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Foreign gunboats forced China, Japan and Korea to open to the outside world in the mid-19th century. The treaties signed included rules forbidding local courts from trying foreigners; or, ""extraterritoriality."" Britain and the United States established consular courts in all three countries and, as trade grew, the British Supreme Court for China and Japan and the United States Court for China. These courts for many decades-over 100 years in China-dispensed British and American justice in the Far East. Extraterritoriality had a huge impact, which continues to this day, on how China and Japan

Foreign gunboats forced China, Japan and Korea to open to the outside world in the mid-19th century. The treaties signed included rules forbidding local courts from trying foreigners; or, "extraterritoriality". Britain and the United States established consular courts in all three countries and, as trade grew, the British Supreme Court for China and Japan and the United States Court for China. These courts for many decades-over 100 years in China-dispensed British and American justice in the Far East. Extraterritoriality had a huge impact, which continues to this day, on how China and Japan vi

The rating, that is, the taxing, of property in England by local government is based on the Act of 49 Elizabeth. While this statute did not specifically declare Crown property exempt from rating, it did provide that for property to be ratable there must be an occupier and that his occupation must be "beneficial." By "beneficial occupation" the law means "an occupation from which the occupier derives either a pecuniary profit, or some personal advantage or convenience." All buildings such as post-offices, customs-houses, barracks, prisons, belonging to the Crown and occupied for public purposes are therefore exempt from rating. Crown property in the possession of an occupier who has a beneficial occupation is ratable, and hence tenants of Crown property are required to pay property taxes. Occupation of property by nationalized industries does not amount to occupation by the Crown and these premises are also ratable. Lands occupied by the royal family are exempt for different reasons arising from the prerogatives of the Sovereign.In 1874 the Parliament of the United Kingdom approved a system of grants in lieu of property tax which are known as "contributions in lieu of rates." Under this system the United Kingdom makes ex gratia payments, generally equivalent to full taxes, to all county boroughs, boroughs, urban districts, and rural districts containing Crown property beneficially occupied. Other local government units do not receive these grants since they are not taxing authorities. The United Kingdom was quite certainly the first country in the world to make such payments. It may therefore be of interest to record the events leading up to this historic decision and to trace briefly the growth of these contributions.

"Diplomat, lawyer, judge, soldier, spy, spymaster -- just some of the positions American Norwood Allman, held in his 30 plus years in China. Shanghai Lawyer is Allman's first-hand account of his amazing life, from his arrival as a student interpreter during WWI, to serving as a Chinese and Mexican judge, practising before the U.S. Court for China, commanding the American militia in Shanghai, and, finally fighting the Japanese army in the battle for Hong Kong in 1941. Douglas Clark, author of Gunboat Justice, has trawled through public, private and personal archives to bring the story Allman tells in his acclaimed bestseller fully back to life"--Back cover

In west-central Alberta, Canada, an ambitious collaborative conservation program for grizzly bears began in 1999, after extensive controversy over the Cheviot coal mine project and successful negotiation of a unique federal-provincial strategic framework for grizzly bear conservation. Unfortunately that program was effectively terminated without any substantive implementation of its research findings. The regional ecosystem approach for conserving grizzlies in the Foothills Model Forest originated in federal and provincial legislative processes but proved vulnerable to shifting goals and containment by a single powerful participant. This case study's results demonstrate vulnerabilities of the ecosystem management approach to conserving large carnivores. To enable other such conservation efforts to achieve their goals, we recommend supporting emergent small-scale initiatives and designing collaborative institutions that limit the potential for containment of decision processes. Adapted from the source document.