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Abstract
Introduction
Occupational classes exert substantial effects on both subjective and objective health outcomes. However, it remains unclear whether the health impact of similar occupational classes varies across racial groups among middle-aged and older adults in the United States.

Aim
Grounded in the theory of Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs), which posits that health benefits from resources such as employment are systematically weaker for racial minority populations, particularly Non-Latino Black individuals, this study tested Black-White disparities in the effects of similar occupational classes on health outcomes in middle-aged and older adults.

Methods
Utilizing data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), we employed a 30-year longitudinal design with a nationally representative sample of middle-aged and older adults in the United States. Six occupational classes—operator, managerial, professional specialty, sales, clerical/admin, and service—served as the key predictor variables (independent variables), with race as the moderator. Various health outcomes, including self-rated health, chronic disease, body mass index (BMI), activities of daily living (ADL), and cognitive function, were measured longitudinally from wave 1 to wave 15 (from baseline to 30 years later). Statistical analyses, incorporating logistic regression models, were conducted to assess associations between occupational class and health outcomes overall and based on race.

Results
Our analysis included 7538 Non-Latino White or Non-Latino Black participants followed for up to 30 years. Initial findings revealed positive health effects of professional occupations on cognitive function and self-rated health over 30 years of follow-uWe also identified significant interactions between race and professional occupational class on all health outcomes, indicating notable racial differences in the effects of professional occupations on health outcomes across domains. The effects of professional occupational class were weaker for Non-Latino Black individuals than for Non-Latino White individuals.

Conclusion
Consistent with the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, our findings indicated less pronounced positive effects of professional occupations on a wide range of health outcomes for Non-Latino Black individuals compared to Non-Latino Whites. These disparities emphasize the critical need to address structural factors that contribute to the diminished returns of prestigious occupations for Non-Latino Black populations.

Abstract
Background
The influence of socioeconomic disparities and multidimensional stressors on youth tobacco and marijuana use is recognized; however, the extent of these effects varies among different racial groups. Understanding the racial differences in the factors influencing substance use is crucial for developing tailored interventions aimed at reducing disparities in tobacco and marijuana use among adolescents.

Aims
This study aims to explore the differential effects of socioeconomic disparities and multidimensional stressors on tobacco and marijuana use between Black and White adolescents.

Methods
Utilizing longitudinal data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, this research includes a cohort of pre-youth, monitored from the age of 9–10 years for a period of up to 36 months. We examined the impact of various socioeconomic status (SES) indicators and multidimensional stressors, including trauma, financial stress, racial discrimination, and family stress, alongside baseline average cortical thickness and the subsequent initiation of tobacco and marijuana use over the 36-month follow-up.

Results
Overall, 10,777 participants entered our analysis. This included 8263 White and 2514 Black youth. Our findings indicate significant differences in the pathways from SES indicators through stress types to cortical thickness between Black and White youths. Notably, cortical thickness's impact on the future initiation of tobacco and marijuana use was present in both groups.

Conclusion
The study suggests that compared to White adolescents, Black adolescents' substance use and associated cortical thickness are less influenced by stress and SES indicators. This discrepancy may be attributed to the compounded effects of racism, where psychosocial mechanisms might be more diminished for Black youth than White youth. These findings support the theory of Minorities' Diminished Returns rather than the cumulative disadvantage or double jeopardy hypothesis, highlighting the need for interventions that address the unique challenges faced by Black adolescents.

Background: According to the Minorities' Diminished Return theory, socioeconomic status (SES) systemically generates larger gains for Whites compared to Blacks. It is, however, unknown whether the effects of baseline SES on future family income also varies between Blacks and Whites. Aims: Using a national sample, this study investigated racial variation in the effects of family SES (i.e., family structure, maternal education, and income) at birth on subsequent household income at age 15. Methods: This 15-year longitudinal study used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), which followed 1471 non-Hispanic Black or White families from the time of birth of their child for 15 years. Two family SES indicators (maternal education and income) at birth were the independent variables. Family income 15 years later was the outcome. Maternal age, child gender, and family structure at baseline were covariates. Race was the focal moderator. Linear regression models were used for data analysis. Results: In the pooled sample, maternal education (b = 11.62, p < 0.001) and household income (b = 0.73, p < 0.001) at baseline were predictive of family income 15 years later. Race, however, interacted with maternal education (b = −12,073.89, p < 0.001) and household income (b = −312.47, p < 0.001) at birth on household income 15 years later, indicating smaller effects for Black compared to White families. These differential gains were independent of family structure, mother age, and child gender. Conclusions: The economic return of family SES is smaller for Black compared to White families, regardless of the SES indicator. Policies should specifically address structural barriers in the lives of racial and ethnic minorities to minimize the diminished return of SES resources across racial minority groups. Policies should also reduce extra costs of upward social mobility for racial minorities. As the likely causes are multi-level, solutions should also be also multi-level. Without such interventions, it may be very difficult if not impossible to eliminate the existing Black–White economic gap.

