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[EN]: About 21 thousands years ago the Iberian Peninsula was very cold and most of Europe was even covered by snow! This was at the end of the Pleistocene, the geologic epoch from the Quaternary period that predated the current, the Holocene. And it was during this epoch that most of the planet suffered many glacial events and that's why the Quaternary is also known as the glacial period. The modern glacial period, because previously there were another four! One of the major consequences of these climatic oscillations was changes in the geographic distribution and genetic variability of species, especially those that inhabited regions most affected by glaciations. But why are we talking about Quaternary, Pleistocene, Iberian Peninsula, Europe and snow? Because we will be talking about hares! ; [PT]: Há cerca de 21 mil anos a Península Ibérica estava muito gelada e grande parte da Europa estava mesmo coberta de neve! Estávamos no final do Pleistoceno, a época geológica do período Quaternário que antecedeu a actual, o Holoceno. E foi durante esta época que uma grande parte do planeta viveu muitos eventos glaciares e é por isso que o Quaternário é também conhecido como o período glaciar. Período glaciar moderno, porque houve outros quatro! Uma das grandes consequências destas oscilações climáticas foi a alteração da distribuição geográfica e variabilidade genética das espécies, principalmente daquelas que viviam nas regiões mais afectadas pelas glaciações. Mas porque estamos a falar em Quaternário, Pleistoceno, Península Ibérica, Europa e neve? Porque vamos falar de lebres! ; [ES]: Hace cerca de 21 mil años la Península Ibérica estaba helada y gran parte de Europa estaba también cubierta de nieve. Estábamos al final del Pleistoceno, la época geológica del Cuaternario que antecedió la actual, el Holoceno. Fue durante esta época cuando una gran parte del planeta vivió numerosos eventos glaciares y por eso es que también se conoce al Cuaternario como el periodo glacial. ¡Periodo glacial moderno, porque hubo otros cuatro! Una de las grandes consecuencias de estas oscilaciones climáticas fue la alteración de la distribución geográfica y variabilidad genética de las especies, principalmente de aquellas que vivían en las regiones más afectadas por las glaciaciones. Pero, ¿por qué estamos hablando del Cuaternario, Pleistoceno, Península Ibérica, Europa y nieve? ¡Porque vamos a hablar de liebres! ; The edition of this book was financed by EcoMito (EXPL/AAGMAA/1082/2013), research project from the Operational Program Human Potential - National Strategic Reference Framework (Programa Operacional Potencial Humano, POPH - Quadro de Referência Estratégico Nacional, QREN) from the European Social Fund and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Portuguese Government. ; R. Campos and J. Melo-Ferreira are post-doctoral (SFRH/BPD/64365/2009) and auxiliary researchers (IF/00033/2014), respectively, from the Foundation for Science and Technology (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, FCT), financed by QREN-POPH, the European Social Fund and the Portuguese Ministry for Education and Science. P. Acevedo has a contract financed by the Spanish Ministry of the Economy and Competiveness (MINECO) and by the University of Castilla-La Mancha, under the program Ramon y Cajal (RYC-2012-11970). ; Peer Reviewed

Diseases pose a major direct or indirect threat to the conservation of endangered species, and can be a source of conflict among the stakeholders in conservation efforts. We aim to provide examples of disease-related conflicts in conservation, and information that can be used to identify means to reduce existing conflicts and avoid potential new ones. After introducing how diseases can affect conservation efforts, we have provided examples of different types of disease-related conflicts, including (1) those related to the movements of hosts, vectors and pathogens, (2) those linked to cats and dogs living in contact with wild carnivores, (3) those related to ungulate overabundance and (4) those related to carrion and hunting remains. We then discuss the management options available to mitigate these situations and resolve the conflicts surrounding them. Disease-related conflicts can affect conservation in several different ways. Whereas it is clear that diseases must be considered in any recovery plan for endangered species, as well as for sympatric and related abundant species such as relevant prey, it is also important to foresee and mitigate any eventual disease-related conflicts. Where conflicts have arisen, identifying the cultural carrying capacity for a disease or disease host species will help identify management strategies. It is important to quantify the risks for stakeholders and educate them about possible solutions. Multidisciplinary research teams that communicate their work to stakeholders should help resolve conflicts. Management options will not only depend on the status of the endangered host species and the epidemiology of the diseases considered, but also on the levels of existing conflict. Conservation strategies affected by diseases should explicitly include efforts to educate and inform all stakeholders as required throughout the process, and tackle any conflicts that arise.

