral concert "The soul calls for an owner..." The genre-stylistic and compositional specifics of this work are defined, the authorial approaches to the realization of this composition in the outlined aspects are summarized.
The practical significance of the performed musicological analysis of the selected work lies in the possibility of using it in the study of the musical work of modern Ukrainian composers, disciplines related to musical composition and choral art, as well as a musicological supplement to the use of this music in concert performance practice.
Conclusions. Turning to the creation of his choral concert "The soul calls for an owner..." Yurii Alzhniev chose this genre typical for choral music, relying mostly on a complex of traditional means and canons. At the same time, he created a rather interesting and individualized musical drama in this work, in which he skilfully used and expanded the possibilities of a simple verse form, integrating features of the three-part and rondo forms into it. In terms of style, the composer, once again, significantly enriches the relatively traditional musical presentation of the concert, "decorating" it with intonation freshness, interesting textural and compositional solutions, "spiciness" of harmonic language, etc. At the same time, the intonation basis of the work radiates its deep national character and belonging to the Ukrainian choral tradition. This is the essence of the authorial musical and linguistic specificity and the originality of Yurii Alzhniev's choral style, which was deeply and vividly manifested in the choral concert "The soul calls for an owner...".
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how learners view peace and their role in peacebuilding. Peace is widely perceived as the absence of war and violence (Castro and Galace, 2010). The literature revealed that youths play an active role in peacebuilding. This study was designed to look into the journey of Grade 10 learners to becoming peacebuilders. Specifically, this sought answers to the following questions: What are the perceptions of the Grade 10 learners of peace? How do the Grade 10 learners contribute to peacebuilding? What are the learners' dreams and aspirations for a culture of peace?
Design/methodology/approach The research captured stories of the Grade 10 learners of a Filipino-Chinese school in Iloilo City who participated in the study voluntarily. The learners wrote an essay in one of their reflection sessions in social studies class completing the following phrases: Peace is …; I am a Peacebuilder …; My dreams and aspirations for a culture of peace …. The data gathered were analyzed following Creswell's framework in data analysis in qualitative research which suggests a linear, hierarchical approach. The themes generated were interpreted as the final process of the data analysis.
Findings Majority of the participants perceived peace positively rather than merely an absence of war. Peace means freedom. Moreover, peace improves society and brings in a new period of progress. Learners across cultures have common views of peace, and they believed that peacebuilding has to begin in themselves. Through positive action such as setting as a good example and influencing others to do the same, the learners contribute to peacebuilding. In times of conflict and misunderstanding, they act as agents of peace by being a mediator. During crisis in the community, they extended their helping hands to the needy wholeheartedly.
Research limitations/implications Consistent with the prevailing views of peace, learners perceived peace positively and negatively. It is interesting to note that most participants had a positive perception of peace, which demonstrated a more profound conception of the topic. Their broader perspectives on peace may have been influenced by the author, who taught the participants for two years and who began as a peace advocate and incorporated peace ideas into class discussions in some instances. The findings from this study might only be the tip of the iceberg and far from being definitive given the small number of participants and the researcher's relationship with them, which may have impacted their responses and created some concerns about authenticity and anonymity.
Practical implications This study upheld the claim of Gandhi that youths are agents of positive change (Del Felice and Wisler, 2007). Young people are potential peacebuilders. This study provided encouragement for the truth that we should not undervalue youth's ability to effect change. This can prompt greater discussion among scholars about peace in general inside the group, which might be viewed as being ignored on peace studies.
Social implications The participants' dreams and aspirations for a culture of peace went beyond just improving their own lives. They shared Gandhi and Rizal's aspirations for a better world and a habitable Philippines. Their narratives exhibited that they wished for a common good, which was uplifting. Their expectations and aspirations might have varied because of their economic situation and cultural orientation.