Background: Minorities' Diminished Return theory can be defined as the systematically smaller effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators on the health and well-being of minority populations compared to Whites. To test whether Minorities' Diminished Return theory holds for self-rated health (SRH), we investigated Black–White differences in the effects of education and income on SRH. Methods: Data from the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) 2017 was used. HINTS 2017 (n = 3217) is a nationally cross-sectional survey of American adults. The current analysis included 2277 adults who were either Whites (n = 1868; 82%) or Blacks (n = 409; 18%). Education and income were the independent variables. Poor/fair SRH was the dependent variable. Covariates included age, gender, obesity, and health behaviors (smoking and exercise). Race was the focal moderator. We ran logistic regressions in the overall sample, with and without race by SES (education and income) interactions. Results: Higher education was associated with lower risk of poor/fair SRH in the pooled sample. We found an interaction between race and education, but not race and income, in relation to SRH, suggesting a stronger association for Whites than Blacks. Conclusions: Minorities' Diminished Return theory is also relevant to the effects of educational attainment on SRH. The relative disadvantage of Blacks compared to Whites in gaining SRH from educational attainment may reflect structural racism that systemically hinders Blacks. There is a need for additional research on specific societal barriers that minimize Blacks' health gain from their SES resources. Policies and programs should help Black individuals leverage their SES resources.

AbstractThere are persistent and pervasive disparities in the health of Black people compared to non‐Hispanic Whites in the United States. There are many reasons for this gap; this article explores the role of "Blacks' diminished gain" as a mechanism behind racial health disparities. Diminished gain is a phenomenon wherein the health effects of certain socioeconomic resources and psychological assets are systematically smaller for Blacks compared to Whites. These patterns are robust, with similar findings across different resources, assets, outcomes, settings, cohorts, and age groups. However, the role of diminished gain as a main contributing mechanism to racial health disparities has been historically overlooked. This article reviews the research literature on diminished gain and discusses possible causes for it, such as the societal barriers created by structural racism. Policy solutions that may reduce Blacks' diminished gain are discussed.

Educational attainment is among the most substantial protective factors against cigarette smoking, including during pregnancy. Although Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) of educational attainment, defined as weaker protective effect of education for racial and ethnic minority groups compared to Non-Hispanic Whites, has been demonstrated in previous studies; such MDRs are not tested for cigarette smoking during pregnancy. To better understand the relevance of MDRs to tobacco use during pregnancy, this study had three aims: firstly, to investigate the association between educational attainment and cigarette smoking in pregnant women; secondly, to compare racial and ethnic groups for the association between educational attainment and cigarette smoking; and thirdly, to explore the mediating effect of poverty status on such MDRs, among American adults during pregnancy. This cross-sectional study explored a nationally representative sample of pregnant American women (n = 338), which was taken from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH; 2013). Current smoking was the outcome. Educational attainment was the independent variable. Region and age were the covariates. Poverty status was the mediator. Race and ethnicity were the effect modifiers. Overall, a higher level of educational attainment (OR = 0.54, p < 0.05) was associated with lower odds of current smoking among pregnant women. Race (OR = 2.04, p < 0.05) and ethnicity (OR = 2.12, p < 0.05) both showed significant interactions with educational attainment on smoking, suggesting that the protective effect of educational attainment against smoking during pregnancy is smaller for Blacks and Hispanics than Non-Hispanic Whites. Poverty status fully mediated the above interactions. In the United States, highly educated pregnant Black and Hispanic women remain at higher risk of smoking cigarettes, possibly because they are more likely to live in poverty, compared to their White counterparts. The results suggest the role that labor market discrimination has in explaining lower returns of educational attainment in terms of less cigarette smoking by racial and ethnic minority pregnant women.