This article belongs to the Section Animal Reproduction. ; Long-lived species are particularly interesting for investigation of trade-offs that shape reproductive allocation and the effective contribution to the next generations. Life history theory predicts that these species will buffer environmental stochasticity via changes in the reproductive investment, while maintaining high adult survival rates. The spur-thighed tortoise was selected as a case study in order to investigate the relationship between the linked maternal characteristics (size and age) and related traits in their hatchlings. We tracked naturally emerging hatchlings from young and old females under semi-natural conditions to test variations in hatchling numbers, body mass, size and survival over two years. We used linear mixed-effect models to analyze variations in hatchling body mass and size, and a mark–release–recapture framework to model their survival. Our study illustrates that old females of long-lived species have greater offspring numbers, greater survival and smaller size when compared with those of young females. The interannual variability evidenced the reduced offspring number and survival in the lower autumn rainfall and spring mean temperature year. Our results highlight the role of maternal age and climatic conditions in the population dynamics and the need for long-term studies of reproduction traits for designating adequate conservation strategies. ; P.A. is supported by MINECO-UCLM through a "Ramón y Cajal" contract (RYC-2012-11970). R.C.R.-C. is supported by a postdoctoral grant funded by the Regional Valencian Government and the European Social Fund (APOSTD/2020/090). The scientific work of R.C.R.-C., A.S. and E.G. is supported by MINECO through the project PID2019-105682RA-I00/AEI/10.13039/5011 00011033. ; Peer reviewed

[Aim]: Lepus castroviejoi and Lepus corsicanus are sister species with allopatric distributions that share extensive phenotypic and genetic variation. Under the framework of niche conservatism, we assessed whether these species have similar ecological niches, which could provide insights into their mode of divergence, conservation, and taxonomic status. [Location]: The distribution range of L. castroviejoi in the northern Iberian Peninsula, and that of L. corsicanus in mainland Italy and Sicily. [Methods]: We developed spatially explicit ecological models to characterize the niches of the two species by modelling them separately and together. Individual models were transferred to the territory of the sister species to explore their niche relationships. Predictions were assessed for discrimination and calibration in a cross-assessment procedure. [Results]: The model trained with L. castroviejoi was not able to predict the range of L. corsicanus, whereas the model trained with L. corsicanus was able to discriminate the L. castroviejoi distribution better than by chance alone (AUC = 0.814), although the reliability of the predictions was limited. The model trained with L. corsicanus in Italy's mainland (excluding the range in Sicily), however, discriminated L. castroviejoi presences/absences (AUC = 0.788) and accurately predicted its probability of occurrence. Furthermore, a well-calibrated model, which was able to discriminate the species distributions (L. castroviejoi, AUC = 0.828; L. corsicanus, AUC = 0.956), was obtained when the species were considered together. [Main conclusions]: Our results suggest that L. castroviejoi and L. corsicanus share extensive niche properties, which reinforces their possible conspecific status. The ecological niche of their ancestor may have resembled the present occupied niche of L. corsicanus in mainland Italy, given that this model was able to accurately predict the distribution range of both species. Finally, ecological evidence suggests that niche conservatism may explain the fragmentation in the distribution range of their ancestor, which may have been the driver of the initial stages of divergence. ; P.A. received a José Castillejo fellowship (2010 –2011)in Portugal awarded by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación to conduct this study, and was also partly supported bythe CGL2009-11316/BOS Spanish Government and FEDER project. P.A. and J.M.-F. currently hold postdoctoral grantsfrom the Fundaçao para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT),funded by Programa Operacional Potencial Humano (POPH)– Quadro de Referência Estratégico Nacional (QREN) fromthe European Social Fund and by the Portuguese Ministério da Educaçao e Ciência (SFRH/BPD/90320/2012 and SFRH/BPD/43264/2008, respectively). Financial support was partly obtained from the research project grants PTDC/BIA-EVF/111931/2009 and PTDC/BIA-EVF/115069/2009, funded by FEDER through the COMPETE program and Portuguese national funds through the FCT. ; Peer Reviewed

The application of species distribution models (SDMs) in ecology and conservation biology is increasing and assuming an important role, mainly because they can be used to hindcast past and predict current and future species distributions. However, the accuracy of SDMs depends on the quality of the data and on appropriate theoretical frameworks. In this study, comprehensive data on the current distribution of the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) were used to i) determine the species' ecogeographical constraints, ii) hindcast a climatic model for the last glacial maximum (LGM), relating it to inferences derived from molecular studies, and iii) calibrate a model to assess the species future distribution trends (up to 2080). Our results showed that the climatic factor (in its pure effect and when it is combined with the land-cover factor) is the most important descriptor of the current distribution of the Iberian hare. In addition, the model's output was a reliable index of the local probability of species occurrence, which is a valuable tool to guide species management decisions and conservation planning. Climatic potential obtained for the LGM was combined with molecular data and the results suggest that several glacial refugia may have existed for the species within the major Iberian refugium. Finally, a high probability of occurrence of the Iberian hare in the current species range and a northward expansion were predicted for future. Given its current environmental envelope and evolutionary history, we discuss the macroecology of the Iberian hare and its sensitivity to climate change. ; P.A. was supported by the Vicerrectorado de Investigación of the University of Malaga and partially by the project CGL2009-11316/BOS of the Spanish Government and FEDER. Currently, P.A. holds a Beatriu de Pinós fellowship funded by "Comissionat per a Universitats i Recerca del Departament d'Innovació, Universitats i Empresa" of the Generalitat de Catalunya, and the COFUND Programme - Marie Curie Actions under 7th Marc Programme of the European Community. J.M.-F. was funded from the SFRH/BPD/43264/2008 post-doctoral grant by by Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) and the European Social Fund. Financial support was partially obtained from the Research Projects PTDC/BIA-EVF/111931/2009 and PTDC/BIA-EVF/115069/2009, by FCT and FEDER. ; Peer Reviewed