Originality/value Literatures revealed that youths play an active role in peacebuilding. In school, for instance, Jabor (2017) concluded that students are enablers and not only the prime recipients of peace process. In a bigger context, Del Felice and Wisler (2007) illustrated in their study how the youths spearheaded various organizations for the benefit of humanity. Despite the many attestations, the contributions of the youth to peacebuilding are still deemed understudied. Most of the studies were based on the dichotomous view of the youth: victims and perpetrators of violence (UNOY Peacebuilder, 2015).
В статье рассматривается роль церкви в формировании репродуктивного поведения в древнерусской семье. Историографический анализ проблемы показывает, что до настоящего времени она не получила окончательного разрешения ни в отечественной, ни в зарубежной литературе. Христианство играло значительную роль в поддержании значимости деторождения в древнерусском обществе, провозглашая появление потомства главной целью брака. Эта позиция церкви была близка мирянам, для которых рождение наследника означало возможность передать ему нажитое имущество, социальный статус, власть, обеспечить поминовение души. В средневековом обществе ответственность за отсутствие детей возлагалась на женщину. Бездетность для нее чаще всего означала пострижение в монастырь, иногда насильственное. Принятие бесплодной женой пострига было единственной возможностью для мужчины расторгнуть бездетный союз и получить надежду на отцовство в новом браке. Учитывая важность продления рода, супруги старались любыми способами получить долгожданное потомство. Для решения проблемы чадородия они обращались за помощью не только к христианской церкви, но и к языческим обрядам, вызывая недовольство церкви, выступавшей против любых проявлений язычества. С точки зрения христианства, рождение ребенка – это дар Божий, следовательно, получить его можно только с помощью веры и молитвы. Священники вели ожесточенную борьбу против любых способов недопущения беременности, ее прерывания. Строго наказывались мужья, действия которых создавали угрозу прерывания беременности у их жен. Еще более решительные действия предпринимала церковь в борьбе с убийством новорожденных. Она постоянно ужесточала ответственность матери за это преступление: от строгой епитимии до смертной казни. Автор приходит к выводу, что в древнерусском обществе церковь взяла на себя функцию формирования репродуктивного поведения. Она сводилась, с одной стороны, к поощрению многодетности, борьбе с различными действиями, направленными на предотвращение беременности или избавление от ребенка, а с другой – к противодействию любым пережиткам язычества, даже если они использовались для преодоления проблемы бесплодия. The article examines the role of the church in the formation of reproductive behavior in the Old Russian family. The historiographical analysis of the problem shows that it has not been solved in either domestic or foreign literature. Christianity played a significant role in maintaining the importance of childbearing in ancient Russian society, proclaiming the appearance of offspring as the main purpose of marriage. This position of the church was close to the laity, for whom the birth of an heir meant the opportunity to pass down the acquired property, social status and power to children, to ensure prayer for the dead. In medieval society, the responsibility for the absence of children was assigned to a woman. Her childlessness was often followed by taking the monastic veil, sometimes forcibly. Taking the veil by his wife was the only opportunity for a man to terminate a childless marriage and get a chance of hope for fatherhood in a new marriage. Given the importance of procreation, married couples tried to have the long-awaited offspring by any means. To solve the problem of childbearing, they turned for help not only to the Christian church but also to pagan rituals, thus causing discontent of the church, which opposed the manifestations of paganism in matters of conception. From the Christian point of view, the birth of a child is a gift from God, and therefore it can be obtained only with the help of faith and prayer. The priests waged a fierce struggle against any means of preventing pregnancy and its termination. The husbands whose actions threatened to terminate their wives' pregnancies were severely punished. Even more decisive actions were taken by the church in the fight against the murder of newborns. It constantly tightened the mother's responsibility for this crime, from strict penance to the death penalty. The author comes to the conclusion that in ancient Russian society the church assumed the function of forming reproductive behavior. It was reduced, on the one hand, to encouraging large families with many children and combating any actions aimed at preventing pregnancy or getting rid of a child and, on the other hand, to countering any vestiges of paganism, even if they were used to overcome the problem of infertility.
