Abstract This article traces the expansion of international law from the Hague Conventions, where only a state's soldiers had legal status, to the contemporary understanding that international law governs all participants in conflict. This can be seen as a humanitarian shift that diminishes state power. This article, however, argues that the Hague Conventions only established a limited sphere of formal law because delegates deliberately left free-fighters outside the law, to be governed by their own will and moral code. In doing so, delegates echoed a philosophical tradition that situates true freedom outside the state. As this article shows, the expansion of law to include such fighters required the replacement of such alternative codes with a renewed and extended range of formal legal criteria. As such, the expansion of international law to the realm outside the state has led to a reaffirmation of that law which is synonymous with the state.
This article argues that the narratives told about the Great War helped to establish the bombardment of civilians during World War II as an ethical, military and legal possibility. It shows that the literary representation of the Great War was antagonistic towards civilians, suggesting that a fairer war would affect the entire nation. Military strategists accepted this premise and planned for a future war that would be directed against civilian populations. International lawyers also adopted this narrative and, constrained by it and their disciplinary conventions, found it hard to posit any strong legal or ethical objections to aerial bombardment.
This article examines the World Bank's attempts to frame the relationship between states, markets, and citizens through its urban assistance programmes during the 1970s and 1980s. Drawing on internal memoranda, mission reports, and staff reviews, this study traces the bank's arguments about the ideal role of the state in housing and service provision. Over this period, the World Bank encouraged governments to withdraw from providing public housing directly and to act instead as an 'enabler' of market forces, with lasting economic and political consequences. The article concludes with a focus on South Africa in the early 1990s, when the World Bank (after two decades of practice in promoting privatised land and housing markets) counselled the African National Congress on its post-apartheid policies. In the years since, these policies have resulted in explosive confrontations with civil-society activists who remain committed to alternative visions of the role of the state in housing and service provision. [« Une méthode disciplinaire pour avoir tiré les normes vers le bas » : comment la Banque mondiale a planifié les bidonvilles d'Afrique.] Cet article examine les tentatives de la Banque mondiale en vue d'encadrer la relation entre les Etats, les marchés et les citoyens à travers ses programmes d'aide en milieu urbain au cours des années 1970 et 1980. S'appuyant sur des notes internes, des rapports de mission et les commentaires du personnel, cette étude retrace les arguments de la Banque sur le rôle idéal de l'État en matière de logement et de prestation de services. Au cours de cette période, la Banque mondiale a encouragé les gouvernements à se retirer dans le fait de fournir logement public mais d'agir plutôt comme un '' facilitateur '' des forces du marché, avec des conséquences économiques et politiques durables. Le document conclut en mettant l'accent sur l'Afrique du Sud dans les années 1990, lorsque la Banque mondiale (après deux décennies de pratique dans la promotion des terres privatisées et du logement) a conseillé le Congrès national africain sur ses politiques d'après-apartheid. Dans les années qui ont suivi, ces politiques ont donné lieu à des affrontements explosifs avec des militants de la société civile qui demeurent engagés à d'autres visions du rôle de l'Etat en matière de logement et de prestation de services.
This paper argues that the concept of the civilian is a specific way of viewing non-combatants that can be traced to the First World War. Before the war, non-combatants were seen by the law and the prevailing culture as citizens. The citizen was potentially and probably aggressive, bound to the fate of his or her state and, therefore, granted only minimal protection by law. The war, however, brought technological changes and a propaganda effort that transformed these citizens into a civilian population. Civilians were essential to the war effort, which meant that they were a target. Yet, at the same time, they were feminized, described as vulnerable and deserving of protection. This cultural shift influenced the way in which the laws of war were understood, leading to the replacement of the traditional categories of law with a military/civilian distinction in the 1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare. In this way the concept of the civilian entered international law.
This paper argues that the concept of the civilian is a specific way of viewing non-combatants that can be traced to the First World War. Before the war, non-combatants were seen by the law and the prevailing culture as citizens. The citizen was potentially and probably aggressive, bound to the fate of his or her state and, therefore, granted only minimal protection by law. The war, however, brought technological changes and a propaganda effort that transformed these citizens into a civilian population. Civilians were essential to the war effort, which meant that they were a target. Yet, at the same time, they were feminized, described as vulnerable and deserving of protection. This cultural shift influenced the way in which the laws of war were understood, leading to the replacement of the traditional categories of law with a military/civilian distinction in the 1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare. In this way the concept of the civilian entered international law.
Critical Reflections on Teaching as a Decolonial Practice / Maria Leake -- Cultural Networking, Storytelling and Zoom during the Covid-19 Pandemic: Conversations with African-Caribbeans on using a Decolonized Digital Arts-based Educational Platform / Judith Bruce-Golding & Sue Brown -- Raranga and Tikanga Pā Harakeke-An Indigenous Model of Socially Engaged Art and Education / Leon Tan & Tanya White.
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AbstractHomelessness is a global phenomenon that contributes to and exacerbates social exclusion and marginalisation. The objective of this study is to generate a rich description of the experience of participating in arts-based programming as told by adults experiencing homelessness using a qualitative interpretive meta-synthesis. The synthesis includes eight studies, using direct quotes provided by fifty-three individuals in Canada, the USA and Australia. Synthesis of the eight studies results in three themes that describe the experience of participating in arts-based programming across geographic locations and art mediums: 'arts as healing', 'arts as advocacy' and 'arts as self-empowerment'. While social workers, homelessness service providers, arts-based educators and researchers may be intuitively aware of the power of the arts, the synergistic findings of these eight articles indicate its influence among marginally housed populations. Implications and opportunities for future research are discussed.
