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Although there is a long tradition of research on animal disease control, economic evaluation of control measures is rather limited in veterinary medicine. This may, on the one hand, be due to the different types of costs and refunds and the different people and organizations bearing them, such as animal holders, county, region, state or European Union, but it may also be due to the fact that economic analyses are both complex and time consuming. Only recently attention has turned towards economic analysis in animal disease control. Examples include situations, when decisions between different control measures must be taken, especially if alternatives to culling or compulsory vaccination are under discussion. To determine an optimal combination of control measures (strategy), a cost-benefit analysis should be performed. It is not necessary to take decisions only based on the financial impact, but it becomes possible to take economic aspects into account. To this end, the costs caused by the animal disease and the adopted control measures must be assessed. This article presents a brief overview of the methodological approaches used to retrospectively analyse the economic impact of two particular relevant diseases in Germany in the last few years: Bluetongue disease (BT) and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). ; Obgleich die Bekämpfung von Tierseuchen eine lange Tradition hat, gibt es verhältnismäßig wenige Studien, die sich mit den daraus resultierenden Kosten beschäftigen. Das liegt vermutlich zum einen daran, dass die Kosten bei unterschiedlichen Trägern entstehen, wie Tierhalter, Landkreis, Bundesland, Staat oder EU, und zum anderen daran, dass ökonomische Analysen komplex und langwierig sind. In den letzten Jahren wurden Tierseuchenbekämpfungsmaßnahmen jedoch immer wieder kritisch hinterfragt, insbesondere indem Alternativen zu den ergriffenen Maßnahmen wie der Tötung oder Impfung in die Diskussion einbezogen wurden. Um festzustellen, welche Kombination von Maßnahmen der Tierseuchenbekämpfung ("Strategie") am sinnvollsten ist, muss in der Regel eine Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse durchgeführt werden. Diese wiederum setzt eine Analyse der von der Tierseuche verursachten Kosten und der bisher ergriffenen Maßnahmen voraus. Dabei müssen Entscheidungen nicht ausschließlich nach Kostenaspekten getroffen werden, aber ihre Berücksichtigung wird ermöglicht. Dieser Artikel beinhaltet einen kurzen Überblick der methodischen Ansätze, die genutzt werden, um retrospektiv beispielhaft die ökonomischen Auswirkungen der Blauzungenkrankheit (BT) und der Bovinen Spongiformen Enzephalopathie (BSE) zu analysieren, zwei Tierseuchen, denen in Deutschland in den letzten Jahren eine erhebliche Bedeutung beigemessen wurde.

Assessing the risk of epidemic spread on networks and developing strategies for its containment is of tremendous practical importance, both due to direct effects in public health and its impact on economies. In this work we present the numerical results of a stochastic, event-driven, hierarchical agent-based model designed to reproduce the infectious dynamics of the cattle disease called Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD), for which the corresponding network of movements is the main route of spreading. For the farm-node dynamics, the model takes into account a vast number of breeding, infectious and animal movement mechanisms via a susceptible-infected-recovered (SIR) type of dynamics with an additional permanently infectious class. The interaction between the farms is described by a supply and demand farm manager mechanism governing the network structure and dynamics. We discuss the disease and breeding dynamics, study numerous mitigation strategies of present and past government regulations taking Germany as a case-study country and perform a sensitivity analysis on key parameters. We argue that the model, subject to calibration, has universal predictive potential, can be extended to diseases beyond BVD and demonstrate that appropriate measures can indeed lead to eradication regarding BVD. We further present the results of the time-series of the model and conduct a statistical analysis of and among the different mitigation strategies.

