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Health is one of the basic capabilities that generate economic freedom. Better health status is described as an indicator of economic success and failure of the nations. The availability of health care services and the physical, biological, epidemiological and socio economic environment in which a person live, broadly determines disease pattern, health status and therefore the quality of life. Despite of economic improvement, social and demographic indicators in Pakistan presents a dismal picture. Nevertheless, Pakistan still has one of the highest infant mortality rates and low (female) life expectancy compared with the other developing countries of comparable income level. Keeping in view the likely role that health can play this dissertation aims at empirically estimating the health related variables and their impact on economic development of Pakistan. This dissertation also aims at empirically estimating the role of different macroeconomic and policy relevant factors affecting public health spending and health status improvements in Pakistan over time. Also, an attempt has been made to see the likely impact of health related variables like health status and per capita calorie availability on economic development using mainly health demand function and health production function approach. This dissertation used time series data of Pakistan from 1972 to 2008. Employing Johansen cointegration methodology, long run income elasticity of health expenditures in Pakistan, is estimated. Contrary to the estimates for most of the industrialized countries, income elasticity of public health expenditures in Pakistan is less than unity while the short run elasticity is even negative. Unemployment and urbanization has a strong negative impact on health expenditures in the long run but urbanization is not significant in short run. Furthermore, using cointegration and Granger bivariate causality analysis for health status of the population it is estimates that per capita health expenditures are negatively related with infant mortality rate and positively related with female life expectancy. An interesting result is reinforcing relationship between fertility and mortality rate in Pakistan verifying the modern economic theory of population. The curative measure of health care system that is doctor population ratio is important factor affecting positively to the female life expectancy and negatively to infant mortality. Another modeling strategy efficiency wage hypothesis is tested using production function framework. The results of nutrition availability are compared with that of life expectancy, fertility, health expenditures and mortality. It is estimated that the magnitude of calorie availability is stronger on per capita income relative to life expectancy, infant mortality, public health expenditures and fertility. One way causality is running from per capita calorie availability to per capita income. It is concluded, based on these important results, that health sector is interlinked with socio-economic development therefore health policy must not see the health services in isolation but in an integrated manner to achieve the broader goals of poverty reduction, human capital formation and economic development. The results support the hypothesis of increasing public investments in health. The role of nutrition in agrarian economy like Pakistan is robust. Government has to ensure the smooth supply of food and nutrition to the population for increasing their living standard and productivity. Policies that increases gender equality as well as promote social inclusion by increasing employment will help in improving health status of the population.

This research deals with the course of the Russian-Ukrainian war, and the main reasons for its outbreak, as well as its geopolitical, economic, military and security dimensions and repercussions, not only on the parties to the conflict, but on the whole world. The Russian-Ukrainian war is not just a passing event during international relations. Rather, it has become one of the most important international events in the twenty-first century, due to many local, regional and international considerations, the most important of which is that the future of the current international system, with all its pillars, balances and alliances, may depend on the outcome of this war and who will be the victorious party at the end. If Ukraine wins, with NATO behind it, Western hegemony will be consolidated over the current international system, and there will be no change in its structure. But if Russia wins, it will be able, together with China and the countries that support them, to shape a multipolar international system, and herein lies the importance of this research that deals with this war.

