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Europe currently is the oldest continent in the world and its population is still ageing. This demographic shift affects society, economy, and welfare states. Scholars from various disciplines and the public noted this development and wonder what effects it may have, but lack adequate information. They call for explanations that are concise and easily accessible. The book at hand fills this lacuna. It introduces readers to the most important developments, theories, concepts, and discussions in ageing studies - always keeping an eye on the current situation in Europe. Each chapter adopts the perspective of a different discipline, e.g. public health, sociology, economics, or technology. To make the explanations easy to understand, the book includes learning tools such as learning objectives, multiple choice questions, and a glossary.

Cross-national studies in Europe reveal sharp regional differences in the prevalence of loneliness among older adults, with the highest prevalence of loneliness in Eastern European countries. In this study, we investigate an alternative explanation for differences in loneliness prevalence based on differences in trust. Many of the Eastern European countries were ruled by totalitarian regimes that undermined people's trust in other people and in the system, potentially leading to higher loneliness prevalence. Data are derived from the sixth round of the European Social Survey conducted in 2012, based on 12,042 respondents, of which 4827 live in post-totalitarian countries and 7215 in other European countries and Israel. We estimate a path model with trust in people, trust in the system, and social engagement included as latent variables and one dichotomous outcome (lonely or not). We control for age, gender, health limitations, marital status, income adequacy, and education. The results reveal that loneliness is partly constructed by the social–cultural and historical–political characteristics of the countries in which people live. The higher prevalence of loneliness in the Eastern-European post-totalitarian countries can be linked to a low level of trust in other people through social disengagement. Considering the role of trust in the creation of individuals feelings of loneliness contributes to the understanding of country variations in loneliness and opens a new perspective in loneliness research and the development of policies aimed at reducing loneliness. ; Open access funding provided by OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University. This work was supported by COST Action CA15122 ROSEnet, funded by the EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation Horizon 2020, which enabled this study to be drafted during Gražina Rapolienė's Short Term Scientifc Mission at NOVA. Marja Aartsen was supported by a grant from the Research Council of Norway (Grant no. 299859), based on the GENDER-NET Plus Joint Call on Gender and UN Sustainable Development Goals (Project number GNP-187-FULL). ; publishedVersion

In the present study we examined the associations between beliefs of mastery and 2 important kinds of productive activities in the third age: participation in education, and volunteering. Within the broad concept of mastery beliefs, differential aspects of self-regulatory cognitions
were studied, that is, self-esteem, control beliefs, effort to complete behavior, persistence in the face of adversity, and willingness to initiate behavior. Effects of these aspects on carrying out activities were investigated and controlled for the impact of some situational and demographic
factors. Findings suggest that a general sense of mastery, as reflected in self-esteem and control beliefs, is not a precondition for study and volunteering work in the third age. However, special components of self-efficacy turned out to play a part. Willingness to initiate behavior emerged
as a strong predictor for taking on educational activities, as was persistence in the face of adversity for being active as a volunteer. In the discussion possibilities were looked at fpr how better to match productive activities in later life to personal dispositions.

This editorial serves a double purpose. It introduces the articles and commentary comprising this thematic issue on old-age exclusion, and simultaneously aims to make a concise contribution to the discussion on the relation between agency of older people and old-age exclusion. While indeed it is clear that limitations of agency due to a lack of resources in old age or age discrimination lead to exclusion of older people, the relationship between reduced agency and exclusion is less clear in the case of internalized age norms. It ends with a plea for surveys studying older populations to pay more attention to older people's identities and life goals, opinions and reasons for action.