On 26 November 2000, the first autochthonous case of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) was detected in Germany. Since then, a total of 413 BSE cases have been confirmed, resulting in the culling and destruction of 17 313 heads of cattle. In view of the possible risks for human and animal health, Germany has adopted EU regulations along with some additional requirements concerning active surveillance and response measures after detecting a BSE-positive animal. In this study, we used a stochastic model to estimate the costs incurred by the ensuing legislative amendments responding to BSE between November 2000 and December 2010. The total costs were estimated to range between 1847 and 2094 million Euros. They peaked in 2001 (about 394 million Euros) and declined since. About 54% of the costs (approximately 1000 million Euros) were incurred by the extension of the feed ban for animal protein to all farmed livestock. Active surveillance accounted for 21% (405 million Euros), the incineration of animal protein for 13% (249 million Euros) and the removal of specified risk material for 11% (225 million Euros). Only 1% of the costs was related to response measures after detecting a BSE-positive animal, including indemnity payments for culled cattle and confiscated carcasses at the slaughterhouse.

Since the first detected African swine fever (ASF) cases in Lithuanian wild boar in 2014, the virus has occurred in many other member states of the European Union (EU), most recently in Belgium in 2018 and in Germany in 2020. Passive surveillance and various control measures are implemented as part of the strategy to stop disease spread in the wild boar population. Within this framework, hunters perform important activities, such as the removal of carcasses, fencing or hunting. Therefore, the successful implementation of these measures largely depends on their acceptability by hunters. Methods of participatory epidemiology can be used to determine the acceptance of control measures. The use of participatory methods allows the involvement of key stakeholders in the design, the implementation and the analysis of control and surveillance activities. In the present study, two studies that had been conducted using participatory epidemiology with hunters in Estonia and Latvia were compared on the topics recruitment, participants, facilitators, focus group discussion (FGDs) and their contents. The aim was to evaluate similarities and differences in the two studies and to identify a broader spectrum of possibilities to increase the willingness of hunters supporting the fight against ASF. Evaluating all conducted FGDs in both countries showed primarily similarities in the perceptions and opinions of the hunters in Estonia and Latvia. One notable difference was that passive surveillance in Latvia was perceived mostly as topic of duty and ethics rather than an issue driven by incentives. Participatory methods have proven to be an effective tool in the evaluation of the acceptance of established ASF control systems. The results of this study point out further chances for improving the cooperation with hunters in the future. Nevertheless, the importance of gathering and analyzing the opinions of hunters in all ASF affected countries individually is highlighted.

Since the first detected African swine fever (ASF) cases in Lithuanian wild boar in 2014, the virus has occurred in many other member states of the European Union (EU), most recently in Belgium in 2018 and in Germany in 2020. Passive surveillance and various control measures are implemented as part of the strategy to stop disease spread in the wild boar population. Within this framework, hunters perform important activities, such as the removal of carcasses, fencing or hunting. Therefore, the successful implementation of these measures largely depends on their acceptability by hunters. Methods of participatory epidemiology can be used to determine the acceptance of control measures. The use of participatory methods allows the involvement of key stakeholders in the design, the implementation and the analysis of control and surveillance activities. In the present study, two studies that had been conducted using participatory epidemiology with hunters in Estonia and Latvia were compared on the topics recruitment, participants, facilitators, focus group discussion (FGDs) and their contents. The aim was to evaluate similarities and differences in the two studies and to identify a broader spectrum of possibilities to increase the willingness of hunters supporting the fight against ASF. Evaluating all conducted FGDs in both countries showed primarily similarities in the perceptions and opinions of the hunters in Estonia and Latvia. One notable difference was that passive surveillance in Latvia was perceived mostly as topic of duty and ethics rather than an issue driven by incentives. Participatory methods have proven to be an effective tool in the evaluation of the acceptance of established ASF control systems. The results of this study point out further chances for improving the cooperation with hunters in the future. Nevertheless, the importance of gathering and analyzing the opinions of hunters in all ASF affected countries individually is highlighted.

In this era of globalisation the effective control of animal disease outbreaks requires powerful crisis management tools. In the 1990s software packages for different sectors of the government and agricultural industry began to be developed. In 2004, as a special application for tracking the movement of animals and animal products, the European Union developed the Trade Control and Expert System (TRACES) on the basis of its predecessor, the ANImal MOvement (ANIMO) project. The nationwide use of the ANIMO system by the veterinary authorities in Germany marked the beginning of the development in 1993 of a computerised national animal disease reporting system – the TierSeuchenNachrichten /TSN) - using the ANIMO hardware and software components. In addition to TRACES and TSN the third pillar for the management of animal disease outbreaks and crises in Germany is the national cattle and swine database – called Herkunftssicherungs- und Informationssystem für Tiere. A high degree of standardisation is necessary when integrating the different solutions at all levels of government and with the private sector. In this paper, the authors describe the use of these tools on the basis of their experience and in relation to what we can do now and what we should opt for in the future.

