Suchergebnisse

Due to the increase in international connectivity and technological advancement, tourism has gained immense momentum in the recent past. Despite its favorable impacts, tourism has proved to be one of the significant contributors to increasing CO2 emissions. This study attempts to understand better the relationship between tourism, governance, and the CO2 emissions nexus in selected South Asian countries. The study obtained data from WDI and applied FMOLS, DOLS, and FEOLS methods from 1995-2019. It is observed that tourism has a significant and positive impact on CO2 emissions in the case of selected South Asian countries. Concerning the impact of governance on CO2 emissions, it is observed that governance effectiveness is negatively associated with CO2 emissions. It is evident from the empirical analysis that CO2 emissions can be mitigated with effective government policies. Furthermore, it is also suggested that the government aim at effective environmental policies, and attention should be given to sustainable tourism in the case of South Asian economies.JEL Classification: Q50, Q56, Q58How to Cite:Andlib, Z., & Salcedo-Castro, J. (2021). The Impacts of Tourism and Governance on CO2 Emissions in Selected South Asian Countries. Etikonomi, 20(2), xx – xx. https://doi.org/10.15408/etk.v20i2.17499.

Pakistan has the lowest Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) rate in the South Asian region. The study has used the latest round of Labor Force Survey 2014-15 and analyzed the individual and household factors that are associated with low FLFP in Pakistan. This study finds that there is less probability for urban women to take part in labor force activities. At national and regional level higher secondary and above levels of education have positive and significant relationship with FLFP whereas the situation is different for the four provinces of Pakistan. In case of Punjab province graduation and above levels of education are positively affiliated with FLFP, in Sind province higher secondary and above levels of education are positively associated with FLFP, in KPK province, matric and above levels of education are positively influencing FLFP decisions and in Baluchistan province primary and above levels of education are positively influencing women's decisions to participate in labor force activities. Women living in joint family systems, non-migrated, recipient of technical or vocational trainings are also more likely to participate in labor force activities. The study provides useful insights for policy makers to formulate appropriate policies to increase FLFP rate in Pakistan.

Fiscal policy concerned with the government's choice regarding
the optimal use of taxation and government spending to control and
adjust the aggregate demand in the economy. Monetary policy refers to
the central bank's control regarding the availability of credit in the
economy to achieve the objective of price stability and this control can
be exerted through money supply and interest rate channel. The ultimate
objective of the both policies is to maximise the overall welfare of the
society which can be achieved by keeping the inflation rate low and
employment at its potential level. There are number of channels in which
fiscal policy can impinge on monetary policy. An expansionary fiscal
policy leads to an expansionary monetary policy, which may in turn fuel
inflation and appreciate the domestic currency and that cause
deterioration in the balance of payments. On the other hand if
government finances the deficit through the markets (in a non-monetary
way) then the fear of crowding out of the private sector arise in the
economy. On external side when a country is depending on foreign funding
of domestic debt, this results in deterioration in the exchange rate and
balance of payment. Another more direct channel of fiscal policy is the
impact of indirect taxes on price level. Besides this, perceptions and
expectations of the general public about the large and on going budget
deficits and resultant borrowings requirements may prompt a lack of
confidence in the economic prospects. At the same time when people
realise that government is borrowing for its own good, they will
conclude that this can lead to higher taxation levels in future and
consequently they consume less and save more, that is so called
Recardian equivalence.

In Pakistan, women face economic and social vulnerability, which keeps them underpaid even without social barriers. Government micro and macroeconomic policies are aimed at income generation rather than making women part of the economic mainstream. The cash transfer program is an essential component of social protection policy in the developing world, with one of its key objectives of raising women's financial autonomy. This research investigates the impact of Pakistan's first and largest cash transfer program, named Benazir Income Support Program (BISP), on women's vulnerable employment. BISP was initiated by identifying poor households based on poverty score cutoff, thereby exploiting Regression Discontinuity Design. The findings revealed that this program reduced vulnerable employment in the initial years of its inception. However, it does not impact the later follow-up years. Policymakers should take necessary measures so that women's non-vulnerable employment may improve.

This research aims to assess the household and individual-level factors, specifically education, that affect the probability of women being engaged in decent work activities in the labor market. The study utilized the most recent labor force survey data from Pakistan with a sample size of 64,009 women. The research exploits the multinomial logit model (MNL) for data analysis. Several studies exist on the causes of female labor force participation nationally—in Pakistan—and internationally. However, there is a lack of research exploring the link between women's access to decent work and various household and individual-level characteristics. This study intends to fill this literature gap by exploiting the largest nationwide labor force survey and exploring how household and individual-level factors, specifically focusing on women's education level, relate to women's employment status categories. The study's findings reveal that education plays an essential role in uplifting women for better employment opportunities, i.e., educated women are more likely to be engaged in decent labor market activities such as paid employees and employers. The findings of the study propose some significant policy implications. E.g., (i) since education is the key to open better and decent work opportunities, it is crucial for women and their household heads to invest in education and vocational training; (ii) there is a dire need to have a policy shift in providing women access to at least a higher secondary (HS) level of education in Pakistan. The rationale is that less educated and illiterate women are concentrated in vulnerable employment; and (iii) at a micro level, there is a need to bring awareness among male household heads, specifically in rural areas, to realize that working women should not be considered a social stigma for the household.