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The group of economically inactive women is heavily diversified. The reasons for staying outside the labour market are the important factors that differentiate this group. They depend on the age or level of education among others. In addition, there is great geographical heterogeneity of the reasons for economic inactivity. Hence, two questions arise. Firstly, how significant is the geograph­ical diversity of the reasons for staying outside the labour market in the European Union? Secondly, have these geographical differences been changing over time? The main aim of the analysis is the classification of the EU countries taking into consideration reasons for women's economic inactivity in different age groups. The analysis is carried out applying descriptive statistics and the k‑means method. The data are taken from the publicly available Eurostat's Labour Force Survey datasets. The study of general tendencies in women's economic inactivity covers the years 2000–2016. In turn, cluster analysis was carried out for data from 2006, 2010 and 2014. The obtained results confirmed significant diversity of the EU states. In addition, this geographical diversity has been changing over time. We receive the greatest similarity of classification obtained for different periods for the 50–64 age group and the smallest for the 25–49 age group. Moreover, there are noticeable tendencies of a significant decrease in the share of the economically inactive in the group of the oldest individuals (aged 50–64) in the sample. On the other hand, in the youngest group (individuals aged under 25), there are opposite tendencies observed – the share of those who remain outside the labour market increases.

Abstract
In the presented study, we analyse the men and women wage differences in the education sector and in the group of people employed as professional teachers in the Baltic Sea Region countries. For the analysis, we have applied one-equation econometric models and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique in the expansion proposed by Oaxaca and Ransom. The data are taken from the EU Structure of Earnings Survey of 2014. The obtained results show that the men and women wage gap for the analysed groups varies considerably among the analysed countries. We can also note that the GPG ratios in the education sector are usually lower than those at a national level. In addition, we can remark that in the states where remuneration systems are more transparent (Germany, Sweden), the level of explanation of 'raw' wage gaps is much higher than in other countries.

The group of economically inactive women is heavily diversified. The reasons for staying outside the labour market are the important factors that differentiate this group. They depend on the age or level of education among others. In addition, there is great geographical heterogeneity of the reasons for economic inactivity. Hence, two questions arise. Firstly, how significant is the geograph­ical diversity of the reasons for staying outside the labour market in the European Union? Secondly, have these geographical differences been changing over time? The main aim of the analysis is the classification of the EU countries taking into consideration reasons for women's economic inactivity in different age groups. The analysis is carried out applying descriptive statistics and the k‑means method. The data are taken from the publicly available Eurostat's Labour Force Survey datasets. The study of general tendencies in women's economic inactivity covers the years 2000–2016. In turn, cluster analysis was carried out for data from 2006, 2010 and 2014. The obtained results confirmed significant diversity of the EU states. In addition, this geographical diversity has been changing over time. We receive the greatest similarity of classification obtained for different periods for the 50–64 age group and the smallest for the 25–49 age group. Moreover, there are noticeable tendencies of a significant decrease in the share of the economically inactive in the group of the oldest individuals (aged 50–64) in the sample. On the other hand, in the youngest group (individuals aged under 25), there are opposite tendencies observed – the share of those who remain outside the labour market increases. ; Grupa kobiet biernych zawodowo charakteryzuje się znaczną heterogenicznością. Jednym z czynników różnicujących tę grupę są powody pozostawania poza rynkiem pracy. Zależą one między innymi od wieku czy poziomu wykształcenia. Dodatkowo istnieje duża niejednorodność geograficzna przyczyn bierności zawodowej. Stąd nasunęły się dwa pytania: 1) "jak znaczna jest niejednorodność geograficzna powodów pozostawania poza rynkiem pracy na obszarze Unii Europejskiej?", 2) "czy to zróżnicowanie geograficzne zmienia się w czasie?". Celem prezentowanej analizy była klasyfikacja państw UE ze względu na przyczyny bierności zawodowej kobiet w różnych grupach wiekowych. Analiza została przeprowadzona z wykorzystaniem metody k‑średnich. Dane wykorzystane w analizie pochodzą z ogólnodostępnych baz danych Eurostatu, z Badania Aktywności Ekonomicznej Ludności (EU‑Labour Force Survey). Ocena tendencji związanych z biernością zawodową w grupach wiekowych została przygotowana na bazie danych obejmujących okres 2000–2016. Z kolei analiza skupień została przeprowadzona dla danych z lat 2006, 2010 i 2014. Uzyskane wyniki potwierdziły znaczne zróżnicowanie państw UE ze względu na przyczyny bierności zawodowej kobiet w różnych grupach wiekowych. Dodatkowo ta różnorodność geograficzna zmienia się w czasie. Największe podobieństwo klasyfikacji między poszczególnymi okresami uzyskano dla grupy wiekowej 50–64 lata, a najmniejsze dla grupy 25–49 lat. Ponadto w analizowanym okresie zauważalne jest znaczne zmniejszanie się zjawiska bierności zawodowej w grupie najstarszych osób. Z kolei w grupie najmłodszej, obejmującej osoby do 25. roku życia, tendencje są odwrotne – udział pozostających poza rynkiem pracy zwiększa się.

