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PurposeThe aim of this paper is to provide up‐to‐date discussion of the types of factors used to assess sexual offenders risk.Design/methodology/approachThe current status of the factors used to assess risk in sexual offenders is examined.FindingsRisk factors broadly fall into two categories: static factors (i.e. generally unchangeable information such as previous offence history) from which a number of actuarial scales have been developed; and dynamic factors (i.e. psychological dispositions) that are typically identified in treatment. It is suggested that these risk factors are artefacts of the same behavioural and psychological vulnerabilities at different stages of assessment, with static factors acting as markers for underlying dispositions, while dynamic factors are the underlying dispositions.Practical implicationsThe paper discusses in some detail the status of age as a risk factor, where even though it is typically considered a static risk factor in a number of actuarial scales (allowance typically being made if individuals are over/under 25), there is a dynamic element (i.e. change with age or the passage of time) to this aspect of assessment.Originality/valueThis paper may be useful to practitioners working in the field, in terms of providing a useful heuristic framework for risk conceptualisation.

Circles of Support and Accountability (CoSA) aim to augment sex offender risk management at the point of community reentry by facilitating "Circles" of volunteers who provide support, guidance, and advice, while ensuring that the offender remains accountable for their actions. In this study, the authors provide (a) a rapid evidence assessment of the effectiveness of CoSA in reducing reoffending, and (b) a U.K. cost-benefit analysis for CoSA when compared to the criminal justice costs of reoffending. From the study analysis, the average cost of a "Circle" was estimated to be £11,303 per annum and appears to produce a 50% reduction in reoffending (sexual and nonsexual), as the estimated cost of reoffending was estimated to be £147,161 per offender, per annum. Based on a hypothetical cohort of 100 offenders—50 of whom receive CoSA and 50 of whom do not—investment in CoSA appears to provide a cost saving of £23,494 and a benefit-cost ratio of 1.04. Accounting for estimates that the full extent of the cost to society may be 5 to 10 times the tangible costs substantially increases estimated cost savings related to CoSA.

The purpose of this paper- is to describe an approach that links risk-assessment and theory-directed research. Here we describe a theoretical underpinning to current notions of dynamic risk assessment. The paper has two facets. First, the reframing of a number of concepts such as (i). stable dynamic factors that we note would be better described as traits and hence have a grounding in the extant general psychological literature on trait theory, (ii). static risk factors that can be viewed as historical markers of the same underlying psychological dispositions measured by stable dynamic risk factors; (iii). acute risk factors that are better described as triggering/contextual risk factors (iv). acute risk factors that should be defined as the state expression of traits triggered by triggering/contextual risk factors. And second, the description of an etiological model of risk- model taking into account the interaction between significant learning events (i.e., developmental variables), psychological vulnerabilities (i.e., marked by static/historical variables and/or stable dynamic risk factors), contextual or triggering factors and their convergence in offense-related acute dynamic risk (i.e., acute psychological states).

A group of 59 child abusers were classified as having either an "avoidant" (n = 15) or an "approach" (n = 44) goal regarding deviant sexual activity with children. Level of distorted beliefs about sexual activity with children (cognitive distortions) and distorted beliefs about their own victims (victim blaming attitudes) in both groups were measured before and after treatment. Results indicate that there was an overall reduction in the level of these distorted beliefs at the posttreatment stage in the approach group. Reductions were not found in the avoidant offenders as men in this group did not have distorted beliefs prior to treatment. Results are discussed in terms of appropriate targeting of treatment.