Introduction. The article is focused on analyzing the aesthetic aspect of A. Kojève's philosophy, the ability of his philosophy, from an aesthetic point of view, to clarify a number of key problems of the modern political and cultural environment. The purpose of the study is to determine the epistemological attitude of A. Kojève's philosophy able to clarify the way in which his philosophy problematizes the current cultural and political reality. Methods. Hermeneutics, comparative analysis and deconstruction are used as research methods. Comparative analysis allows us to demarcate A. Kojève's own line of reasoning, in the context of aesthetic and epistemological theories, as well as Hegelian themes themselves. Hermeneutics is the central method in the work, since the philosophy of A. Kojeve requires interpretation as an aesthetic theory. Deconstruction, formalized to the status of a method according to P. de Man, allows us to detect inconsistencies, the principle of mutual problematization of Kojeve's philosophy and the current political and epistemological agenda. Scientific novelty of the research. The standard way of interpreting the work of A. Kojève is to evaluate him as an interpreter of G. Hegel. The author analyzes some meaning of A. Kojève's philosophy, separate from G. Hegel's explanation of the text. The novelty lies not only in the fact that A. Kojève's philosophy is defined as theorizing that goes beyond technical hermeneutics (clear presentation), but also as a specific representation of such theorizing as epistemological aesthetic theory. The latter is a rather rare interpretation of the philosophy of A. Kojeve. This allows us to expand the traditional assumption that post-Hegelian epistemesthetics is the property of an extremely limited number of authors (for example, B. Croce). Moreover, such an interpretation of A. Kojève's theories is a new element in the emerging trend of considering political issues within the framework of epistemological aesthetics. Results. The specific mode of interpreting G. Hegel, which is carried out by A. Kojève, turns the philosophy of the former into a unique aesthetic project. In this project, the category of aesthetic experience comes to the foreground, indicating the empty, formal nature of any discourse. In this regard, any claim to knowledge of reality, to a correct idea of the subject is replaced by the idea of creating the subject of discourse. Consistent treatment of this idea is symptomatic of the philosophy of A. Kojève. This philosophy is a reflection of those historical changes that gave rise to the culture of "aesthetic rationality": empty and formal. In A. Kojève's philosophy, one can see how such a culture of the End of History is, contrary to Hegelian ideas, not the era of the struggle decline, but the era of its strange transformation, a symptom of increasing political violence. Conclusions. A. Kojève's philosophy is considered not as a utopian political project, but as a problematization of the modern cultural and political sphere. The latter is understood as an indication of the inconsistency of ontological discourses of Truth, the discovery in the very essence of discursive practices of an empty, formal principle, and therefore primarily of interest to aesthetics. The modern era of the End of History and the end of the era of persuasive speech gives an idea of the main political paradox (at least for the philosophy of A. Kojève, and at most for the modern political environment). The era of disappointment in discourse should become an era of refusal to fight for discourses, but it becomes an era of maximizing violence, since it is in a situation of disappointment that discourses can only be supported by force. We move from unconvincing speech to convincing violence, but it is possible to understand the origins and specifics of this transition only by considering A. Kojève's philosophy in the light of such a discipline as aesthetics.
W prezentowanym artykule przedstawiono zarys analizy rozwoju Białorusi po uzyskaniu suwerenności państwowej. Po ostatecznym rozpadzie ZSRR (XII 1991) Białoruś miała możliwość samodzielnego kształtowania swojej polityki wewnętrznej i zagranicznej. Młode państwo, zyskując szybkie międzynarodowe uznanie, zaczęło realizować zasadę trójpodziału władzy, angażować aktywnych obywateli w dyskusję na temat perspektyw rozwoju kraju.
