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IntroductionThe availability of specialized HIV services is limited in rural areas of sub‐Saharan Africa where the need is the greatest. Where HIV services are available, people living with HIV (PLHIV) must overcome large geographic, economic and social barriers to access healthcare. The objective of this study was to understand the unique barriers PLHIV face when accessing healthcare compared with those not living with HIV in a rural area of sub‐Saharan Africa with limited availability of healthcare infrastructure.MethodsWe conducted a population‐based cross‐sectional study of 447 heads of household on Bugala Island, Uganda. Multiple linear regression models were used to compare travel time, cost and distance to access healthcare, and log binomial models were used to test for associations between HIV status and access to nearby health services.ResultsPLHIV travelled an additional 1.9 km (95% CI (0.6, 3.2 km), p=0.004) to access healthcare compared with those not living with HIV, and they were 56% less likely to access healthcare at the nearest health facility to their residence, so long as that facility lacked antiretroviral therapy (ART) services (aRR=0.44, 95% CI (0.24 to 0.83), p=0.011). We found no evidence that PLHIV travelled further for care if the nearest facility supplies ART services (aRR=0.95, 95% CI (0.86 to 1.05), p=0.328). Among those who reported uptake of care at one of two facilities on the island that provides ART (81% of PLHIV and 68% of HIV‐negative individuals), PLHIV tended to seek care at a higher tiered facility that provides ART, even when this facility was not their closest facility (30% of PLHIV travelled further than the closest ART facility compared with 16% of HIV‐negative individuals), and travelled an additional 2.2 km (p=0.001) to access that facility, relative to HIV‐negative individuals (aRR=1.91, 95% CI (1.00 to 3.65), p=0.05). Among PLHIV, residential distance was associated with access to facilities providing ART (RR=0.78, 95% CI (0.61 to 0.99), p=0.044, comparing residential distances of 3–5 km to 0–2 km; RR=0.71, 95% CI (0.58 to 0.87), p=0.001, comparing residential distances of 6–10 km to 0–2 km).ConclusionsPLHIV travel longer distances for care, a phenomenon that may be driven by both the limited availability of specialized HIV services and preference for higher tiered facilities.

AbstractIntroductionModels that project the impact and cost‐effectiveness of HIV pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) must specify how PrEP use aligns with HIV exposure. We hypothesized that varying PrEP use according to individual‐level partnership dynamics rather than prioritization to population subgroups based on average risk will result in larger incidence reductions and greater efficiency.MethodsWe used an individual‐based network transmission model calibrated to HIV dynamics in Eswatini to simulate PrEP use among individuals ages 15–34 between 2022 and 2031 under two paradigms of PrEP delivery: "Risk Group" and "Partnership." In the "Risk Group" paradigm, we varied PrEP coverage by risk groups (low, medium and high) defined by average partnership frequency and concurrency. In the "Partnership" paradigm, all individuals are potentially eligible for PrEP, but we assumed use occurs only during partnerships and varied prioritization by partner HIV status (no prioritization to high prioritization with HIV‐positive partners). We calculated person‐time on PrEP and incidence relative to a no PrEP scenario and estimated efficiency as the person‐years of PrEP needed to avert one additional infection (NNT).ResultsIn the Risk Group paradigm, restricting PrEP to the high‐risk group was the most efficient (NNT = 17), but the number of infections averted was limited by the small size of the high‐risk group. Expanding PrEP use to all risk groups averted up to three times more infections but with lower efficiency (NNT = 202). PrEP use under the Partnership paradigm was 2–6 times more efficient (NNT = 33–102) than the Risk Group paradigm with all groups eligible for PrEP. A 33% reduction in incidence among 15‐ to 34‐year‐olds was achieved at 46% (95% CI: 39–52%) PrEP coverage in the Risk Group paradigm and 6% (95% CI: 5–7%) to 17% (95% CI: 14–20%) in the Partnership paradigm.ConclusionsModelling PrEP use based on risk groups resulted in a sharp trade‐off between PrEP efficiency and impact, whereas PrEP use predicated on partnerships resulted in much higher efficiency for widespread PrEP availability. Model estimates of PrEP impact and cost‐effectiveness in generalized epidemics are strongly influenced by assumptions about how PrEP use aligns with individual‐level HIV exposure heterogeneity.

AbstractIntroductionOver one hundred implementation studies of HIV pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) are completed, underway or planned. We synthesized evidence from these studies to inform mathematical modelling of the prevention cascade for oral and long‐acting PrEP in the setting of western Kenya, one of the world's most heavily HIV‐affected regions.MethodsWe incorporated steps of the PrEP prevention cascade – uptake, adherence, retention and re‐engagement after discontinuation – into EMOD‐HIV, an open‐source transmission model calibrated to the demography and HIV epidemic patterns of western Kenya. Early PrEP implementation research from East Africa was used to parameterize prevention cascades for oral PrEP as currently implemented, delivery innovations for oral PrEP, and future long‐acting PrEP. We compared infections averted by PrEP at the population level for different cascade assumptions and sub‐populations on PrEP. Analyses were conducted over the 2020 to 2040 time horizon, with additional sensitivity analyses for the time horizon of analysis and the time when long‐acting PrEP becomes available.ResultsThe maximum impact of oral PrEP diminished by over 98% across all prevention cascades, with the exception of long‐acting PrEP under optimistic assumptions about uptake and re‐engagement after discontinuation. Long‐acting PrEP had the highest population‐level impact, even after accounting for possible delays in product availability, primarily because its effectiveness does not depend on drug adherence. Retention was the most significant cascade step reducing the potential impact of long‐acting PrEP. These results were robust to assumptions about the sub‐populations receiving PrEP, but were highly influenced by assumptions about re‐initiation of PrEP after discontinuation, about which evidence was sparse.ConclusionsImplementation challenges along the prevention cascade compound to diminish the population‐level impact of oral PrEP. Long‐acting PrEP is expected to be less impacted by user uptake and adherence, but it is instead dependent on product availability in the short term and retention in the long term. To maximize the impact of long‐acting PrEP, ensuring timely product approval and rollout is critical. Research is needed on strategies to improve retention and patterns of PrEP re‐initiation.

