Actual theaters of operations are complex contexts where soldiers must face different situations, such as symmetrical, asymmetrical, or close quarter combat. The requirements of the actual battlefield are different to the traditional conditioning military training. This new changing scenario produces an activation of the innate fight or flight defense mechanisms with large activations of the anaerobic metabolic pathways and the sympathetic autonomic nervous system. In these scenarios, the anaerobic, aerobic, and strength demands are so specific and the time to improve all training demands in the units is limited. We propose a new training periodization for the military population based on the latest research into the psychophysiological response of soldiers in actual theaters of operations (actual military missions) and actual civilian models of training and periodization to develop a specific, easy, and reliable periodization model for actual tactical athletes. This training intervention was developed in order to improve operational training according to the demands of actual theaters of operations, based on recent research in military and civilian populations. We tried to conduct a proposal that is easy to apply, with minimal use of material different to what could be found in a military base and that could be implemented in a short period of time.
Stress is a multifactorial organic response aim to deal with the environmental demands. Human behavior under stress involve a number of psychophysiological changes. This special issue cover 12 of the most recent studies addressing the role of stress in extreme situations. One of this studies analyzes the stress response during defensive and offensive flight manoeuvres, supporting the central role of high physical fitness via specific training programs for fighter pilots. Another paper describes the results of a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials favouring the use of additive stress of normobaric hypoxic conditioning in overweight or obesity individuals versus compared with normoxic condition. Another study supports the used of simulation in higher education contexts as useful tools to induce stressful situations in biomedical students, who failed to habituate during assessment sessions, particularly those how felt lonely. In this line, perceived life stress and cognitive restraint are associated with increased comfort food intake under stress and lead to weight gain and obesity, founding how stress-induced negative affect predicted more snack intake for women with higher perceived life stress, and that higher perceived life stress was associated with heightened emotional relief upon snacking under stress. Indeed, this paper explores how stress increases further the intake of reward-driven comfort food in individuals with negative affect. The assessing methods of hormonal stress response are basic to understand the physiological stress response. Specifically, in primary-school children the assessment of both salivary and cumulative cortisol levels and their associations with emotional and behavioral symptoms showed an altered hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis activity, depicted in salivary and hair cortisol parameters, which might be a risk factor for mental and physical health in long-term. This study suggest that higher levels of stress as measured by hair or salivary cortisol are associated with higher risk of child emotional and behavioral symptoms. Two studies focus on animal models: The first one, describe how chronic restraint stress may result in depression impaire gonadal dysfunction in rats . The second study suggest that exposure to early life adversity (maternal separation) resulted in increased the risk of altered behavioral problems later on. In addition, this special issue also includes a study that describe the psychophysiological stress response in adolescent chess players using electroencephalography and heart rate variability. Another study assesses a sample of military reservists, guardsmen and first responders, supporting the link between stress and heart rate variability. Finally, three studies focus on reducing or managing stress. In this line, a new study found that both aerobic exercise and high intensity interval exercise affected the mood of a sample of American football athletes. Another study conducted a randomized clinical trial supporting the anxiolytic role of lavender oil (inhaled), the most powerful among the essential oils, reducing peri-operative anxiety in patients undergoing surgical procedures. And Mindfulness-based intervention reduce physiological and another study explored how psychological stress responses which might influence performance under competition settings.
BACKGROUND: This research aimed to analyze the body composition (BC) of different military units in the Spanish Armed Forces.METHODS: We studied 179 male aircrew members (86 airplane pilots, 15 helicopter pilots and 78 transport aircrew) using bioimpedance.RESULTS: Airplane pilots (AP) had higher means than transport aircrew (TA) in height (179.56 cm vs. 173.90 cm), total body water (46.72 L vs. 42.96 L), intracellular body water (29.45 L vs. 26.89 L), extracellular body water (17.27 L vs. 16.07 L), proteins (12.72 kg vs.11.63 kg), minerals (4.50 kg vs. 4.15 kg), soft lean mass (60.21 kg vs. 55.29 kg), fat free mass (63.95 kg vs. 58.74 kg), skeletal muscle mass (36.41 kg vs. 33.07 kg), and lower means in body mass index (24.01 kg vs. 25.49 kg), body fat mass (BFM) (13.53 kg vs. 18.81 kg) and percentage of body fat (PBF) (16.83 kg vs. 23.79 kg). Helicopter pilots also had significantly lower means in BFM (13.21 kg vs. 18.81 kg) and PBF (17.11 kg vs. 18.81 kg) than TA.DISCUSSION: The different types of activity between AP (active coping with G forces) and TA (inactive) during operational flights negatively affects the body composition of TA. These results suggest differences in aircrews training and job tasks. Specific training is needed for each unit: it should be individualized, prevent injuries, and be directed by qualified personnel.
