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AbstractBecause packaging reaches consumers at the critical moments of purchase and consumption, it has become an important marketing tool for food manufacturers and retailers. In this paper, I first review how the marketing, health and nutrition claims made on packaging create "health halos" that make foods appear healthier than they are, thereby leading to higher consumption yet lower perceived calorie intake. I then show how packaging design (cues, shapes, and sizes) biases people's perception of quantity and increases their preference for supersized packages and portions that appear smaller than they are. Finally, I examine the extent to which mandatory nutrition labels, stricter regulation of package claims, public promotion of mindful eating, and mindless eating nudges could limit the biasing effects of packaging on food perceptions and preferences.

Sales promotions have experienced considerable growth over the past twenty years. Paradoxically, a growing number of academics and marketers argue that sales promotions are a sub-optimal by-product of price competition without any intrinsic utility for the consumer beyond reducing prices. In the first section of this dissertation, we re-examine the utility of sales promotions from the consumer's perspective. In so doing, we enlarge the currently dominant model of consumer response to sales promotions which is mainly focused on the economic dimension of sales promotions and on their effects on consumer purchase behavior. In the second section, we develop scales measuring the multiple consumer benefits of sales promotions and experimentally study their effects on brand choice. Our results show that consumers evaluate sales promotions on the basis of their utilitarian benefits: savings, but also quality and convenience. Sales promotions also provide consumers with hedonic benefits: entertainment, exploration and self-expression. We then show that monetary promotions are more effective for utilitarian products and that non-monetary promotions are more effective for hedonic products. In the third section, we examine the effects of sales promotions on consumption behavior. Field and laboratory experiments show that promotional stockpiling accelerate the consumption of the promoted product. They also show that this effect is partially due to the higher visibility and lower price of the promoted product. A scanner data analysis further shows that the effects of promotional stockpiling on consumption are only significant for substitutable products consumed on impulse. Overall, our results suggest to reconsider the utility of sales promotions for they can have an intrinsic utility for the consumer and they can increase primary demand by accelerating product consumption ; La promotion des ventes a connu un développement considérable au cours des vingt dernières années à tel point que les sommes investies dans les opérations promotionnelles représentent aujourd'hui le double de celles investies dans la publicité. Pourtant, le bienfondé des politiques promotionnelles mises en place par les entreprises est profondément remis en cause. Bien qu'on leur reconnaisse une efficacité réelle sur le court terme, on s'interroge sur leur capacité réelle à augmenter les ventes sur le long terme. Selon la vision dominante, les promotions sont une pure conséquence du jeu concurrentiel et n'ont aucune utilité intrinsèque pour les consommateurs au delà de leur impact sur les prix. Dès lors, un nombre croissant d'entreprises cherchent à diminuer la pression promotionnelle en faveur d'une politique de bas prix constants. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous réexaminons la question générale de l'utilité des promotions en nous plaçant du point de vue du consommateur. Ce faisant, nous élargissons le modèle dominant des recherches sur les promotions qui se focalise sur leur dimension économique et sur leurs effets sur le comportement d'achat. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, nous examinons ainsi l'ensemble des bénéfices utilitaires et hédoniques des promotions pour les consommateurs en développant des échelles de mesure de ces bénéfices et en examinant expérimentalement leurs effets sur le comportement d'achat. Nos résultats montrent que les consommateurs évaluent les promotions sur la base des économies, certes, mais aussi de la qualité et de la commodité qu'elles procurent. Les promotions offrent également des bénéfices de nature hédonique : le divertissement, l'exploration de l'environnement d'achat et l'expression de soi. Nous montrons ensuite que, parce qu'elles offrent des bénéfices différents, les promotions monétaires (coupons, offres de remboursement, etc.) sont plus efficaces dans des catégories de produits utilitaires alors que les promotions non monétaires (jeux, cadeaux gratuits, etc.) sont plus efficaces dans des catégories de produits hédoniques. Dans la troisième partie de la thèse, nous examinons l'impact des promotions sur le comportement de consommation. Des expérimentations sur le terrain et en laboratoire montrent, d'une part, que le stockage promotionnel accélère significativement le rythme de consommation et, d'autre part, que cet effet est dû à la plus grande visibilité du produit stocké et à la réduction de son prix d'achat. Une analyse de données de scanner révèle ensuite que les effets du stockage promotionnel sur la consommation ne sont significatifs que pour les produits substituables et consommés par impulsion. Au total, en étudiant la psychologie de l'achat de produits en promotion et les effets des promotions sur le comportement de consommation, nos travaux nous incitent à reconsidérer l'intérêt des promotions dans la stratégie marketing des entreprises

International audience ; Governments and companies that want to promote healthier eating must consider both the effectiveness and the acceptance of the 'nudges' given to consumers. Our review of the literature uncovers a wide range of nudges towards healthy eating, from nutrition labeling to portion size reductions, which are found to vary greatly in effectiveness and levels of public acceptance (64% of women; 52% of men). Acceptance of a nudge is inversely related to its effectiveness: only 43% of respondents approved the most effective intervention – portion and package size reductions. Approval levels increased with the perceived effectiveness of the nudge and with the perception that the nudge is good for both health and business (as opposed to only one of the two), especially among respondents who identify as conservatives. To encourage acceptance of the most effective nudge strategies, governments and companies should therefore correct misconceptions about which nudges work best, and should underscore the win-win potential for health and business.