Aujeszky's disease (AD) manifested itself in both German states in 1960. Owing to the historical development, in the subsequent two decades, the development of the disease and of its control in the Western and Eastern parts of Germany went different ways. This article describes differences and particularities in the development of AD in Germany leading to the establishment of a national AD eradication programme after re-unification of the two German states at the beginning of the last decade. The basic principles of the German AD eradication programme are described, and the results of 10 years of efforts to control the disease are presented and discussed. Without any doubt, as in other European countries, implementation of the national eradication programme resulted in a considerable progress in the eradication of AD. Since the eradication programme has been established in 1989, particularly in West Germany, the number of AD outbreaks has decreased steadily from about 2000 cases in 1987 to 0 cases recorded in 2001. Recently, Germany has been declared as officially AD-free by the European Commission

After the introduction of African swine fever (ASF) into Lithuania in 2014, continuous spread of the disease resulted in infection of the wild boar populations in most parts of Lithuania. The virus has been moving closer to other Western European countries where pig density is high. An efficient surveillance system detecting ASF cases early in domestic and wild animals is necessary to manage this disease. To make surveillance appropriate and effective, it is critical to understand how key players perceive the implemented control measures. This study investigated the attitudes and beliefs of hunters in Lithuania regarding currently implemented or proposed measures for the control of ASF in the wild boar population. Study data were collected through questionnaires distributed via the internet and by hunting associations in Lithuania. In total, 621 fully completed questionnaires were received and analyzed. All measures interfering with extensive hunting, like ban of driven or individual hunting or ban of supplementary feeding were considered as unacceptable and as ineffective measures to control ASF in wild boar. However, selective hunting of female wild boar was generally considered as an unethical act and therefore rejected. Some measures that seem to have been successful in other countries, like involvement of additional forces, were rejected by Lithuanian hunters, thus implementation of these measures could be difficult. The study highlighted that there is a need for improving important relationships with other stakeholders, since many hunters expressed a lack of trust in governmental institutions and regarded cooperation with them as insufficient. Hunters emphasized that their motivation to support passive surveillance measures could be improved with financial compensation and reduction of workload. The present study provides insights into hunters' perceptions, which may be used as a foundation for additional discussions with these important stakeholders and for adapting measures to improve their acceptance if appropriate.

EU Regulation 998/2003 requires the serological testing of rabies-vaccinated dogs and cats in approved laboratories using serum neutralization tests prior to movement of pet animals between certain EU member states and before pet animals are imported from unlisted third countries. Serum neutralisation tests are also used for measuring the efficacy of oral rabies vaccination programmes conducted in wild carnivore populations. In this study we evaluated an OIElisted commercial ELISA as a potential replacement for serum neutralization assays under routine conditions as a diagnostic tool for both the serological testing of dog and cat sera as part of pet travel schemes and for follow-up investigations as part of oral vaccination campaigns. When dog and cat sera were analyzed by ELISA, a sensitivity compared to the standard serological test of 36.9-82.0% and 44.4-88.9%, respectively, was calculated depending on the method used. For fox field samples from oral vaccination areas the sensitivity compared to the Rapid Fluorescent Focus Inhibition Test (RFFIT) was 32.4% (95% CI 24.8-40.0%).In its present format, the ELISA cannot replace standard serological assays neither in the pet travel scheme nor in follow-up investigations of oral vaccination campaigns. The results obtained resemble those of other rabies ELISAs recently evaluated for the same purpose and may therefore exemplify a general misconception (binding versus neutralization) in rabies serology rather than a failure of this ELISA test per se. Also, problems with technical and legislative issues associated with the serological testing of dog and cat sera for non-commercial movement and related to the outcome of this study are addressed.

