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This paper describes an episode in the life of the prominent plant radiation geneticist, Lewis J. Stadler (1897–1954) during which he became a target of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) concerning loyalty to the United States due to possible associations with the communist party. The research is based on considerable private correspondence of Dr. Stadler, the FBI interrogatory questions and Dr. Stadler's answers and letters of support for Dr. Stadler by leading scientists such as, Hermann J. Muller.

Hormesis is a dose-response phenomenon that has received little recognition, credibility and acceptance as evidenced by its absence from major toxicological/risk assessment texts, governmental regulatory dose-response modeling for risk assessment, and non-visibility in major professional toxicological society national meetings. This paper traces the historical evolution of the hormetic dose-response hypothesis, why this model is not only credible but also more common than the widely accepted threshold model in direct comparative evaluation, and how the toxicological community made a critical error in rejecting hormesis, a rejection sustained over 70 years.

Cover -- Title -- Copyright -- Preface -- Acknowledgment -- Contents -- Dedication -- Introduction -- Methodology -- Summary of State Programs in Solid Waste and Recycling Education -- California-Solid Waste Management Board -- California-Golden Empire Health Planning Center -- Connecticut-Department of Environmental Protection -- Florida-Department of Education -- Illinois-Environmental Protection Agency -- Indiana-Office of School Assistance -- Kentucky-Western Kentucky University -- Kentucky-Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet -- Maine-Office of Waste Recycling and Reduction -- Massachusetts-Department of Environmental Protection -- Michigan-Department of Natural Resources -- Michigan-Genesee County Cooperative Extension Service -- Minnesota-Waste Management Board -- Missouri-Department of Natural Resources -- New Jersey-Department of Environmental Protection -- New York-Department of Environmental Conservation -- Oregon-Department of Environmental Quality -- Rhode Island-Department of Environmental Management -- Tennessee Valley Authority-Environmental/Energy Education Program -- Texas-Texas Education Agency -- Texas-Department of Health, Division of Solid Waste -- Vermont-Department of Education -- Vermont-Institute of Natural Sciences -- Virginia-Office of Litter Prevention and Recycling -- Washington-Department of Ecology -- Wisconsin-Bureau of Information and Education Department of Natural Resource. -- Wisconsin-Environmental Resources Unit, University of Wisconsin -- Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) -- Respondent States with No Waste Education Programs -- Alaska-Department of Education -- Arkansas-Department of Pollution Control and Ecology -- Delaware-Solid Waste Authority -- District of Columbia-Office of Instruction -- Kansas-Department of Education -- Maryland-Department of Education.

The 1953 Atoms for Peace Speech to the United Nations proposed applying nuclear energy to essential needs, including abundant electrical energy. The widespread fear of ionizing radiation from nuclear facilities and medical procedures began after the United States National Academy of Sciences performed a study of radiation dangers to the human genome. This study, initiated and managed by an oil industry benefactor, recommended in 1956 that the risk of radiation-induced mutations be assessed using the linear no-threshold dose-response model instead of the threshold model. It was followed by a study that wrongly linked low radiation to cancer among the atomic bomb survivors. The ensuing controversy resulted in a compromise. The National Committee on Radiation Protection adopted the precautionary principle policy in 1959, justified by fear of cancer and lack of knowledge. The United States and all other countries followed this recommendation, which remains unchanged 62 years later. Its impact on nuclear energy and medicine has been profound. Many costly regulations have been enacted to prevent very unlikely human or equipment failures—failures that would lead to radiation exposures that are below the dose thresholds for lasting harmful effects. Potential low-dose radiation therapies, against inflammation, cancer, autoimmune, and neurodegenerative diseases, are shunned.

Ingestion of contaminated soil by children may result in significant exposure to toxic substances at contaminated sites. Estimates of such exposure are based on extrapolation of short‐term‐exposure estimates to longer time periods. This article provides daily estimates of soil ingestion on 64 children between the ages of 1 and 4 residing at a Superfund site; these values are employed to estimate the distribution of 7‐day average soil ingestion exposures (mean, 31 mg/day; median, 17 mg/day) at a contaminated site over different time periods. Best linear unbiased predictors of the 95th‐percentile of soil ingestion over 7 days, 30 days, 90 days, and 365 days are 133 mg/day, 112 mg/day, 108 mg/day and 106 mg/day, respectively. Variance components estimates (excluding titanium and outliers, based on Tukey's far‐out criteria) are given for soil ingestion between subjects (59 mg/day)2, between days on a subject (95 mg/day)2, and for uncertainty on a subject‐day (132 mg/day)2. These results expand knowledge of potential exposure to contaminants among young children from soil ingestion at contaminated sites. They also provide basic distributions that serve as a starting point for use in Monte Carlo risk assessments.

From a comprehensive search of the literature, the hormesis phenomenon was found to occur over a wide range of chemicals, taxonomic groups, and endpoints. By use of computer searches and extensive cross‐referencing, nearly 3000 potentially relevant articles were identified. Evidence of chemical and radiation hormesis was judged to have occurred in approximately 10oO of these by use of a priori criteria. These criteria included study design features (e.g., number of doses, dose range), dose‐response relationship, statistical analysis, and reproducibility of results. Numerous biological endpoints were assessed, with growth responses the most prevalent, followed by metabolic effects, reproductive responses, longevity, and cancer. Hormetic responses were generally observed to be of limited magnitude with an average maximum stimulation of 30 to 60 percent over that of the controls. This maximum usually occurred 4‐ to 5‐fold below the NOAEL for a particular endpoint. The present analysis suggests that hormesis is a reproducible and generalizable biological phenomenon and is a fundamental component of many, if not most, dose‐response relationships. The relatively infrequent observation of homesis in the literature is believed to be due primarily to experimental design considerations, especially with respect to the number and range of doses and endpoint selection. Because of regulatory considerations, most toxicologic studies have been carried out at high doses above the low‐dose region where the hormesis phenomenon occurs.