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3.2 A diachronic problem: The evolution of no doubt and surely within the VAM4. Conclusions; Acknowledgment; References; Author query; Chapter 6. Metacommenting in English and French: A variational pragmatics approach; 1. Introduction; 2. Background/literature review; 2.1 Subjectivity and PMs; 2.2 Identity, indexicality and PMs; 2.3 From variationist to variational; 2.4 Metacommenting in English and French; 3. Data and methods; 3.1 The corpora investigated; 3.2 Raw rates of occurrence per 10,000 words; 3.3 Classifying the markers into functional sub-types; 4. Findings; 5. Conclusions

Intro -- Positioning the Self and Others -- Editorial page -- Title page -- LCC data -- Table of contents -- Chapter 1. Introduction -- 1. Overview -- 2. Positioning, identity, indexicality, (inter)subjectivity, ideology -- 2.1 Positioning -- 2.2 Identity -- 2.3 Indexicality -- 2.4 (Inter)subjectivity and (inter)subjectification -- 2.5 Ideology -- 3. Summary of the chapters -- 4. Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2. Positioning through address practice in Finland-Swedish and Sweden-Swedish service encounters -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Background -- 2.1 Address in Sweden Swedish and Finland Swedish -- 3. Data and methods -- 4. Findings -- 4.1 Participant roles: Customer and staff -- 4.2 Sweden and Finland -- 4.3 Younger and older participants -- 4.4 Situational differences -- 4.5 Discussion -- 5. Conclusion -- Transcription conventions and glossing symbols -- References -- Chapter 3. Sociocultural and linguistic constraints in address choice from Latin to Italian -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Data and methods -- 3. The development of the system of address in Latin -- 3.1 Classical Latin -- 3.2 Late Latin -- 4. The system of address in Italian -- 4.1 Old Italian -- 4.2 16th century -- 4.3 18th century -- 4.4 20th-century -- 4.5 Present-Day Italian -- 5. Concluding remarks -- References -- Author query -- Chapter 4. Closeness at a distance: Positioning in Brazilian workplace emails -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Literature review -- 2.1 Relating and positioning: The importance of phatic talk -- 2.2 Greetings and closings in emails -- 2.3 Culture and communication in Brazilian workplaces -- 3. Data and methods -- 4. Findings: Doing closeness at a distance -- 4.1 Greetings and closings -- 4.2 Absence of greetings and closings -- 4.3 Changes over time -- 5. Conclusion -- 6. Future research -- References

The current paper presents three studies that investigated the effect of exposure on the mental representations of filled pauses (um/uh). In Study 1, a corpus analysis identified the frequency of co-occurrence of filled pauses with words located immediately before or after them in naturalistic spoken adult British English (BNC2014). Based on the collocations identified in Study 1, in Study 2, 22 native British English-speaking adults heard sentences in which the location of filled pauses and the co-occurring words were manipulated and the participants were asked to judge the acceptability of the sentences heard. Study 3 was a sentence recall experiment in which we asked 29 native British English adults to repeat a similar set of sentences as used in Study 2. We found that frequency-based distributional patterns of filled pauses (Study 1) affected the sentence judgments (Study 2) and repetition accuracy (Study 3), in particular when the filled pause followed its collocate. Thus, the current study provides converging evidence for the account maintaining that filled pauses are linguistic items. In addition, we suggest filled pauses in certain locations could be considered as grammatical items, such as suffixes.

The current paper presents three studies that investigated the effect of exposure on the mental representations of filled pauses (um/uh). In Study 1, a corpus analysis identified the frequency of co-occurrence of filled pauses with words located immediately before or after them in naturalistic spoken adult British English (BNC2014). Based on the collocations identified in Study 1, in Study 2, 22 native British English-speaking adults heard sentences in which the location of filled pauses and the co-occurring words were manipulated and the participants were asked to judge the acceptability of the sentences heard. Study 3 was a sentence recall experiment in which we asked 29 native British English adults to repeat a similar set of sentences as used in Study 2. We found that frequency-based distributional patterns of filled pauses (Study 1) affected the sentence judgments (Study 2) and repetition accuracy (Study 3), in particular when the filled pause followed its collocate. Thus, the current study provides converging evidence for the account maintaining that filled pauses are linguistic items. In addition, we suggest filled pauses in certain locations could be considered as grammatical items, such as suffixes.