To prevent disease transmission into commercial animal herds meaningful and reliable surveillance must not only focus on livestock but also wildlife. For the assessment of the overall performance of a surveillance system investigating different evaluation attributes is recommended (http://www.fp7-risksur.eu/). In the presented study we performed a comprehensive evaluation of alternative risk-based surveillance strategies for Classical Swine Fever (CSF) in wild boar - a disease of high economic impact. On the basis of a risk factor analysis we developed different surveillance strategies for comparative economic evaluation. The current surveillance strategy, specified by the European Union, constituted the reference strategy. To evaluate the effectiveness of the surveillance strategies we investigated sensitivity and timeliness. This was done using a simulation model. Acceptability, which provides evidence on the functional aspect of the surveillance strategies, was investigated using participatory methods. The cost-effectiveness of the surveillance strategies was investigated based on the simulation model results. Using the identified risk factors 69 surveillance strategies including the conventional strategy were generated and evaluated. Sampling only in the defined age class of sub-adult wild boar resulted in the best overall performance. The results of this study suggest that risk-based surveillance strategies can be an option to design more efficient surveillance. The study could be used as a template for further evaluation studies of surveillance of different animal diseases.

Die Afrikanische Schweinepest (ASP) ist aufgrund ihrer schweren sozioökonomischen Konsequenzen, der unvorhersehbaren internationalen Verbreitung sowie fehlender Möglichkeiten zur therapeutischen oder impfprophylaktischen Bekämpfung eine der wichtigsten Tierseuchen des Schweines. Im Jahr 2014 erreichte die ASP die Ostgrenze der EU. Im Januar 2014 meldete Litauen die ersten ASP-positiven Wildschweine, es folgten im Februar Meldungen aus Polen, im Juni aus Lettland und im September 2014 aus Estland. Die Ausbrüche in den Hausschweinbeständen konnten schnell und problemlos getilgt werden. Im Gegensatz dazu erweist sich das Geschehen in der Wildschweinpopulation als sehr komplex und schwer kontrollierbar. Feldbeobachtungen und experimentelle Studien deuten auf eine hohe Letalität und geringe Kontagiosität in der Anfangsphase der ASP hin. Die geringe Kontagiosität erfordert ein Umdenken und ein dementsprechend angepasstes Vorgehen bei der Bekämpfung im Wildschweinbereich. Bei der Bekämpfung der Tierseuche beim Hausschwein erweist sich die geringe Kontagiosität als ein Vorteil (genügend Zeit, um die Maßnahmen durchzuführen), beim Wildschwein hingegen ist sie ein Nachteil, wenn andere Faktoren wie hohe Wildschweindichten und lange Überlebenszeiten des Virus in der Natur die Bekämpfung erschweren. Nach bisherigen Erkenntnissen verhält sich die ASP in einer Wildschweinpopulation eher wie eine langjährige (eher stationäre), an das Habitat gebundene Seuche ohne Tendenz zur schnellen Ausbreitung. Dabei könnten vornehmlich infektiöse Kadaver in Verbindung mit der hohen Tenazität des ASP-Virus und der niedrigen Kontagiosität die Tierseuche in einer Region "binden". Dieses Phänomen könnte erklären, warum sich die ASP zwar langsam ausbreitet, das Infektionsgeschehen jedoch nicht von selbst erlischt. ; African swine fever (ASF) is considered internationally as one of the most dangerous animal diseases of pigs. The dis ease is affecting trade and having serious socio-economic impact on people's livelihood. No drugs or vaccines are available to fight ASF. ASF has reached the eastern borders of the European Union in January 2014. The very first cases of infected wild boar have been reported by Lithuania. Poland reported first cases in February, followed by Latvia in June and Estonia later in September of that same year. The outbreaks occurring in domestic pigs have been controlled timely and without major problems. Within the wild boar population however, the occurrence of ASF has shown to be very complex and difficult to control. Field data as well as experimental studies on ASF indicate an overall high case-fatality rate and a rather low contagiosity during the initial phase of infection. Within that context, a revision of the current understanding and approaches towards ASF control and eradication is needed. In domestic swine populations the low contagiosity is rather an advantageous feature reducing the urgency in the implementation of control measures. For wild boar however, in combination with the environmental stability of the virus and high animal densities, the low contagiosity represents a disadvantage for effective control. Current findings indicate that in wild boar populations ASF shows a pattern of habitat bound persistence lacking a tendency of dynamic spatial spread. Therefore ASF in wild boar can be considered a habitat-borne disease where infected carcasses in combination with the tenacity of the virus and the low contagiosity play a key role in capturing the disease within affected areas. Such circumstances are likely to contribute substantially to months or even years of pathogen persistence explaining the current picture of ASF spreading rather slowly and with continuing circulation in affected areas.