Autor podejmuje próbę wyjaśnienia przyczyn transformacji Białorusi z republiki parlamentarnej w państwo autorytarne. W przedstawionych rozważaniach stwierdza się, że stopniowe wprowadzanie autorytarnych metod rządzenia na początkowym etapie było popierane przez znaczną część społeczeństwa. W warunkach niskiej kultury politycznej w kraju, niepokojące procesy autorytaryzmu uznawane były za czasowe trudności etapu przejściowego od spadku totalitarnego do demokracji. Ustanowienie na Białorusi dyktatury osobistej doprowadziło do stopniowej degradacji wiodących struktur państwowych.
Spośród przyczyn chęci przywrócenia sowieckiego ustroju przez liczną część społeczeństwa białoruskiego wyróżnić należy słabe zaangażowanie Białorusinów w odbudowę państwa narodowego, podziały tożsamościowe, brak strategii jednoczącej społeczeństwo przed współczesnymi wyzwaniami.
W artykule postawiono tezę, że negatywną rolę w rozwoju Białorusi odgrywały rosyjskie elity polityczne, które w rzeczywistości nie uznawały suwerenności państwa białoruskiego, negowały tożsamość Białorusinów, języka białoruskiego, kultury i narracje historyczne. Prosowieckie i prorosyjskie poglądy Łukaszenki zachęcały Kreml do ustanowienia kontroli nad państwem białoruskim. W lutym 2022 r. Moskwa wykorzystała terytorium Białorusi do inwazji na Ukrainę, kwestionując niepodległość państwa ościennego.
Masowe protesty na Białorusi przeciwko rażącemu fałszowaniu wyborów prezydenckich (VIII 2020) pokazały, że białoruskie społeczeństwo odrzuca autorytarny reżim, a także prowadzoną dotychczas politykę wewnętrzną i zagraniczną. Władza Łukaszenki dążąc do wyjścia z głębokiego kryzysu, położyła główny nacisk na brutalne represje wobec protestujących obywateli. Obecna strategia władz naraża państwo białoruskie na całkowitą utratę suwerenności.
Three decades of sovereignty of the Republic of Belarus (1991–2021): the point of no return not passed
The presented publication provides a brief analysis of the development of Belarus after the gaining of state sovereignty. After the final collapse of the USSR (XII 1991), Belarus had the opportunity to independently shape its domestic and foreign policy. The young state, having received rapid international recognition, began to put into practice the division of branches of government, to involve active citizens in a discussion about the prospects for the the country.
The author tries to find out the reasons for the transformation of Belarus from a parliamentary republic to an authoritarian state that began after the first presidential elections (VII 1994). It is argued that this transition at the initial stage enjoyed the support of the majority of the population, who, in conditions of low political culture, associated the socio-economic difficulties of the transition stage with democratic transformations. The establishment of a personal dictatorship in Belarus has led to the gradual degradation of the main state structures.
The researcher sees the main reason for the desire of many Belarusians to return to the Soviet order in the incompleteness of the Belarusian nation-building, in the split of society into several identity groups, in the absence of a collective strategy for finding answers to the challenges of the time.
The article emphasizes the thesis that the Russian leadership played a negative role in the development of Belarus, which in practice did not recognize the independence of the post-Soviet state, denied the uniqueness of the Belarusian language, culture and historical narratives. Lukashenko's pro-Soviet and pro-Russian views were supported by the Kremlin, which, under the guise of various support, sought to establish control over the Belarusian regime. In February 2022, Moscow used the territory of Belarus to invade Ukraine, greatly questioning the sovereignty of the neighboring country.
Mass protests in Belarus against the gross falsification of the presidential elections (VIII 2020) demonstrated that the Belarusian society rejects the authoritarian regime, its domestic and foreign policy. The regime, in its actions to get out of the deep crisis, placed the main emphasis on brutal repression against dissent. This makes the future of the Belarusian state poorly predictable, makes it dependent on many internal and external circumstances.