In Romania, inequalities in health and wellbeing between younger and older Romanians are substantial, and an important reason for inequalities may be the higher risk of social exclusion among older adults. After the fall of Communism in 1989, the many transformations in economic structures and welfare regimes contributed to enhanced levels of social exclusion, in particular among the older generations. Social exclusion is a multidimensional problem with substantial effects on the mental wellbeing of people. The present study examines age differences in mental wellbeing and evaluates to what extent differences can be explained by age and social exclusion, while controlling for a number of potential confounders. Data are from the fourth wave (2016) of the European Quality of Life Survey. Data for Romania include 1004 people aged between 18 and 85 years old, of which 726 are included in the analyses (only complete cases). In the study sample, 259 were 55 years or older. Mental wellbeing was measured with The World Health Organization Wellbeing Index (WHO-5 scale), and social exclusion was measured in four domains: social relations, material resources, services and the neighbourhood. The results show that older Romanians have a statistically significant lower mental wellbeing than younger generations in Romania. All domains of social exclusion were associated with lower levels of mental wellbeing. These effects remained statistically significant after controlling for partner status, chronic diseases, having children, and level of education. Improving mental wellbeing of older Romanians would greatly benefit from increasing social inclusion by means of social transfers provided by the government, improving the neighbourhood and access to services, and providing facilities to enhance the social network.

In Romania, inequalities in health and wellbeing between younger and older Romanians are substantial, and an important reason for inequalities may be the higher risk of social exclusion among older adults. After the fall of Communism in 1989, the many transformations in economic structures and welfare regimes contributed to enhanced levels of social exclusion, in particular among the older generations. Social exclusion is a multidimensional problem with substantial effects on the mental wellbeing of people. The present study examines age differences in mental wellbeing and evaluates to what extent differences can be explained by age and social exclusion, while controlling for a number of potential confounders. Data are from the fourth wave (2016) of the European Quality of Life Survey. Data for Romania include 1004 people aged between 18 and 85 years old, of which 726 are included in the analyses (only complete cases). In the study sample, 259 were 55 years or older. Mental wellbeing was measured with The World Health Organization Wellbeing Index (WHO-5 scale), and social exclusion was measured in four domains: social relations, material resources, services and the neighbourhood. The results show that older Romanians have a statistically significant lower mental wellbeing than younger generations in Romania. All domains of social exclusion were associated with lower levels of mental wellbeing. These effects remained statistically significant after controlling for partner status, chronic diseases, having children, and level of education. Improving mental wellbeing of older Romanians would greatly benefit from increasing social inclusion by means of social transfers provided by the government, improving the neighbourhood and access to services, and providing facilities to enhance the social network. ; This article is based upon work and funded by COST Action CA15122ROSEnet, supported by COST(European Cooperationin Science and Technology). ; publishedVersion

In Romania, inequalities in health and wellbeing between younger and older Romanians are substantial, and an important reason for inequalities may be the higher risk of social exclusion among older adults. After the fall of Communism in 1989, the many transformations in economic structures and welfare regimes contributed to enhanced levels of social exclusion, in particular among the older generations. Social exclusion is a multidimensional problem with substantial effects on the mental wellbeing of people. The present study examines age differences in mental wellbeing and evaluates to what extent differences can be explained by age and social exclusion, while controlling for a number of potential confounders. Data are from the fourth wave (2016) of the European Quality of Life Survey. Data for Romania include 1004 people aged between 18 and 85 years old, of which 726 are included in the analyses (only complete cases). In the study sample, 259 were 55 years or older. Mental wellbeing was measured with The World Health Organization Wellbeing Index (WHO-5 scale), and social exclusion was measured in four domains: social relations, material resources, services and the neighbourhood. The results show that older Romanians have a statistically significant lower mental wellbeing than younger generations in Romania. All domains of social exclusion were associated with lower levels of mental wellbeing. These effects remained statistically significant after controlling for partner status, chronic diseases, having children, and level of education. Improving mental wellbeing of older Romanians would greatly benefit from increasing social inclusion by means of social transfers provided by the government, improving the neighbourhood and access to services, and providing facilities to enhance the social network.