Bluetongue has become a Major animal health issue in the European Union. The member states and Switzerland have agreed on a vaccination strategy. Three different inactivated monovalent vaccines against bluetongue virus serotype 8 were selected for the compulsory vaccination program carried out in Germany in 2008. The efficacy of these vaccines was evaluated in a pilot study in sheep immunised under field conditions by clinical, virological and serological examination before and after experimental challenge infection with a BTV-8 field isolate. Antibody levels prior to challenge infection differed between the vaccinated groups, but all seroconverted animals were fully protected against clinical disease and virus replication. Only one vaccinated animal was very weakly positive in the real-time RT-PCR at day 10 after challenge infection, and one seronegative sheep in one of the vaccine groups was not protected. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Background This study aimed to provide a systematic review on the geographical distribution of Echinococcus multilocularis in definitive and intermediate hosts in the European Union (EU) and adjacent countries (AC). The relative importance of the different host species in the life-cycle of this parasite was highlighted and gaps in our knowledge regarding these hosts were identified. Methods Six databases were searched for primary research studies published from 1900 to 2015. From a total of 2,805 identified scientific papers, 244 publications were used for meta-analyses. Results Studies in 21 countries reported the presence of E. multilocularis in red foxes, with the following pooled prevalence (PP): low (≤ 1 %; Denmark, Slovenia and Sweden); medium (> 1 % to 10 %; Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Liechtenstein and Switzerland). Studies from Finland, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Norway reported the absence of E. multilocularis in red foxes. However, E. multilocularis was detected in Arctic foxes from the Arctic Archipelago of Svalbard in Norway. Conclusions Raccoon dogs (PP 2.2 %), golden jackals (PP 4.7 %) and wolves (PP 1.4 %) showed a higher E. multilocularis PP than dogs (PP 0.3 %) and cats (PP 0.5 %). High E. multilocularis PP in raccoon dogs and golden jackals correlated with high PP in foxes. For intermediate hosts (IHs), muskrats (PP 4.2 %) and arvicolids (PP 6.0 %) showed similar E. multilocularis PP as sylvatic definitive hosts (DHs), excluding foxes. Nutrias (PP 1.0 %) and murids (PP 1.1 %) could play a role in the life-cycle of E. multilocularis in areas with medium to high PP in red foxes. In areas with low PP in foxes, no other DH was found infected with E. multilocularis. When fox E. multilocularis PP was >3 %, raccoon dogs and golden jackals could play a similar role as foxes. In areas with high E. multilocularis fox PP, the wolf emerged as a potentially important DH. Dogs and cats could be irrelevant in the life-cycle of the parasite in Europe, although dogs could be important for parasite introduction into non-endemic areas. Muskrats and arvicolids are important IHs. Swine, insectivores, murids and nutrias seem to play a minor or no role in the life-cycle of the parasite within the EU and ACs.

