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Locke's theory of property is irreconcilable with intellectual property. Property-like titles in ideal objects cannot be introduced within the framework of the natural law, because they could constrain others from acts necessary for their survival. Nevertheless, followers of Locke's theory of politics choose to belittle this conclusion and even Locke himself supported early copyright legislation. The inconsistency is important, for it depicts the problem of legitimization of intellectual property as political and demonstrates liberal reification of various aspects of social life. ; La teoria della proprietà in Locke è incompatibile con la proprietà intellettuale. I titoli di proprietà di oggetti ideali non possono rientrare nel quadro del diritto naturale, perché potrebbero impedire ad altre persone azioni necessarie alla loro sopravvivenza. Nondimeno, i seguaci della teoria lockeana della politica scelgono di sminuire questa conclusione e persino Locke stesso sostenne la prima legislazione sul copyright. Questa incoerenza è importante perché descrive il problema della legittimazione della proprietà intellettuale come questione politica e dimostra la reificazione liberale di vari aspetti della vita sociale.

The article is devoted to the federal system in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (North and East Syria), or the so-called Rojava. The case of this system is for many reasons special: on the one hand, it realizes the concept of ethnofederalism; on the other hand, it realizes the doctrine of democratic confederalism, i.e. political thought of Abdullah Öcalan. Democratic confederalism, referring largely to the communalism and municipalism of Murray Bookchin, advocates the implementation of a new order in the Middle East, in which various self-administrating ethnic and religious communities could co-exist in a confederal network based on the principles of participatory democracy, legal pluralism, federalism, equality of women and men, ecology and the social economy. According to its proponents, it leads to peace: first in Syria and later in the entire Middle East. ; Artykuł jest poświęcony systemowi federalnemu w Demokratycznej Federacji Północnej Syrii (Północnej i Wschodniej Syrii), tzw. Rożawie. System ten stanowi przypadek szczególny: z jednej strony ze względu na realizację koncepcji etnofederalizmu, z drugiej zaś z uwagi na zakorzenienie w doktrynie demokratycznego konfederalizmu (tj. myśli politycznej Abdullaha Öcalana). Demokratyczny konfederalizm, nawiązując w dużej mierze do komunalizmu i municypalizmu Murraya Bookchina, opowiada się za realizacją na Bliskim Wschodzie nowego ładu, w którym rozmaite wspólnoty etniczne i religijne mogłyby w ramach swoich odrębnych, lecz połączonych ze sobą w konfederalną sieć, organizacji realizować model demokracji partycypacyjnej i pluralizmu prawnego. Porządek ten, oparty na zasadach demokracji, federalizacji, równouprawnienia kobiet i mężczyzn, ekologii oraz ekonomii społecznej, ma prowadzić do wygaszenia istniejących konfliktów i pokojowej współpracy pomiędzy społecznościami – najpierw Syrii, a później całego regionu.

THE LIBERALISM OF THOMAS PAINEThomas Paine was undoubtedly one of the most important figures of his times. The untiring liberal and democrat may be considered as the restless spirit of the Enlightenment, arguing for a revolution and freedom both in Europe and America. His main works are "The Rights of Man", "First Principles of Government", "The Agrarian Justice" and the most famous and influential — "Common Sense". Even though he did not form a comprehensive political doctrine he appealed both to the British and French liberal traditions, he is to be considered as a great liberal ideologist. Paine believed in sovereign and independent men, who under the principle of self-government can establish the best government possible. The state was the necessity, since mankind was prone to sin; however, it was to be constructed according to the civil contract as the least burdensome and in compliance with the rights of men both natural and civil, as a true republic. Moreover, it was only rational, argued Paine, to abandon unequal division of estates and trade protectionism, to allow for universal welfare and peace.