Good health is one of the key qualities of life, but opportunities to be and remain healthy are unequally distributed across socio-economic groups. The beneficial health effects of the social network are well known. However, research on the social network as potential mediator in the pathway from socio-economic position (SEP) to health is scarce, while there are good reasons to expect a socio-economical patterning of networks. We aim to contribute to our understanding of socio-economic inequalities in health by examining the mediating role of structural and functional characteristics of the social network in the SEP-health relationship. Data were from the second wave of the Norwegian study on the life course, aging and generation study (NorLAG) and comprised 4534 men and 4690 women aged between 40 and 81. We applied multiple mediation models to evaluate the relative importance of each network characteristic, and multiple group analysis to examine differences between middle-aged and older men and women. Our results indicated a clear socio-economical patterning of the social network for men and women. People with higher SEP had social networks that better protect against loneliness, which in turn lead to better health outcomes. The explained variance in health in older people by the social network and SEP was only half of the explained variance observed in middle-aged people, suggesting that other factors than SEP were more important for health when people age. We conclude that it is the function of the network, rather than the structure, that counts for health. ; This research was supported by a grant from the Research Council of Norway (Grant no. 228664) and from Nordforsk (Grant no. 74637). The NorLAG and LOGG surveys are financed by the Research Council of Norway (Grant nos. 149564 and 168373), Ministry of Health and Care Services, Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, NOVA and Statistics Norway. The LOGG and NorLAG datasets are part of the ACCESS Life Course infrastructure project funded by the National Financing Initiative for Research Infrastructure at the Research Council of Norway (Grant no. 195403) and NOVA. ; publishedVersion

This study examined from a gender-sensitive perspective the associations of exclusion from social relations (ESR) with the quality of life (QoL) of excluded older persons. Being satisfied with existing relations (i.e., network satisfaction) may be particularly important for the QoL of older persons with small networks, whereas the QoL of "network-less" older persons may be associated with their perception of solitude (i.e., solitude satisfaction). This study examined the moderating role of network satisfaction (NS) in the gendered associations between network size and QoL, as well as the gendered associations of solitude satisfaction (SS) with the QoL of older "network-less" persons. In addition, the comparative disadvantages in the QoL of "network-less" older persons with low-to-high SS, compared to the QoL of socially embedded persons with low-to-high NS were examined. Cross-sectional gender stratified secondary analyses of data from participants (N = 72.433) in the Survey on Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) did not provide convincing evidence that a higher NS is particularly important for the QoL of older persons with smaller networks. Among older "network-less" persons, lower SS was associated with lower QoL, comparatively more so among older women. Older persons embedded in a social network with low NS, as well as older "network-less" persons with low SS, have comparatively the lowest levels of QoL. It was concluded that the subjective evaluation of social relations and the subjective evaluation of solitude are associated with gendered disadvantages in the QoL of older persons challenged by ESR. ; Funding: Austria Science FundAustrian Science Fund (FWF) [I4210/GNP187]; Technology Agency of the Czech Republic [TJ03000002]; Irish Research CouncilIrish Research Council for Science, Engineering and Technology [GNP-187]; Ministry of Science Technology [MSTS3-15667]; Research Council of NorwayResearch Council of Norway [299859]; Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and UniversitiesSpanish Government [PCI2019-103627]; Swedish Research CouncilSwedish Research CouncilEuropean Commission [2018 -00929]; Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and WelfareSwedish Research CouncilSwedish Research Council for Health Working Life & Welfare (Forte) [2020-00039]; Linkoping University ; GenPath ; The effect of exclusion from social relations on cognitive decline trajectories, productive behaviours, and independent living capacity among older persons in Sweden

A growing literature shows that doing voluntary work not only helps the wider community but can also improve one's own well-being. To date, however, few studies have examined the relationship between volunteering and well-being in non-US and especially in comparative data. We study this relationship using two waves of data of 18,559 individuals aged 50 and above from 12 European countries. We analyze life satisfaction impacts of change and stability in volunteering status and in the intensity (frequency) of volunteering, and explore whether these impacts differ according to life stage (age, employment status) and across countries with different norms and supports for voluntarism. Findings show that net life satisfaction is higher among longer-term, recent, and former volunteers than among stable (long-term) non-volunteers. There are no significant life satisfaction differences between the three groups with volunteer experience. Equally, similar levels of life satisfaction are observed among people who have increased and decreased their frequency of volunteering. It thus seems to be the experience and not the dynamics (i.e., change or persistence) of volunteering that is associated with well-being. Findings further suggest life course variation in the association between volunteering and well-being, as the relationship is stronger for older and long-term non-employed (mostly retired) individuals than for their middle-aged and working counterparts. The relationship is also stronger in countries where volunteering is less common and less institutionally supported.