Das Auftreten und die seit dem Jahr 2007 stattfindende rasche Ausbreitung der Afrikanischen Scheinepest (ASP) in transkaukasischen Ländern, Teilen der Kaukasusregion der Russischen Föderation sowie Ausbrüche in anderen Gebieten des Europäischen Teils von Russland geben Anlass, die Bedrohungslage für die Bundesrepublik zu analysieren. Vor dem Hintergrund eines gestiegenen Einschleppungsrisikos in das Gebiet der Europäischen Union und damit auch nach Deutschland erscheint Aufklärungsarbeit zu dieser Tierseuche, die in Deutschland noch nie festgestellt wurde, geboten. Die Afrikanische Schweinepest wird durch ein DNA-Virus aus der Familie der Asfarviridae (ASPV) verursacht. Neben Haus- und Wildschweinen sind zumindest in Afrika auch Lederzecken der Gattung Ornithodorus in den Infektionszyklus involviert. Wie die Klassische Schweinepest, von der die ASP klinisch nicht zu unterscheiden ist, kann auch die ASP mit sehr variablen Krankheitsbildern einhergehen. Die in den transkaukasischen Ländern (Georgien, Armenien und Aserbaidschan) und der Russischen Föderation vorherrschenden Virusstämme sind für Schweine aller Altersstufen hoch virulent und verursachen eine Mortalität von nahezu 100 Prozent. Da die Einfuhr lebender Schweine und frischen Schweinefleisches aus der Russischen Föderation und den anderen betroffenen Ländern in die Europäische Union gegenwärtig nicht gestattet ist, geht ein vorherrschendes Einschleppungsrisiko des Erregers insbesondere von im Personen- und Güterreiseverkehr mitgeführten ASPV-kontaminierten Lebensmitteln bzw. Speiseabfällen aus. Weiterhin können kontaminierte und unzureichend desinfizierte Transportfahrzeuge, die aus betroffenen Gebieten zurückkehren, ein erhöhtes Einschleppungsrisiko darstellen. ; The occurrence and almost unhindered spread of African swine fever (ASF) in Trans-caucasian countries and the Russian Federation gives reason to analyze the level of threat for the German pig population. In view of a possible risk of introduction into the European Union, disease awareness campaigns and disease recognition training is urgently required, especially since ASF has never been reported in Germany. ASF is caused by a large, complex DNA virus of the Asfarviridae family. Beside domestic pigs and wild boar, soft ticks of the genus Ornithodorus are involved in the infection cycle, especially in Africa. Like classical swine fever (CSF), ASF can be associated with a wide range of clinical syndromes. Based on clinical signs only, discrimination of ASF and CSF is impossible. The virus strains prevailing in the Trans-caucasian countries and the Russian Federation are currently highly virulent indiscriminately both for domestic pigs and wild boar. Mortality may reach up to 100 % in pigs of all ages. As legal animal movements and the transport of pig products from Russia into the EU are not possible, the introduction risk rests with food waste and passenger traffic. Moreover, insufficiently disinfected transport vehicles returning from the Russian Federation and other affected countries pose an additional risk to the German pig population.

Die Überwachung und Bekämpfung vom Tier auf den Menschen übertragbarer Krankheiten (Zoonosen) wurde in der Europäischen Union durch das In-Kraft-Treten einer neuen Zoonosenrichtlinie kürzlich auf eine neue Grundlage gestellt. Eine Überwachungspflicht für Brucellose, Campylobacteriose, Echinokokkose, Listeriose, Salmonellose, Trichinellose und die jeweiligen Erreger, Tuberkulose (soweit sie durch Mycobacterium bovis verursacht ist) sowie Verotoxin bildende Escherichia coli wird festgelegt. Für weitere Zoonosen und Zoonosenerreger gilt die Überwachungspflicht je nach der epidemiologischen Situation. Auf diesem Hintergrund werden der aktuelle Kenntnisstand und die epidemiologische Situation wichtiger von Nutz- und einigen Wildtieren auf den Menschen übertragbarer Infektionskrankheiten in Deutschland dargestellt. ; The control of infectious diseases transmitted from animals to humans (zoonoses) was recently put on a new basis in the European Union when a new Zoonoses Directive entered into force. Brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, echinococcosis, listeriosis, salmonellosis, trichinosis, and the respective causative agents, tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis, and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli must be included in monitoring. Additional zoonoses and zoonotic agents are to be monitored according to the epidemiological situation. Against this background, the current knowledge on important zoonoses transmitted from livestock and some wildlife animals to humans as well as the epidemiological situation in Germany with regard to these diseases is summarized.