BACKGROUND: Studies support the use of new training models based on low volume and high intensity in athletes, especially in soldier populations, showing greater physical improvements than conventional and classic approaches. We conducted this study to analyze the psychophysiological response of soldiers in two different high intensity interval training protocols (HIIT), resisted (RHIIT) and endurance (EHIIT), in order to determine which HIIT elicits a psychophysiological response similar to that in actual theaters of operation.METHODS: We recruited 21 professional soldiers from the Spanish Army. HIIT protocols were conducted in accordance with actual military scenarios, performed at 36-38°C.RESULTS: Both protocols, RHIIT and EHIIT, produced a significant increase in blood lactate (1.6 ± 0.3 to 6.4 ± 4.8 and 1.7 ± 0.6 to 11.2 ± 5.0, respectively), rate of perceived exertion, heart rate, and lower limb explosive strength; skin temperature and bodyweight presented significant decreases. Only EHIIT presented a significant increase on cortical arousal (35.9 ± 2.1 to 37.3 ± 2.8) and isometric hand-grip strength, achieving similar psychophysiological response as in previous simulated combat studies.DISCUSSION: Both endurance and resisted high interval intensity training protocols produced a significant increase in the psychophysiological response of soldiers. EHIIT presented more similarities with actual combat situations. ; Sin financiación ; 0.954 JCR (2019) Q4, 64/71 Biophysics, 127/139 Medicine, Research & Experimental, 174/193 Public, Environmental & Occupational Health ; 0.464 SJR (2019) Q2, 1349/2754 Medicine (miscellaneous), 271/559 Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health ; No data IDR 2019 ; UEM
BACKGROUND: Studies support the use of new training models based on low volume and high intensity in athletes, especially in soldier populations, showing greater physical improvements than conventional and classic approaches. We conducted this study to analyze the psychophysiological response of soldiers in two different high intensity interval training protocols (HIIT), resisted (RHIIT) and endurance (EHIIT), in order to determine which HIIT elicits a psychophysiological response similar to that in actual theaters of operation. METHODS: We recruited 21 professional soldiers from the Spanish Army. HIIT protocols were conducted in accordance with actual military scenarios, performed at 36–38°C. RESULTS: Both protocols, RHIIT and EHIIT, produced a significant increase in blood lactate (1.6 ± 0.3 to 6.4 ± 4.8 and 1.7 ± 0.6 to 11.2 ± 5.0, respectively), rate of perceived exertion, heart rate, and lower limb explosive strength; skin temperature and bodyweight presented significant decreases. Only EHIIT presented a significant increase on cortical arousal (35.9 ± 2.1 to 37.3 ± 2.8) and isometric hand-grip strength, achieving similar psychophysiological response as in previous simulated combat studies. DISCUSSION: Both endurance and resisted high interval intensity training protocols produced a significant increase in the psychophysiological response of soldiers. EHIIT presented more similarities with actual combat situations.