International audience ; Governments and companies that want to promote healthier eating must consider both the effectiveness and the acceptance of the 'nudges' given to consumers. Our review of the literature uncovers a wide range of nudges towards healthy eating, from nutrition labeling to portion size reductions, which are found to vary greatly in effectiveness and levels of public acceptance (64% of women; 52% of men). Acceptance of a nudge is inversely related to its effectiveness: only 43% of respondents approved the most effective intervention – portion and package size reductions. Approval levels increased with the perceived effectiveness of the nudge and with the perception that the nudge is good for both health and business (as opposed to only one of the two), especially among respondents who identify as conservatives. To encourage acceptance of the most effective nudge strategies, governments and companies should therefore correct misconceptions about which nudges work best, and should underscore the win-win potential for health and business.

International audience ; Governments and companies that want to promote healthier eating must consider both the effectiveness and the acceptance of the 'nudges' given to consumers. Our review of the literature uncovers a wide range of nudges towards healthy eating, from nutrition labeling to portion size reductions, which are found to vary greatly in effectiveness and levels of public acceptance (64% of women; 52% of men). Acceptance of a nudge is inversely related to its effectiveness: only 43% of respondents approved the most effective intervention – portion and package size reductions. Approval levels increased with the perceived effectiveness of the nudge and with the perception that the nudge is good for both health and business (as opposed to only one of the two), especially among respondents who identify as conservatives. To encourage acceptance of the most effective nudge strategies, governments and companies should therefore correct misconceptions about which nudges work best, and should underscore the win-win potential for health and business.

International audience ; Governments and companies that want to promote healthier eating must consider both the effectiveness and the acceptance of the 'nudges' given to consumers. Our review of the literature uncovers a wide range of nudges towards healthy eating, from nutrition labeling to portion size reductions, which are found to vary greatly in effectiveness and levels of public acceptance (64% of women; 52% of men). Acceptance of a nudge is inversely related to its effectiveness: only 43% of respondents approved the most effective intervention – portion and package size reductions. Approval levels increased with the perceived effectiveness of the nudge and with the perception that the nudge is good for both health and business (as opposed to only one of the two), especially among respondents who identify as conservatives. To encourage acceptance of the most effective nudge strategies, governments and companies should therefore correct misconceptions about which nudges work best, and should underscore the win-win potential for health and business.

International audience ; Governments and companies that want to promote healthier eating must consider both the effectiveness and the acceptance of the 'nudges' given to consumers. Our review of the literature uncovers a wide range of nudges towards healthy eating, from nutrition labeling to portion size reductions, which are found to vary greatly in effectiveness and levels of public acceptance (64% of women; 52% of men). Acceptance of a nudge is inversely related to its effectiveness: only 43% of respondents approved the most effective intervention – portion and package size reductions. Approval levels increased with the perceived effectiveness of the nudge and with the perception that the nudge is good for both health and business (as opposed to only one of the two), especially among respondents who identify as conservatives. To encourage acceptance of the most effective nudge strategies, governments and companies should therefore correct misconceptions about which nudges work best, and should underscore the win-win potential for health and business.

Abstract
It is widely believed that increasing the equality of material possessions or income in a social group should lead people at the bottom of the distribution to consume less and save more. However, this prediction and its causal mechanism have never been studied experimentally. Five studies show that greater equality increases the satisfaction of those in the lowest tier of the distribution because it reduces the possession gap between what they have and what others have. However, greater equality also increases the position gains derived from status-enhancing consumption, since it allows low-tier consumers to get ahead of the higher proportion of consumers clustered in the middle tiers. As a result, greater equality reduces consumption when consumers focus on the narrower possession gap, but it increases consumption when they focus on the greater position gains (i.e., when consumption is conspicuous, social competition goals are primed, and the environment is competitive).

Cet article présente de manière non technique l'état de la littérature en marketing et en économie sur quelques leviers d'action généraux des politiques de santé nutritionnelle : les prix, qui peuvent être modifiés par des taxes et des subventions ; l'information, délivrée par des campagnes d'information générale et l'étiquetage nutritionnel ; la régulation des pratiques marketings des producteurs et distributeurs, en particulier la publicité et le packaging. La littérature montre que les politiques de prix seraient difficiles à implémenter, inéquitables, et ne produiraient que des résultats médiocres, voire contre-productifs. Les politiques d'information sont assez inefficaces à court-terme, parce que les consommateurs ont des difficultés à s'approprier correctement les informations et recommandations nutritionnelles. Les politiques de contrôle de l'environnement du consommateur – publicité, architecture des choix, packaging – semblent plus intéressantes, car elles ne demandent pas d'effort cognitif ou physiologique aux consommateurs. Sur le long-terme, la synergie des politiques de régulation de l'environnement et des politiques d'information pourrait produire des effets démultipliés par le déplacement des normes de consommation.