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This study has investigated the country-specific determinants of intra-industry exchange between Poland and its European Union trading partners during the time period 2002–2011. The analysis of the factors determining the Polish bilateral intra-industry trade with European Union countries applied an econometric model for panel data. As follows from the research, the intensity of intra-industry trade is dependent on numerous factors. The factors that exert a positive impact on the development of intra-trade exchange include the participation of processed products in bilateral trade between Poland and UE states, the intensity of trade with specific countries as well as the size of a partner country measured by its GDP per capita. Increases in the intra-trade turnover are also facilitated by EU membership and by the fact that Poland's trade partners use a similar language, belonging to the group of the Slavic languages. The intensity of intra-trade exchange is weakened by the degree of the imbalance of trade turnover between trading partners, geographical distance that separates trading partners and significant differences in the size of trading partners' GDPs.

The present study has investigated determinants of intra-industry trade between Poland and its European Union trading partners. The analysis of the factors determining Polish bilateral intra-industry trade employed an econometric model for panel data. This paper is focused on one of the most important factors in the development of this type of exchange, namely on economic integration. The survey results confirm that in the case of Poland, integration with the European Union turned out to be a factor influencing favourably the development of intra-industry turnover. The development of intra-industry trade was also facilitated by the fact that Poland's trade partners use a similar language, which belongs to the group of the Slavic languages as well as by a considerable intensity of trade with EU countries. The negative impact on the development of intra-industry trade was exerted by trade barriers and the degree of the imbalance of trade between Poland and its trading partners. The outcome of the research conducted confirms that the impact of all of the identified determinants of intra-industry trade is consistent with the assumptions of the theory.

The present study investigates the country-specific determinants of intra-industry trade between Poland and its European Union trading partners in agricultural and food products during the time period 2002-2011. An econometric model for panel data is applied for the analysis of the factors determining Polish bilateral intra-industry trade with European Union countries. The research leads to the formulation of a statement that the intensity of intra-industry trade in agricultural and food products is positively influenced by the intensity of trade with EU countries and the level of economic development of the member countries (as measured by the size of their GDP per capita). Increase in intra-trade turnover is also facilitated by EU membership and by the fact that Poland's trade partners use similar Slavic-based languages. Relative differences in the size of the economies and relative differences in Poland's and its trading partners' levels of economic development have a negative impact. The degree of the imbalance of trade turnover between trading partners also negatively influences the intensity of intra-trade exchange. The research confirms that the impact of all of the identified factors determining intra-industry trade is consistent with the predictions of the theory.

The article is focused on the issue of trade exchange between European Union member states. The trade exchange volume noted an increase after the new members had joined the European Union. That may be observed while analysing statistical data on the trade exchange volume in speci fi c states as well as in the whole of the European Union. A simple index analysis of the trade volume enables researchers to observe changes over time; however, it neglects the causes of these changes. With a view to identifying theses causes, an econometric tool – the panel gravity model – was used for the purposes of the present paper. The research objective of the paper is to evaluate the impact of selected factors on the development of bilateral trade in the European Union in the years 1999–2010. The group of potential factors describing the size of trade exchange includes the following: the Gross Domestic Product per capita, foreign direct investment per capita and the geographical distance between trading partners. The research outcome enabled us to draw a conclusion on a positive dependence between a member state's GDP and its export and import volume. In the case of foreign direct investments, their positive impact on the improvement of member states' exporting potential was identi fi ed. Moreover, a negative dependence between the geographical distance and the size of their trade exchange was proved. Also, the paper discussed the impact of EU membership on increasing trade exchange volume. The research found an essential increase in exports from the new EU-12 countries to the EU-15 countries and inversely.

The growing flow of people into cities causes several challenges for their functioning. This brings the need to ensure, for example, efficient transport, sustainable waste, and appropriate energy policy. Particularly capital cities are exposed to the above-mentioned risks, due to their large numbers and densities of inhabitants. Therefore, the state of the environment in cities should be monitored systematically. The research aim of this article is to evaluate the level of environmental sustainability in capitals of European Union countries. A synthetic indicator was made up of diagnostic variables, using quantitative and qualitative indicators relating to the quality of the environment. Based on the ranking, results reveal that Europe is spatially divided according to the level of environmental quality. The best results were achieved by capital cities of the northern European countries. The analysis presented here has some application potential. It can serve to identify challenges to improving the quality of the environment, and to raise public awareness of the importance of changing individual behaviour (e.g., use of public transport).

Trade cooperation between European Union countries is based mainly on intra-industry trade, consisting in the simultaneous import and export of similar products belonging to the same industry (commodity group). The present study has investigated the country-specifi c determinants of intra-industry trade between Poland and its European Union trading partners in pharmaceutical products during the time period 2004-2016. To this end, an econometric model for panel data was constructed. The research shows that the intensity of intra-industry trade in Poland-EU trade in pharmaceuticals is determined by several key factors. The intensity of trade with particular EU countries and the size of general government expenditure on health in the countries of trading partners have a positive impact on the development of this type of exchange. A factor that signifi cantly and simultaneously affects the intensity of intra-industry trade is the degree of imbalance in the trade balance in pharmaceutical products with individual trading partners. The development of intra-industry trade is also limited by factors related to the level of economic development of trading partners. The study confi rmed that the greater the differences in the level of GDP per capita between Poland and the trading partner, the less intense intra-industry trade. Also, the growth of GDP per capita in the countries of trade partners is not conducive to the development of intra-industry trade in Poland's trade in pharmaceuticals. The direction of the impact of this variable (GDP per capita) on the intensity of two-way trade obtained in this study does not confi rm the predictions of the theory of intra-industry trade. However, the negative impact of this factor can be explained by the specifi city of pharmaceutical products that are purchased by consumers generally only in justifi ed situations resulting from health or life protection.