PurposeThis study aims to understand how quickly Japanese banks readjust their capital ratios (leverage, regulatory capital, tier-I capital and common equity) following an economic shock.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses a two-step system GMM framework to test the study's hypotheses using the annual data of Japanese commercial and cooperative banks ranging from 2005 to 2020.FindingsThe findings show that banks adjust their leverage ratio faster than regulatory capital, tier-I capital and common equity ratios. In addition to that, the results reveal that the speed of capital adjustment is higher for commercial banks than for cooperative banks, suggesting higher economic costs and implications for commercial banks. Furthermore, it is worth noting that well-capitalised (under-capitalised) banks tend to prioritise the adjustments to common equity (leverage) before considering the adjustments to leverage (common equity). According to the results, high-liquid (low-liquid) banks alter their regulatory capital and tier-I capital ratios (leverage) more quickly (more slowly) than low-liquid (high-liquid) banks.Practical implicationsThe findings suggest that when formulating and implementing new banking regulations, particularly in assessing and adjusting specific capital requirements under Pillar II of Basel III, management (including bankers, regulators and policymakers) should consider the heterogeneity observed in the rate of capital adjustment across various bank characteristics. Additionally, bank managers should also consider the speed of adjustment when determining optimal half-life and target capital structures.Originality/valueTo the author's knowledge, this study represents a pioneering investigation into the rate of adjustment of capital ratios (leverage, regulatory, tier-I and common equity) within Japan's banking sector. The study employs a comprehensive dataset encompassing both commercial and cooperative banks to facilitate this analysis. A notable contribution to the existing body of literature, this study offers a detailed analysis and emphasises the varying degrees of adjustment in capital ratios. The study also highlights the heterogeneous nature of the adjustment rate in these ratios by categorising the data into well-capitalised, under-capitalised, highly liquid and low-liquid banks.

The study uses the GMM and panel OLS framework on the data of the US banks over the period ‎from 2002 to 2019 to reveal the moderating role of economic freedom on the ‎relationship between bank capital and ‎profitability. The overall findings show that ‎economic freedom and bank capital positively influence ‎banks' profitability. The results reveal that economic freedom positively (negatively) moderates the relationship between risk-based (traditional) capital ratio. Furthermore, the results also find heterogeneity in the relationship across different market conditions (before and after crisis) and bank characteristics (well or undercapitalized, high and low liquid banks). The results ‎remain robust for ‎alternative methodology and proxies. The heterogeneity of findings has ‎implications for ‎policymakers in banking for the improvement of the financial system.

This study describes the macroeconomic determinants of health care spending in a broad context using time series data from Pakistan on economic, demographic, social, and political variables. The data spans a period from 1972- 2006 and was analyzed using cointegration and error correction approaches. All variables were found to be first difference stationary and the results confirm the presence of one cointegrating vector. This proves the existence of a long-run relationship between public health care expenditures and the other variables used in the model. The income elasticity of public health care expenditures is estimated at 0.23. As this value is less than unity it suggests that, contrary to most of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries health care qualifies as a necessity in Pakistan. Urbanization and unemployment are variables that have a negative effect on health care expenditures, with elasticity values of -1.29 and -0.32 respectively, implying that it is costly to provide health care to residents of remote rural areas of Pakistan.

Using the two-stage generalized linear modelling (GMM) technique, we examine
the connection between economic freedom and its constituents and bank
risk-taking in the US. The findings indicate that bank risk-taking
restrictions are caused by restrictions on property rights, government
honesty and accountability, government expenditure and taxation, and
monetary, commercial, and financial independence. But financial institutions
benefit from taking more chances when they are free to trade and invest
anywhere, they like. The risk of well-capitalized banks is reduced by
economic freedom while the danger of undercapitalized banks is increased.
Banks with enough capitalization benefit more from economic freedom and its
component than do those with insufficient capital. According to the data,
risk management contributes more to good governance than any other factor.
The findings hold up across different risk metrics and sample sizes. Our
findings have ramifications for monetary liberty and the willingness of
commercial banks to take risks.

This study provides new insights about how bank liquidity and bank risk have influenced the capital ratio of commercial banks operating in Asia's emerging economies after the financial crisis 2007–2008. The data were collected for 377 banks from the Bankscope database covering the period of eight years between 2010 and 2017. The linear regression panel-corrected standard errors approach is used to find consistent estimators. The results of the overall sample and medium-sized banks regression revealed a positive relationship between bank liquidity and bank capital ratio, whereas the liquidity and bank capital ratio of large commercial banks have a negative association. The impact of liquidity on bank capital ratio is positive but insignificant in the case of smaller banks. The impact of bank risk on bank capital ratio is negative in the case of smaller and medium-sized banks, whereas the association is found positive in the case of larger and overall banks data results in short run, other things remain unchanged. The findings have valued information for researchers, analysts, managers, and policymakers.