The present research aimed: i. to analyse the psychophysiological response of soldiers undertaking a special operation selection course; ii. to study the relationship between fat and muscle loss and the psychophysiological response of soldiers undertaking a special operation selection course. We analysed 46 professional soldiers from a special operations unit (25.1 ± 5.0 years, 1.8 ± 0.1 cm, 76.8 ± 7.9 kg, 24.4 ± 2.5 kg/m2) undertaking the last phase of their 10 weeks special operation selection course. Before and immediately after the exercise the following variables were assessed: Stress subjective perception, fatigue subjective perception, rating of perceived perception, cortical arousal, body temperature, blood oxygen saturation, spirometry, isometric hand strength, lower body muscular strength, urine, body composition, life engagement test, coping flexibility scale, acceptance and action questionnaire, perceived stress scale, anxiety state, visual analogue scale and differential aptitude test. A special operation selection course induced an intense stress and physical response as suggested by the psychophysiological changes with a significant (p < 0.05) increase in fatigue and stress subjective perception, blood oxygen saturation, Ph, cognitive impairment and motivation-loss. Moreover, decreased leg strength, peak expiratory flow, cortical arousal, body composition, body weight, fat and muscle mass, anxiety stress, alertness, sadness and tension decreased after the exercise. Regarding body composition, higher muscle mass loss participants were related to a higher cognitive impairment and similar psychophysiological response than lower fat mass loss participants. ; La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo: i. analizar la respuesta psicofisiológica de los soldados que realizan un curso especial de selección de operaciones; ii. para estudiar la relación entre la pérdida de grasa y músculo y la respuesta psicofisiológica de los soldados que realizan un curso de selección de operaciones especiales. Analizamos 46 soldados profesionales de una unidad de operaciones especiales (25.1 ± 5.0 años, 1.8 ± 0.1 cm, 76.8 ± 7.9 kg, 24.4 ± 2.5 kg / m2) que realizaron la última fase de su curso de selección de operación especial de 10 semanas. Antes e inmediatamente después del ejercicio, se evaluaron las siguientes variables: percepción subjetiva de estrés, percepción subjetiva de fatiga, clasificación de percepción percibida, activación cortical, temperatura corporal, saturación de oxígeno en la sangre, espirometría, fuerza isométrica de las manos, fuerza muscular de la parte inferior del cuerpo, orina, composición corporal , prueba de compromiso vital, escala de flexibilidad de afrontamiento, cuestionario de aceptación y acción, escala de estrés percibido, estado de ansiedad, escala analógica visual y prueba de aptitud diferencial. Un curso de selección de operación especial indujo un estrés intenso y una respuesta física como lo sugieren los cambios psicofisiológicos con un aumento significativo (p <0.05) en la percepción subjetiva de fatiga y estrés, saturación de oxígeno en la sangre, Ph, deterioro cognitivo y pérdida de la motivación. Además, disminuyó la fuerza de las piernas, el flujo espiratorio máximo, la excitación cortical, la composición corporal, el peso corporal, la masa muscular y grasa, el estrés por ansiedad, el estado de alerta, la tristeza y la tensión disminuyeron después del ejercicio. Con respecto a la composición corporal, los participantes con mayor pérdida de masa muscular se relacionaron con un mayor deterioro cognitivo y una respuesta psicofisiológica similar a los participantes con menor pérdida de masa grasa.
In the original article, the reference for "El-On et al., 2003" was incorrectly written as "El-On, J., Ben-Noun, L., Galitza, Z., and Ohana, N. (2003). Case report: clinical and serological evaluation of echinococcosis of the spine. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 97, 567–569. doi:10.1016/S0035-9203(03)80031-7." It should be "Kato, T. (2012). Development of the coping flexibility scale: evidence for the coping flexibility hypothesis. J. Couns. Psychol. 59, 262–273. doi:10.1037/a0027770." The authors apologize for this error and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated. Copyright ; En el artículo original, la referencia a "El-On et al., 2003" estaba escrita incorrectamente como "El-On, J., Ben-Noun, L., Galitza, Z. y Ohana, N. (2003) . Reporte de caso: evaluación clínica y serológica de equinococosis de columna. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Medicina. Hig. 97, 567–569. doi:10.1016 / S0035-9203 (03) 80031-7 ". Debería ser "Kato, T. (2012). Desarrollo de la escala de flexibilidad de afrontamiento: evidencia de la hipótesis de flexibilidad de afrontamiento. J. Couns. Psychol. 59, 262-273. doi:10.1037 / a0027770 ". Los autores se disculpan por este error y afirman que esto no cambia las conclusiones científicas del artículo de ninguna manera. El artículo original ha sido actualizado. Derechos de autor