The knowledge about the spatial ecology and distribution of organisms is important for both basic and applied science. Biologging is one of the most popular methods for obtaining information about spatial distribution of animals, but requires capturing the animals and is often limited by costs and data retrieval. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) have proven their efficacy for wildlife surveillance and habitat monitoring, but their potential contribution to the prediction of animal distribution patterns and abundance has not been thoroughly evaluated. In this study, we assess the usefulness of UAS overflights to (1) get data to model the distribution of free-ranging cattle for a comparison with results obtained from biologged (GPS-GSM collared) cattle and (2) predict species densities for a comparison with actual density in a protected area. UAS and biologging derived data models provided similar distribution patterns. Predictions from the UAS model overestimated cattle densities, which may be associated with higher aggregated distributions of this species. Overall, while the particular researcher interests and species characteristics will influence the method of choice for each study, we demonstrate here that UAS constitute a noninvasive methodology able to provide accurate spatial data useful for ecological research, wildlife management and rangeland planning. ; This study was conducted within the AEROMAB Project (Andalusia Government, Project for Excellence, 2007, P07‐RNM‐03246) and the PLANET Project (European Commission 7th FP Grant Agreement No. 257649). The present work also benefited from the financial aid of the research grants JCCM ref. PEII10‐0262‐7673 and Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación ref. AGL2013‐48523‐C3‐1‐R. J.A. Barasona received funding from the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) and JCCM. P. Acevedo is supported by MINECO and Universidad de Castilla‐La Mancha (UCLM) through a "Ramón y Cajal" contract (RYC‐2012‐11970). ; Peer reviewed

Parapatry is a biogeographical term used to refer to organisms whose ranges do not overlap, but are immediately adjacent to each other; they only co-occur - if at all - in a narrow contact zone. Often there are no environmental barriers in the contact zones, hence competitive interaction is usually advocated as the factor that modulates species distribution ranges. Even though the effects of climate change on species distribution have been widely studied, few studies have explored these effects on the biogeographical relationships between closely related, parapatric, species. We modelled environmental favourability for three parapatric hare species in Europe - Lepus granatensis, L. europaeus and L. timidus - using ecogeographical variables and projected the models into the future according to the IPCC A2 emissions scenario. Favourabilities for present and future scenarios were combined using fuzzy logic with the following aims: (i) to determine the biogeographical relationships between hare species in parapatry, that is L. granatensis/L. europaeus and L. europaeus/L. timidus and (ii) to assess the effects of climate change on each species as well as on their interspecific interactions. In their contact area L. granatensis achieved higher favourability values than L. europaeus, suggesting that if both species have a similar population status, the former species may have some advantages over the latter if competitive relationships are established. Climate change had the most striking effect on the distribution of L. timidus, especially when interspecific interactions with L. europaeus were taken into account, which may compromise the co-existence of L. timidus. The results of this study are relevant not only for understanding the distribution patterns of the hares studied and the effects of climate change on these patterns, but also for improving the general application of species distribution models to the prediction of the effects of climate change on biodiversity. ; We are grateful to A.M. Barbosa for her ever-useful advice. P. A. and A. J.-V. were supported by the Juan de la Cierva research program awarded by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación–Fondo Social Europeo, and partially by the project CGL2009-11316/BOS from the Spanish Government and FEDER. P. A. is a current holder of the Jose Castillejo fellowship (2010–2011) in Portugal awardedby the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación. J. M.-F. has a post-doctoral grant funded by FCT and the European Social Fund (SFRH/BPD/43264/2008). This work was partially funded bythe research projects PTDC/BIA-EVF/111931/2009 and PTDC/BIA-EVF/115069/2009 funded by FCT and FEDER. ; Peer Reviewed