PurposeThis paper seeks to evaluate the usefulness of the violent extremist risk assessment (VERA) by assessing how easily the criteria can be applied to case studies of five terrorists, and to determine whether it is more applicable to terrorists who work alone or as part of a group.Design/methodology/approachCase studies of five terrorists were constructed through online research. Evidence of each factor outlined in the VERA was rated and a total score for each category was calculated.FindingsThe majority of factors were easy to apply and were equally applicable to individuals within the sample regardless of whether they worked alone or as part of a group. The results tend to support theory and research about characteristics of violent extremists. This suggests that the factors are relevant and, therefore, that the VERA is a useful risk assessment guide.Research limitations/implicationsAs the research is based on case studies, the findings may not generalise beyond the sample selected. In addition, some sources used to construct the case studies may be less reliable. Future research should include larger, more varied and more recent samples.Practical implicationsIf future research confirms the present findings, the VERA may help to identify terrorists at risk of committing future offences. The factors may be incorporated into intervention strategies to prevent such offences.Originality/valueCurrently, the VERA is mainly for consultation purposes. This study applies it to real individuals, as it could be of great use in the risk assessment of terrorists.

The aim of this research was to investigate the nature of sexual offenders' affective empathy. Thirty-one men participating in a residential treatment program for child abusers constructed "victim apology letters" as a way of measuring/examining empathy deficits. The task was videotaped, transcribed, and subject to grounded theory techniques. It was discovered that intrafamilial offenders were more likely to minimize their behavior while exhibiting illicit power and control, whereas extrafamilial offenders were more likely to directly blame their victims and exhibit overtly explicit offense detail. From these open-coded categories, the axial categories of self as nonoffender, external blaming, and secondary victimization were derived. These results may have implications for the delivery of victim empathy components of sexual offender treatment programs.

About the editors -- List of contributors -- Foreword -- Introduction -- 1: Overview / Anthony R Beech, Leam A Craig and Kevin D Browne -- 2: Attachment problems and sex offending / Jackie Craissati -- Part 1: Risk Assessment -- 3: Factors associated with sexual recidivism / Franca Cortoni -- 4: Predictive accuracy of risk factors and frameworks / Leam A Craig, Anthony R Beech and Leigh Harkins -- Part 2: Approaches To Offender Assessment -- 5: Sex offender risk-based case formulation / Douglas P Boer, Jo Thakker and Tony Ward -- 6: Psychometric assessment of sexual deviance / Leam A Craig and Anthony R Beech -- 7: Measuring sexual deviance: attention-based measures / Carmen L Z Gress and D Richard Laws -- 8: Standardization of phallometry / Yolanda Fernandez -- 9: Using the polygraph to manage risk in sex offenders / Don Grubin -- 10: Assessment of sexual addiction / Liam E Marshall and Matt D O'Brien.

The current study examines the relationship between therapeutic climate of sexual offender treatment groups, risk level, psychopathy and phase (i.e., early/later) of treatment. The participants were 137 sexual offenders detained indefinitely under Wisconsin's Sexually Violent Person's Law who attended a treatment group based on their level of psychopathy: higher levels of psychopathy (i.e., PCL-R scores of 25 or above) or lower levels of psychopathy (i.e., PCL-R scores of less than 25). Using MANOVA with aspects of the therapeutic climate as the dependent variables, the therapeutic climate did not differ as a function of the risk level of the participants. However, the overall therapeutic climate of the two treatment tracks (Lower vs. Higher PCL-R) differed significantly. The mean therapeutic climate scores for both treatment tracks were in the medium to high range (with exception of group cohesion, which was low in the Higher PCL-R track), indicating a fairly positive therapeutic climate in both treatment tracks overall. The therapeutic climate also differed as a function of phase of treatment for each of the treatment tracks, with some aspects being rated more positively early in treatment and others in more positively in later phases. In particular, group cohesion was viewed more positively for the Higher PCL-R group in later phases of treatment.