The psychophysiological response due to stress of soldiers in actual combat operations have been determined by recent researchers, but there is a lack of knowledge about the most effective training methodologies to prepare these population for these new psychophysiological and tactical requirements. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of an operative high intensity interval training (HIIT) in the psychophysiological response and shooting performance of professional soldiers. We analyzed 20 soldiers of the Spanish Army which performed an operative HIIT composed by 3 series of 7 repetitions of exercises based on operative military procedures with 30 s of workload and 30 s of resting between repetitions and 5 min resting between series. Blood lactate, rate of perceived exertion and stress, upper and lower limbs, and respiratory muscle strength, skin temperature, blood oxygen saturation, heart rate, cortical arousal, short-term memory and anxiety response were measured before and after the training. After the training rated of perceived exertion and stress, leg strength, heart rate and lactate presented a significant increase and blood oxygen saturation and cortical arousal significantly decreased. An operative HIIT achieves similar psychophysical response than the evaluated in combat simulations in professional soldiers, producing a decrease in cortical arousal and lactate values over the anaerobic threshold. ; Investigadores recientes han determinado la respuesta psicofisiológica debida al estrés de los soldados en las operaciones de combate reales, pero existe una falta de conocimiento sobre las metodologías de entrenamiento más efectivas para preparar a esta población para estos nuevos requisitos psicofisiológicos y tácticos. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el efecto de un entrenamiento operativo de intervalo de alta intensidad (HIIT) en la respuesta psicofisiológica y el rendimiento de tiro de los soldados profesionales. Analizamos 20 soldados del Ejército español que realizaron un HIIT operativo compuesto por 3 series de 7 repeticiones de ejercicios basados en procedimientos militares operativos con 30 s de carga de trabajo y 30 s de descanso entre repeticiones y 5 min de descanso entre series. El lactato sanguíneo, la tasa de esfuerzo percibido y el estrés, las extremidades superiores e inferiores y la fuerza muscular respiratoria, la temperatura de la piel, la saturación de oxígeno en la sangre, la frecuencia cardíaca, la activación cortical, la memoria a corto plazo y la respuesta de ansiedad se midieron antes y después del entrenamiento. Después del entrenamiento, se evaluó el esfuerzo y esfuerzo percibidos, la fuerza de las piernas, la frecuencia cardíaca y el lactato presentaron un aumento significativo y la saturación de oxígeno en la sangre y la excitación cortical disminuyeron significativamente.
Actual theaters of operations require fast actions from special operations units with a high level of readiness and survival. Mission accomplishment depends on their psychological and physiological performance. The aim of the present study was to analyze: (1) the physical parameters related with success in a special operation selection course; and (2) the modifications of the psychological profile of recruits before and after a special operation selection course. Fifty-five male soldiers of the Spanish Army (25.1 ± 5.0 years, 1.8 ± 0.1 cm, 76.8 ± 7.9 kg, 24.4 ± 2.5 kg/m2) undertaking a 10-week special operation selection course performed a battery of physiological and psychological tests. Results showed how successful soldiers presented higher leg strength, anaerobic running performance, and cardiovascular response than non-successful soldiers. The psychological values of life engagement test, acceptance and action questionnaire, coping flexibility scale, and perceived stress scale did not present significant differences after the selection course. We can conclude that success in a special operation selection course was related to higher anaerobic and cardiovascular fitness. This special operation selection course did not modify the psychological profile of successful soldiers.
Actual studies in military training support the use of new methodological approaches such as high intensity interval training and inverse periodization training rather than conventional approaches. However, the application and analysis of success of these new methodologies are as yet unknown. The military adapted the civil reverse periodization training system, composed of 6 wk and five sessions per week. For the first 3 wk soldiers performed two sessions with the objective of increasing the maximal strength of the upper and lower body muscles, and three sessions of short high-intensity interval training (HIIT). In the following 3 wk they combined two endurance HIIT and two resistance HIIT sessions with military equipment while conducting a military task. After the training a significant body mass index decrease was found, along with an increase in lower limb muscular strength, aerobic and anaerobic performance, resilience, stress tolerance, and psychological flexibility. Regarding the ratio of acceptance there was an increased ratio compared to previous years of 7%. In addition, married soldiers with children presented greater resilience, stress tolerance, psychological flexibility, and a higher ratio of success. Accepted soldiers presented greater psychological status and stress tolerance, highlighting the importance of the work of the unit psychologists to reinforce and monitor the psychometric profile of the soldiers as well as their intrinsic characteristics of personality and emotionality. The greater baseline physical condition and higher performance in all physical tests proves how reverse periodization training models are a great stimuli and training approach in soldiers. Stress, psychological flexibility, performance, periodization, aerobic performance.
