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AbstractCritiques of the meritocracy have centered on its narrow definition and biased assessment of merit, its stigmatization of the unsuccessful, and excessive competition. This paper identifies a different mechanism that could have pernicious social and political consequences. Economic mobility sorts people based on certain 'productive' traits, separating them into classes, and thus alters social externalities. This sorting–separation–externalities mechanism can produce between-class polarization in social outcomes (e.g. alcoholism and drug abuse) and worsen aggregate outcomes over all classes, consistent with rising 'deaths of despair' in the United States (Case and Deaton, 2020,Deaths of Despair and the Future of Capitalism. Princeton University Press). When traits are endogenous, transition out of a caste-based society produces an initial burst of economic mobility which dissipates over time. Thus, a dynamic meritocratic society devolves into a static class-based society. I set out an alternative model called the 'experimental society', which is less susceptible to these problems.

A single club model describes the collective production of both personal and social identity. Personal identity, how one perceives oneself, is formed through a process of cultural transmission. Social identity, how one is perceived by others, takes the form of collective reputation. Our model of identity-based organizations incorporates into the economics of identity insights from the economics of religion and cultural transmission. The identities that develop tend to be oppositional. Organizations devoted to more extreme identities are able to support higher levels of participation and collective action.

Abstract
This paper analyses the rise of radical movements and the design of counter-radicalisation policies. A group derives meaning from participation in identity-based activities and a forward-looking organisation provides a platform for these activities. The warning sign for radicalisation is cultural purification by the organisation, i.e., the screening out of moderates and exclusive recruitment of radicals. While this shrinks the club, it puts it on a growth path along which it becomes larger and more extreme over time. Conventional counter-radicalisation policies can backfire. The radicalisation mechanisms we identify can be disabled by mild anti-radical messaging and informational interventions that eliminate stereotypes.

AbstractEmancipation of slaves in the 1830s transformed the political elites of the British Caribbean plantation islands. New elites were more accountable to the citizenry. We develop a theory in which two factors limit and possibly reverse the effect of this on political outcomes, with legislators: (i) 'stepping up' to pass extractive policies; and/or (ii) weakening democratic institutions. The theory is supported by an historical analysis of ten Caribbean plantation islands, based on original archival data on legislator race, occupation and roll-call voting. Eventually, all assemblies that experienced a significant change in composition dissolved themselves and converted to British 'Crown Rule'.

Intro -- Foreword -- Contents -- Notes on Contributors -- List of Figures -- List of Tables -- 1 Introduction -- Theoretical Advances in the Economics of Religion -- Empirical Advances in the Economics of Religion -- Advances in Religion and Political Economy -- References -- Part I Theoretical Advances in the Economics of Religion -- 2 Religious Clubs: The Strategic Role of Religious Identity -- Introduction -- The Canonical Model -- Religious Identity: Further Strategic Functions -- Social Sorting -- Esteem Maintenance -- Religious Commitment -- Cultural Transmission -- Conclusion -- References -- 3 Spatial Models of Religious Market Competition: A Critical Assessment -- Introduction -- Differentiation in Religious Strictness -- A Basic Model -- Two Applications -- Assessment -- Differentiation Similar to Strictness -- Differentiation Dissimilar to Strictness -- Conclusion -- References -- 4 When Average Is Irrelevant: Computational Modeling of Religious Groups -- Agent-Based Computational Models -- The Club Theory of Religion -- Fundamentally Extreme -- The Church-Sect Cycle -- The Value of Free Riders -- Religion as a Network Good -- The Cults Are Alright -- Final Thoughts -- References -- 5 The Intelligent Design of Religious Beliefs -- Introduction -- Systems of Religious Beliefs -- Beliefs in Reward and Punishment -- Predestination -- How Rituals and Beliefs Combine to Enhance Cooperation -- Intelligent Design of Religious Beliefs -- Atonement, Repentance, and Forgiveness -- Religious Intolerance due to Pressures to Survive -- Miracles -- Doctrine Adaptation -- Motivated Beliefs -- Conclusion: Joint Design of Beliefs and Institutions -- Technical Appendix -- References -- 6 Religion and Segregation -- Religion as a Club Good -- The Nature and Role of Religious Beliefs.