Jednym z założeń strategii Europa 2020 jest podwyższenie odsetka osób zatrudnionych w wieku 20–64 lata na terenie Unii Europejskiej (UE) do 75%. Realizacja tej strategii ma nastąpić między innymi poprzez zwiększenie aktywności zawodowej kobiet i osób starszych. Powiększenie zasobów siły roboczej ma swoje ekonomiczne uzasadnienie. Związane jest ono przede wszystkim z procesami demograficznymi, a zwłaszcza z powiększaniem się grupy osób w wieku poprodukcyjnym. W różnych państwach UE sytuacja związana z aktywnością zawodową kobiet kształtuje się odmiennie, dlatego też powstało pytanie o podobieństwa i różnice w zaangażowaniu kobiet na rynku pracy w poszczególnych regionach UE. Celem analizy jest grupowanie państw Unii Europejskiej ze względu na różne formy aktywności zawodowej kobiet. Klasyfikacja ta pozwoli na ocenę wzorców dotyczących aktywności zawodowej kobiet w poszczególnych krajach UE. W analizie wykorzystano metodę k-średnich. Dane pochodzą z zasobów Eurostatu z Badania Aktywności Ekonomicznej Ludności. Analizowany okres to lata 2006–2014.

Energy plays a crucial role in the modern world. The acquisition and consumption of energy is unfortunately associated not only with economic development or the facilitation of everyday life, but also with a negative impact on the environment. To prevent these, measures are being taken which are part of a broad programme referred to as sustainable energy development (SED). A special place among energy consumers is occupied by households, as access to energy is a fundamental factor affecting the quality of life. The aim of this paper is to look at and assess the current situation of the household sector in the EU energy market in the context of SED and to point out similarities and differences between EU countries. The analysis considers factors based on SED indicators: final energy consumption per capita, energy prices offered to households, and the share of renewable energy in household energy consumption. The k-means method was used as a research tool. The results obtained indicate first of all that the EU countries are highly differentiated in terms of the analysed factors. It can be said that these differences result not only from the wealth of a given country, geographical location, or natural possibilities to use renewable energy sources, but mainly from the energy policies implemented in individual countries.

The primary aim of the presented study was to identify how selected factors determining gender-based inequalities affected the volume of the unadjusted pay gap among employees hired in the European Union after the 2007 crisis compared to the pre-crisis situation.An additional purpose of the study was to indicate changes in the employment rates of men and women, as well as changes in the pay gap between the two sexes (measured by means of the gender pay gap index – GPG), which became noticeable in the EU countries after the crisis, as compared to the pre-crisis period. The study was conducted using single-equation descriptive econometric models describing the wage gap. The analysis was based on the results of the Structure of Earnings Survey (SES) and the Labour Force Survey (LFS), both published by Eurostat. Due to data availability issues, data for 2006 were assumed to be representative for the situation prior to the crisis (the study took into account also countries which became member states in later years), while data covering the year 2012 (employment rate) and the years 2014–2018 (GPG) were assumed as representative for the post-crisis period. The analyses of the male and female employment rate and gender pay gaps indicate that following the crisis, the employment in the 24 EU countries became increasingly 'feminised', while no significant reduction of the pay gap was observed in the years 2006–2018. The obtained results indicate that greater 'feminisation' of employment is connected with greater gender pay gaps. A similar correlation occurs in relation to the professional activisation rate. In addition, significant differences are observed in terms of the impact some of the analysed factors have on the volume of the gender wage gap in different age and occupational groups.

Research background: There is a broad discussion in the literature on the situation of men and women in the labour market, especially about the differences in their remuneration. Due to the fact that females constitute a slightly different group of employees, certain factors have different impacts on the level of their remuneration in comparison to male employees. Hence, the question arises which factors cause these differences and how large the dissimilarities are. Purpose of the article: The aim of the presented study is to diagnose and evaluate differences in the impact of designated determinants on the level of monthly wages of women and men in selected European Union member states. The novelty of our approach consists in both comparison of the intensity of influence examined factors to men?s and women?s earnings, and a global approach to the remuneration of male and female employees. Methods: Due to the nature of the dependent variable (remuneration decile, which is a variable measured on an ordinal scale), the ordered logit model is applied in the analysis. The data comes from the Eurostat?s Labour Force Survey. Findings & value added: Presented results indicate that many factors have significantly different intensity of impact on the level of men and women wages. However, significant differences between parameters estimated for both genders are visible for the group of family variables the most often, then for variables describing the condition of work, the human capital variables, and characteristics of the workplace. This paper adds to the empirical literature a new approach to measure the intensity of factors influencing men and women wages. In addition, our investigation is a cross-country analysis.