Introduction The study of chronic and acute responses when exposed to extreme, aggressive and stressful environments, such as in combat environments, is becoming increasingly popular as such information leads to better optimisation of soldiers' physical and psychological performance, as well as mission effectiveness and efficiency. Due to internal complexity, uncertainty and variability of real combat scenarios, a specific approach to all possible types of military combat scenarios is necessary. Methods Modifications in the autonomic modulation and cortical arousal before and after asymmetrical, symmetrical and close quarter combat simulations were analysed in 31 male professional veteran soldiers (age: 34.5±4.2 years) with between seven and 18 years of experience in their respective units, as well as experience in international missions in current conflict areas such as Lebanon, Afghanistan, Bosnia, Kosovo and Iraq. Results The three combat situations produced a non-significant decrease in cortical arousal after combat simulations, presenting a trivial effect size in symmetrical and close quarter combat situations and a small effect size in asymmetrical situations. HR increased significantly in the three combat situations, and close quarter combat produced the highest sympathetic modulation of the three situations analysed. Conclusion Symmetrical, asymmetrical and close quarter combat situations produced an increase in sympathetic modulation, being highest in the close quarter combat situation, where actions are performed at a close distance and in closed spaces.
Background: This research aimed to analyze the psychophysiological stress response of air crews in an underwater evacuation training. Materials and Methods: We analyzed in 36 participants (39.06±9.01 years) modifications in the rating of perceived exertion (RPE), subjective stress perception (SSP), heart rate (HR), blood oxygen saturation (BOS), cortical arousal (critical flicker fusion threshold, CFFT), heart rate variability (HRV), spirometry, isometric hand strength (IHS), and short-term memory (ST-M) before and after an underwater evacuation training. Results: The maneuver produced a significant (p≤0.05) increase in the SSP, RPE, Mean HR and maximum HR (Max HR), and a decrease in minimum HR (Min HR) and HRV. Conclusion: An underwater evacuation training produced an increase in the sympathetic nervous system modulation, elevating thepsychophysiologicalstressresponseoftheaircrews,notnegativelyaffectingtheircorticalarousal.
Introduction: Exposure to enviromental flight conditions may impair performance and physical integrity, thus training in simulated environments it is a key factor. This research aimed to study the psychophysiological response, cortical arousal and autonomic modulation of pilots and medical aircrew personnel during disorientation exposure, considering gender, experience, flying hours and body mass index (BMI) as influencial variables. Methods: A total of 47 soldiers (37 men and 10 women, 22 medical aircrew personnel and 25 fighter pilots) of Spanish Air Forces faced 25 min of vestibular, proprioceptive and visual disorientation. Results: Disorientation exposure elicited an increased psychophysiological response, significant increases in isometric hand strength, cortical arousal, autonomic modulation, perceived stress and effort in both groups while a significant decrease in respiratory muscle capacity and blood oxygen saturation in the medical aircrew group were found. Cross-sectional analysis showed gender differences, males presented greater parasympathetic activity and strength. Larger BMI was associated with greater levels and perception of stress as well as lower cardiovascular performance and sympathetic modulation. Furthermore, experience, previous training and larger flying hours correlated with greater parasympathetic modulation. Conclusion: Disorientation exposure produces an increase in cortical arousal and decrease in the parasympathetic nervous system either in pilots and medical aircrew personnel. In addition, medical aircrew personnel are less adapted to disorientation stimulus presenting significantly higher psychophysiological stress response, thus complementary physical training should be mandatory.
