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This study discusses the relationship between poverty and vulnerability. It investigates how vulnerability can be integrated into the livelihood framework for poverty alleviation and vulnerability mitigation, as well as the development of adaptive livelihood mechanisms to combat increased risk from natural disasters. Vulnerability is conventionally viewed as risk factors threatening livelihoods; this study provides new insights into vulnerability by viewing vulnerability as endogenous to the development process and embedded in everyday lives and livelihood practices. Poverty and vulnerability reduction are holistically grounded in the coupling of human and environmental systems to facilitate a positive feedback loop between human economic activity and the environment. Social and cultural capitals are highlighted in this study for the significant role they play in inspiring positive change and empowering inner (grass roots) and outer (social welfare institutions) networks as well as social learning to help people to adapt during development.

First, a new differential test for series of positive terms is proved. Let f(x) be a positive continuous function corresponded to a series of positive terms , and g(x) is a derivative of reciprocal of f(x), i.e., . Then, if for enough large x, the series converges; if , the series diverges. The rest may make the limit form, and is universal and complete. Next, the tree in the graph theory is extended to a new tree-field representation. It includes two parts: tree and field. A field is a set of legion small trees. They can transform each other between tree and field. This is a unification of simplicity (tree) and complexity (field), and may be applied to various complex systems on science, politics, economy, philosophy and so on. Further, it may be extended to the whole graph theory G=(V,E,F), here F is a set of small graphs. Third, based on a brief review on developments of number system, a new developed pattern is proposed. The quaternion is extended to a matrix form aI+bC+cB+dA, in which the unit matrix I and three special matrices C,B,A correspond to number 1 and three units of imaginary number i,j,k, respectively. They form usually a ring. But some fields may be composed of some special 2-rank, even n-rank matrices, for example, three matrices aI+bC, aI+cB, aI+dA and so on. It is a new type of hypercomplex number fields. The physical applications and possible meaning of the new number system is researched. Finally, the Dirac extraction is extended to any terms whose extraction should be and , etc. Moreover, the general complexity is also discussed.Read Complete Article at ijSciences: V120121199