AbstractIntroductionHeterogeneity of sociodemographics and risk behaviours across the HIV treatment cascade could influence the public health impact of universal ART in sub‐Saharan Africa if those not virologically suppressed are more likely to be part of a risk group contributing to onward infections. Sociodemographic and risk heterogeneity across the treatment cascade has not yet been comprehensively described or quantified and we seek to systematically review and synthesize research on this topic among adults in Africa.MethodsWe conducted a systematic review of peer‐reviewed literature in Embase and MEDLINE databases as well as grey literature sources published in English between 2014 and 2018. We included studies that included people living with HIV (PLHIV) aged ≥15 years, and reported a 90‐90‐90 outcome: awareness of HIV‐positive status, ART use among those diagnosed or viral suppression among those on ART. We summarized measures of association between sociodemographics, within each outcome, and as a composite measure of population‐wide viral suppression.Results and discussionFrom 3533 screened titles, we extracted data from 92 studies (50 peer‐reviewed, 42 grey sources). Of included studies, 32 reported on awareness, 53 on ART use, 32 on viral suppression and 23 on population‐wide viral suppression. The majority of studies were conducted in South Africa, Uganda, and Malawi and reported data for age and gender. When stratified, PLHIV ages 15 to 24 years had lower median achievement of the treatment cascade (60‐49‐81), as compared to PLHIV ≥25 years (70‐63‐91). Men also had lower median achievement of the treatment cascade (66‐72‐85), compared to women (79‐76‐89). For population‐wide viral suppression, women aged ≥45 years had achieved the 73% target, while the lowest medians were among 15‐ to 24‐year‐old men (37%) and women (49%).ConclusionsConsiderable heterogeneity exists by age and gender for achieving the HIV 90‐90‐90 treatment goals. These results may inform delivery of HIV testing and treatment in sub‐Saharan Africa, as targeting youth and men could be a strategic way to maximize the population‐level impact of ART.

AbstractIntroductionThere are significant knowledge gaps concerning complex forms of mobility emergent in sub‐Saharan Africa, their relationship to sexual behaviours, HIV transmission, and how sex modifies these associations. This study, within an ongoing test‐and‐treat trial (SEARCH, NCT01864603), sought to measure effects of diverse metrics of mobility on behaviours, with attention to gender.MethodsCross‐sectional data were collected in 2016 from 1919 adults in 12 communities in Kenya and Uganda, to examine mobility (labour/non‐labour‐related travel), migration (changes of residence over geopolitical boundaries) and their associations with sexual behaviours (concurrent/higher risk partnerships), by region and sex. Multilevel mixed‐effects logistic regression models, stratified by sex and adjusted for clustering by community, were fitted to examine associations of mobility with higher‐risk behaviours, in past 2 years/past 6 months, controlling for key covariates.ResultsThe population was 45.8% male and 52.4% female, with mean age 38.7 (median 37, IQR: 17); 11.2% had migrated in the past 2 years. Migration varied by region (14.4% in Kenya, 11.5% in southwestern and 1.7% in eastern and Uganda) and sex (13.6% of men and 9.2% of women). Ten per cent reported labour‐related travel and 45.9% non‐labour‐related travel in past 6 months—and varied by region and sex: labour‐related mobility was more common in men (18.5%) than women (2.9%); non‐labour‐related mobility was more common in women (57.1%) than men (32.6%). In 2015 to 2016, 24.6% of men and 6.6% of women had concurrent sexual partnerships; in past 6 months, 21.6% of men and 5.4% of women had concurrent partnerships. Concurrency in 2015 to 2016 was more strongly associated with migration in women [aRR = 2.0, 95% CI(1.1 to 3.7)] than men [aRR = 1.5, 95% CI(1.0 to 2.2)]. Concurrency in past 6 months was more strongly associated with labour‐related mobility in women [aRR = 2.9, 95% CI(1.0 to 8.0)] than men [aRR = 1.8, 95% CI(1.2 to 2.5)], but with non‐labour‐related mobility in men [aRR = 2.2, 95% CI(1.5 to 3.4)].ConclusionsIn rural eastern Africa, both longer‐distance/permanent, and localized/shorter‐term forms of mobility are associated with higher‐risk behaviours, and are highly gendered: the HIV risks associated with mobility are more pronounced for women. Gender‐specific interventions among mobile populations are needed to combat HIV in the region.