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This paper investigates the origins of pawning in European-African interaction along the Upper Guinea Coast. Pawning in this context refers to the holding of human beings as security for debt or to ensure that treaty obligations be fulfilled. While pawning was an indigenous practice in Upper Guinea, it is proposed here that when the Portuguese arrived in West Africa, they were already familiar with systems of ransoming, especially of members of the nobility. The adoption of pawning and the associated practice of not enslaving members of social elites may be explained by the fact that these customs were already familiar to both the Portuguese and their West African hosts. Vestiges of these social institutions may be found well into the colonial period on the Upper Guinea Coast.

Warless Societies and the Origin of War. Raymond C. Kelly. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000.192 pp,

This paper investigates the effectiveness of the occupational safety and health (OSH) policy in the construction, manufacturing, and petrochemical industries in Trinidad and Tobago since it was enacted in 2006 up until 2017. Existing literature copiously reports on the degraded levels of occupational safety and health (OSH) in developing countries and recommends the adoption of integrated approaches to workers' health protection. Although this assertion may be correct for some Caribbean countries it might not be true for all. This paper argues that inadequate enforcement of the OSH policy, oversight, and accountability strongly suggests that the Government of Trinidad and Tobago is not serious about its OSH policy. The data for this paper were derived through interviews and questionnaire research instruments. The result of the research found that there has been limited gains and few positive policy outcomes. This is because the OSH Agency does not pursue a coordinated policy implementation initiative, and this shortcoming has contributed negatively to the underlying and persistent absence of employers' commitment to complying with the national OSH policy. It is prudent and urgent that a re-energized and creative approach to policy implementation be adopted, and that essential tools, resources, strategic direction and executive oversight are provided to ensure sustenance and success of this important change-management process.

The financial crisis and recession have left a legacy of unusually large fiscal deficits and growing sovereign debt levels in most advanced economies. The paper uses recent research from the IMF to throw light on two questions: how much fiscal space is available to advanced countries before they will be compelled to tighten fiscal policy; and how likely are some countries in this group to default? The paper presents work of Ostry et al. which defines and measures fiscal space. Fiscal space is defined as the room the government has to borrow before it hits a debt limit, the level of debt to GDP at which the debt dynamics become unstable, unless the government undertakes exceptional fiscal action. The debt limit is a function of the past behaviour of the government in responding to fiscal deficits, and fiscal space depends both on the past policy record as well as the current level of debt. The analysis indicates that all advanced countries except Greece, Japan, Portugal and Spain, probably still have some fiscal space. On the likelihood of default, the paper presents work by Cottarelli et al. The paper concludes that the amount of fiscal adjustment needed to avert unsustainable debt dynamics for a number of countries, while large, is not unprecedented, and in any case would not be much reduced by default. The high spreads that have appeared on sovereign debt markets are a poor indicator of subsequent default. And the structure of debt makes default much less likely than in the cases of those (predominantly emerging markets) that have defaulted in the recent past.

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