The policy related to the use of renewable sources is a key element of the energy policy executed in the European Union (EU). One of the targets set for 2050 is to increase the share of electricity in energy consumption to 50%, and 80% of electricity is to be generated from low-carbon sources. In recent years, the EU economies have significantly modified their electricity production, which raises the question of the scale of these changes. The aim of the presented analysis is to assess changes in the use of renewable sources for electricity production in the EU countries in 2005–2019. Gini coefficient and k-mean are applied in the analysis. The conducted research shows that EU countries, in line with the energy policy assumptions, have both increased the share of renewable sources in energy production, especially in electricity production, as well as increased the diversity of used renewable sources. The results also indicate a vast diversity in terms of the use of such sources for the production of renewable electricity in the EU. This indicates that the energy transition is being implemented by EU countries with individual country-level approaches. Nonetheless, a variety of the EU's both support and restrictive measures are of considerable importance for the ongoing energy transition.

Celem opracowania jest przedstawienie sytuacji związanej z aktywnością zawodową kobiet w sektorze ICT (technologii informacyjno-komunikacyjnych) oraz w sektorze wybranych usług turystycznych w państwach Regionu Morza Bałtyckiego (BSR) należących do Unii Europejskiej. Region Morza Bałtyckiego stanowi jeden z makroregionów UE, dla których są formułowane specjalne strategie. Strategie te mają na celu m.in. zacieśnienie współpracy transnarodowej, co w rezultacie może prowadzić do zwiększenia spójności terytorialnej oraz potencjału regionu. Badanie zostało przeprowadzone w ramach projektu WINNET (Winnet Centre of Excellence), a dokładniej w ramach działania określonego jako: WP4 – Gender analysis of the SMEs in ICT and tourism in the BSR – quantitative approach. Badanie obejmowało analizę struktury oraz dynamiki zatrudnienia z podziałem na płeć w wymienionych sektorach. Ze względu na wytyczne sformułowane w strategii Europa 2020 analizą objęto grupę wiekową 20–64 lata1. W analizie uwzględniono 8 państw z Regionu Morza Bałtyckiego należących do UE: Niemcy, Danię, Finlandię, Szwecję (tzw. stare państwa członkowskie, oznaczane jako BSREU15) oraz Polskę, Litwę, Łotwę i Estonię (państwa z grupy przyjętych do UE po 2003 r., dalej oznaczane jako BSR-NM10). (fragment teksu)

The purpose of the study is to present the situation of professional activity of women in the ICT industry (information and communication technology) and the industry of selected tourist services in the countries of the Baltic Sea Region (BSR) which are EU member states. The Baltic Sea Region forms one of the micro-regions of the European Union for which special strategies are formulated. These strategies aim, among others, to strengthen transnational cooperation, which can as a result lead to greater territorial cohesion and potential of the region. The research was conducted as part of the WINNET (Winnet Centre of Excellence) project, and more precisely, within the scope of measure defined as: WP4 – Gender analysis of the SMEs in ICT and tourism in the BSR – quantitative approach. The research covered analysis of the structure and dynamics of employment rates by gender in the indicated industries. Because of the guidelines formulated in the Europe 2020 strategy, the analysis focussed on the 20-64 age group1 . The analysis takes into account 8 countries from the Baltic Sea Region that are EU member states: Germany, Denmark, Finland, Sweden (the so-called old member states designated as BSR-EU15) and Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (states from the group that acceded to the EU after 2003, hereinafter referred to as BSR-NM10). (fragment of the text) ; Celem opracowania jest przedstawienie sytuacji związanej zaktywnością zawodową kobiet wsektorze ICT (technologii informacyjno-komunikacyjnych) oraz wsektorze wybranych usług turystycznych wpaństwach Regionu Morza Bałtyckiego (BSR) należących do Unii Europejskiej. Region Morza Bałtyckiego stanowi jeden zmakroregionów UE, dla których są formułowane specjalne strategie. Strategie te mają na celu m.in. zacieśnienie współpracy transnarodowej, co wrezultacie może prowadzić do zwiększenia spójności terytorialnej oraz potencjału regionu. Badanie zostało przeprowadzone wramach projektu WINNET (Winnet Centre of Excellence), adokładniej wramach działania określonego ...