Foci of tick-borne pathogens occur at fine spatial scales, and depend upon a complex arrangement of factors involving climate, host abundance and landscape composition. It has been proposed that the presence of hosts that support tick feeding but not pathogen multiplication may dilute the transmission of the pathogen. However, models need to consider the spatial component to adequately explain how hosts, ticks and pathogens are distributed into the landscape. ; In this study, a novel, lattice-derived, behavior-based, spatially-explicit model was developed to test how changes in the assumed perception of different landscape elements affect the outcome of the connectivity between patches and therefore the dilution effect. The objective of this study was to explain changes in the exposure rate (ER) of red deer to Anaplasma spp. under different configurations of suitable habitat and landscape fragmentation in the presence of variable densities of the potentially diluting host, wild boar. The model showed that the increase in habitat fragmentation had a deep impact on Habitat Sharing Ratio (HSR), a parameter describing the amount of habitat shared by red deer and wild boar, weighted by the probability of the animals to remain together in the same patch (according to movement rules), the density of ticks and the density of animals at a given vegetation patch, and decreased the dilution effect of wild boar on deer Anaplasma ER. ; The model was validated with data collected on deer, wild boar and tick densities, climate, landscape composition, host vegetation preferences and deer seropositivity to Anaplasma spp. (as a measure of ER) in 10 study sites in Spain. However, although conditions were appropriate for a dilution effect, empirical results did not show a decrease in deer ER in sites with high wild boar densities. The model showed that the HSR was the most effective parameter to explain the absence of the dilution effect. These results suggest that host habitat usage may weaken the predicted dilution effect for tick-borne pathogens and emphasize the importance of the perceptual capabilities of different hosts in different landscapes and habitat fragmentation conditions for predictions of dilution effects. ; This research was supported by grants "Epidemiología de zoonosis transmitidas por garrapatas en Castilla La Mancha" (06036-00 ICS-JCCM), Epidemiología de las enfermedades compartidas entre ungulados silvestres y ganado en España: aproximación multidisciplinar (MEC AGL2005-07401) and FEDER and was facilitated through the Integrated Consortium on Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases (ICTTD-3), financed by the International Cooperation Program of the European Union, coordination action project No. 510561. PA has a postdoc grant from the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. Contributions intended to support the filed works and data collection. Sponsors are public and have no role in any activity. ; Peer reviewed

This study was funded by a grant from the Arcus Foundation No. G-PGM-1508-1368 to TH; PA was supported by the MINECO and the Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) through a 'Ramón y Cajal' contract (RYC-2012-11970), and Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary provided logistical support. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. We are grateful to the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Security of the Sierra Leone Government for granting us permission to conduct this research. This work would not have been possible without the collaboration of the people in the study communities. We also thank the outreach and management teams at the Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, in particular David Momoh, Joseph Marah, Konkofa Marah, Yirah Koroma, Bockarie Kanneh and Natalia Casado, for their assistance in the field. We are also extremely grateful to Dr. Raj Amin, Institute of Zoology in London, for providing the camera trap analysis software and to Jasper Gilardi for his help with processing camera trap images. Finally, we would also like to thank the two anonymous reviewers who provided useful suggestions for improving the quality of this manuscript. ; Human population growth and anthropogenic activities are exacerbating pressures on biodiversity globally. Land conversion is aggravating habitat fragmentation and non-human primates are increasingly compelled to live in forest-agricultural mosaics. In Sierra Leone, more than half of the wild chimpanzee population (Pan troglodytes verus) occurs outside protected areas and competes for resources with farmers. Our study area, in the Moyamba district in south-western Sierra Leone, is practically devoid of forest and is dominated by cultivated and fallow fields, swamps and mangroves. In this region, traditional slash-and-burn agriculture modifies annually the landscape, sparing swamps and mangroves and semi-domesticated oil palms (Elaeis guineensis). This study aimed to explore ecological and anthropogenic factors influencing chimpanzee relative abundance across this highly degraded and human-impacted landscape. Between 2015 and 2016, we deployed 24 camera traps systematically across 27 1.25x1.25 km grid cells. Cameras were operational over a period of 8 months. We used binomial iCAR models to examine to what extent anthropogenic (roads, settlements, abandoned settlements and human presence) and habitat variables (swamps, farmland and mangroves) shape chimpanzee relative abundance. The best model explained 43.16% of the variation with distance to roads and swamps emerging as the best predictors of chimpanzee relative abundance. Our results suggest that chimpanzees avoid roads and prefer to maintain proximity to swamps. There was no significant effect of settlements, abandoned settlements, mangroves or human presence. It appears that chimpanzees do not avoid areas frequented by people; although, our findings suggest temporal avoidance between the two species. We highlight the importance of studying chimpanzee populations living in anthropogenic habitats like agricultural-swamp matrixes to better understand factors influencing their distribution and inform conservation planning outside protected areas.