An empathy-related component has been included in most sex offender treatment programs since the 1980s; however, research linking empathy to sexual offending and/or to treatment outcome has produced mixed findings. This study examined the relationship between victim specific empathy, general empathy, and overall treatment change (determined by responses on a battery of psychometric tests) with static risk (Risk Matrix 2000 [RM 2000]) and sexual offense reconviction data in a sample of 105 offenders who completed treatment while in prison or in the community in England and Wales and followed up for an average period of more than 10 years. Victim-specific empathy improved from pretreatment to posttreatment and related to overall treatment change. A small group of offenders, whose victim empathy scores deteriorated from pretreatment to posttreatment, had higher rates of sexual recidivism compared with the rest of the sample. In contrast, neither were any reliable pretreatment to posttreatment changes noted on general empathy scores, except for an indication on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index Personal Distress Scale, nor was any relationship found to sexual recidivism. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to treatment goals and sexual recidivism.

The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between therapeutic climate and the effectiveness of CBT treatment for sexual offenders in U.K. prisons. To this end a measure of group atmosphere was administered to members and leaders of 12 treatment groups running the same prison-based sexual offender treatment program. Treatment outcome was measured using a case-by-case methodology clinically significant change analysis—to identify the percentage of individuals within each group who had significantly changed on measures of pro-offending attitudes targeted in treatment. The results of the group process measure indicated leaders generally viewed groups more positively than members. Clear differences were also found between groups (ostensibly running the same treatment program) in terms of group climate. Analysis of members' process data indicated that there was a clear relationship between how cohesive the members reported the group to be and the extent to which freedom of action and expressions of feelings were encouraged in groups, as well as treatment outcome as measured by significant reductions in pro-offending attitudes. These results are discussed in terms of what they say about attitudes and goals of those involved in running treatment and how the effectiveness of treatment programs can be maximized.

Assessing Risk in Sex Offenders: A Practitioner's Guide is a handy resource for forensic practitioners responsible for assessing an managing sexual offenders at risk of recidivism. It covers the risk factors associated with sexual recidivism, evaluates risk assessment approaches and offers guidance on how to conduct forensic evaluations. Written by an expert author team, Assessing risk in Sex Offenders: A Practitioner's Guide examines: The characteristics of sexual offenders; Methodological considerations in measuring predictive accuracy; Static and dynamic factors; Structured risk assessments

A sample of 526 contact offenders, 459 internet offenders, and 143 mixed contact/internet offenders was compared on a range of self-report psychological measures assessing offense-supportive beliefs, socioaffective functioning, emotional management, and socially desirable responding. A multivariate general linear model found a mixed offender profile that was similar to internet offenders rather than contact offenders. The contact group demonstrated lower victim empathy, a greater level of pro-offending attitudes, an externalized locus of control, more assertiveness, a diminished ability to relate to fictional characters, and greater impulsivity than the internet and mixed offender groups. The mixed offender group demonstrated a higher level of empathic concern than the other two groups. The mixed offender group could also be distinguished from the internet group by increased personal distress and perspective-taking ability. A discriminant function analysis highlighted the key linear factor distinguishing between the groups to be one relating to offense-supportive attitudes and identification with fictional characters. A second factor was related to higher levels of empathic concern and poor self-management. These findings are discussed in the context of the potential pathways between internet and contact sexual offenses.

This study examined the relationship between denial, motivation, static risk (Risk Matrix 2000), and sexual recidivism. Denial was measured in three ways: A Denial Index (resulting from the combination of several measures of different aspects of denial), Absolute Denial, and Denial of Risk. Motivation for treatment was also examined. Logistic regression analyses in a sample of 180 sex offenders using a fixed 10-year follow-up found that risk moderated the relationships between the Denial Index, Absolute Denial, and sexual recidivism. In particular, among high-risk offenders, denial predicted decreased sexual recidivism. An opposite pattern was observed for the low-risk offenders who were in denial, although these differences were not significant. In terms of Denial of Risk, those who were denying they presented a future risk for offending (i.e., higher on Denial of Risk) were less likely to reoffend than those who reported seeing themselves as presenting a high risk. Motivation for treatment was positively correlated with recidivism, but the effect disappeared once static risk was controlled.