The Norwegian Life Course, Ageing and Generation Study (NorLAG) was set up to gain new and updated knowledge on ageing and age-related changes in Norway. The nationwide, population-based study includes information on core life domains for 11 028 men and women born between 1922 and 1966. NorLAG combines longitudinal survey data from three waves (2002, 2007 and 2017) with secondary annual data from the public registers that provide time series on financial information, civil status and educational attainment for up to 50 years (1967 to 2017). NorLAG1 comprises 5555 respondents aged 40 years and older at the time of interview, the expanded NorLAG2 sample counts 9238 respondents (including 68% of the NorLAG1 participants) and NorLAG3 includes a total of 6099 respondents (aged 50–95). Topics covered include health and care, wellbeing and mastery, work and retirement, and family and intergenerational relationships. Information on context, timing of events and close family enables the construction of interdependent trajectories and pathways for men and women from mid-life to old age. Access to the NorLAG data is facilitated through the national research infrastructure ACCESS Life Course. Data are available via the online portal at [https://norlag.nsd.no], hosted by Norwegian Social Research at Oslo Metropolitan University and the Norwegian Centre for Research data. ; The NorLAG survey data collections have been financed by the Research Council of Norway, four Norwegian Government Ministries, the Norwegian Directorate of Health, the Norwegian State Housing Bank, Statistics Norway and NOVA at Oslo Metropolitan University. ; publishedVersion

Older adults face particular risks of exclusion from social relationships (ESR) and are especially vulnerable to its consequences. However, research so far has been limited to specific dimensions, countries, and time points. In this paper, we examine the prevalence and micro-and macro-level predictors of ESR among older adults (60+) using two waves of data obtained four years apart across 14 European countries in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). We consider four ESR indicators (household composition, social networks, social opportunities, and loneliness) and link them to micro-level (age, gender, socioeconomic factors, health, and family responsibilities) and national macro-level factors (social expenditures, unmet health needs, individualism, social trust, and institutional trust). Findings reveal a northwest to southeast gradient, with the lowest rates of ESR in the stronger welfare states of Northwest Europe. The high rates of ESR in the southeast are especially pronounced among women. Predictably, higher age and fewer personal resources (socioeconomic factors and health) increase the risk of all ESR dimensions for both genders. Macro-level factors show significant associations with ESR beyond the effect of micro-level factors, suggesting that national policies and cultural and structural characteristics may play a role in fostering sociability and connectivity and, thus, reduce the risk of ESR in later life. ; GENPATH is part of the GENDER-NET Plus ERANET COFUND project, which has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement N° 741874. The national teams have been supported by following grants: Austria (FWF I4210/GNP187), Czechia (TAČR ZÉTA TJ03000002), Israel (Ministry of Science, Technology and Space N° 3-15667), Ireland (GNP-187), Norway (NFR 299859), Spain (PCI2019-103627), Sweden (Vetenskapsrådet 2018-00929). Support also comes from the Norwegian Research Council through the research project "Eurocare" (grant no. 327659). ; publishedVersion

Social exclusion is complex and dynamic, and it leads to the non-realization of social, economic, political or cultural rights or participation within a society. This critical review takes stock of the literature on exclusion of social relations. Social relations are defined as comprising social resources, social connections and social networks. An evidence review group undertook a critical review which integrates, interprets and synthesizes information across studies to develop a conceptual model of exclusion from social relations. The resulting model is a subjective interpretation of the literature and is intended to be the starting point for further evaluations. The conceptual model identifies individual risks for exclusion from social relations (personal attributes, biological and neurological risk, retirement, socio-economic status, exclusion from material resources and migration). It incorporates the evaluation of social relations, and the influence of psychosocial resources and socio-emotional processes, sociocultural, social-structural, environmental and policy contextual influences on exclusion from social relations. It includes distal outcomes of exclusion from social relations, that is, individual well-being, health and functioning, social opportunities and social cohesion. The dynamic relationships between elements of the model are also reported. We conclude that the model provides a subjective interpretation of the data and an excellent starting point for further phases of conceptual development and systematic evaluation(s). Future research needs to consider the use of sophisticated analytical tools and an interdisciplinary approach in order to understand the underlying biological and ecopsychosocial associations that contribute to individual and dynamic differences in the experience of exclusion from social relations.