This essay provides a counterpoint to Robert Bruegmann's perspective on accessibility and sprawl in this journal volume. Bruegmann's recent work on the history of urban form situates contemporary discussions of sprawl in a well-researched historical context; however, this essay takes a different perspective on several key points in Bruegmann's analysis, particularly in relation to cost-benefit analysis for transportation-disadvantaged populations.
This paper discusses the constructive role central-local transfers can play in Kenyan development and the tradeoffs they impose between resource benefits and behavioural incentives. It then recommends several specific proposals for transfer reform, particularly regarding local road maintenance and basic equalisation, along with the implementation mechanisms needed to address associated legal, institutional, and administrative issues. In addition, an action plan for a limited grant programme is proposed for the short term. (InWent/DÜI)
Until 2000, Kenya was unique in having no formal means for sharing central government revenues with local authorities. Urban and rural governments alike had to cover their capital and current expenses on roads, education, public health, and so on, entirely from own resources. This paper discusses the constructive role transfers can and should play in Kenyan development and the tradeoffs they impose between resource benefits and behavioural incentives. It then recommends several specific proposals for transfer reform, particularly regarding local road maintenance and basic equalisation, along with the implementation mechanisms needed to address associated legal, institutional, and administrative issues. In addition, an action plan for a limited grant programme is proposed for the short term.
AbstractRenewed interest by the Indonesian government in decentralization and cost‐recovery practices has led to both real and illusory reforms, though the distinction between the two is often not clear. This is particularly true with respect to infrastructure planning and finance. Recently, the allocation criteria for capital grants to local governments have been substantially revised, nearly every year, to reflect long lasting concerns regarding differences in interregional development needs and resources. In addition, the level of funding for local government investment has risen dramatically to support increased local responsibility in planning. Most development spending does not pass through local budgets, however. In either case, the project planning process has remained firmly under the direction of the central government's technical ministries.Infrastructure investment thus tends to be segmented, not only by sector, but also by funding source. The rate at which these two factors balance off in current practice does not indicate a strong commitment to effective decentralization. The article suggests that greater regional government participation in the national planning process would be beneficial. To deal with the fragmented nature of sectoral planning is more problematic, as a more integrated approach would in the long term require either a new layer of bureaucracy or a substantial reorganization of the technical ministries. In the shorter term, a gradual shift toward general purpose grants would also generate regional development plans more consistent with the goals of decentralization while maintaining substantial central control and oversight.
The average U.S. male historically commutes further and longer than his female counterpart. Yet pivotal changes at home, as younger women especially increase their influence on household location and work decisions, and in the labor market, and as women's participation rates and profiles approach men's, strongly suggest that gender's influence on travel might be changing as well. Furthermore, the independent and interactive influence of other demographic factors, not least age and race, remain unclear. This study analyzes national microdata covering the past 20 years to examine both issues. We find sources of both convergence and divergence in travel behaviors by sex. The gender gap in commute length of older workers is growing, even while that of younger workers steadily closes. At the same time, racial differences in mode choice and commute times are becoming less pronounced—both by race and by gender. Thus, gendered elements of travel demand are indeed evolving, if not in predictable directions.
Local governments seem to be continually strapped for funds. While the role of their planners in generating revenue is often discussed, it is also rarely investigated in any detail. We address this research gap by considering the fiscal nature of land use policy vis-a-vis a specific planning opportunity, namely "transit-oriented development." A massive and influential literature has explored the potential for leveraging rail system investments by locating high density residential developments near commuter rail stations. The feasibility and focus of these strategies have been question, however, in the face of evidence that local government support for these projects is mixed at best. To explain this behavior, we examine the role basic fiscal conditions play in the decision to zone land near all existing and proposed commuter rail stations in Southern California. The analysis indicates that station-area zoning depends significantly on community public finances. The importance of sales taxation in financing local services is consistently important in explaining the concentration of commercial activity in each city, associated revenue mix and tax base trends, and many other features differentiating communities. The results underscore how the practice of transit-oriented development must account not only for travel behavior and the broader goals of any given urban design, but also for the parochial and self-interested nature of municipal planning.
