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Introduction: This doctoral thesis in Information Systems disentangles the interplay of an OGD reform and an OGD ecosystem. Open government data (OGD) refers to data shared by public organizations, in the role of providers, following certain principles for anyone to reuse. An OGD reform transforms parts of society so that an OGD ecosystem can coalesce and realize benefits (e.g., economic growth or transparency). An OGD ecosystem consists of providers sharing data, enrichers developing products or services on this data, and seekers using the data, products, or services to satisfy their needs. Problem and Purpose: Previous OGD research tends to encompass an OGD reform into an OGD ecosystem, which can restrict the possibilities to understand the evolution and health of an OGD ecosystem. Because, an OGD reform is a temporary transformation, while an OGD ecosystem includes sustained processes for a purpose. It obfuscates the possible interplay between an OGD reform and an OGD ecosystem, which could affect the health of the ecosystem. Health is an OGD ecosystem's ability to achieve its higher purpose while benefiting its actors without harming others. Reform and evolution are related since both refer to the change of actors. The purpose of my doctoral thesis is to disentangle the interplay between an OGD reform and an OGD ecosystem to understand how it can affect the health of an OGD ecosystem. Research Design: I set out to explore the Swedish OGD ecosystem from 2016 to 2019. The research expanded to international explorations between 2019 and 2021. My research is qualitative and encompasses an introductory part and five articles. The papers include (1) a comparison between two providers, (2) an enricher framework, (3) diagnosis of the Swedish OGD ecosystem, (4) lessons drawn from public utilities, and (5) how providers and enrichers can consider seekers in their work. I then revisited my empirical material to perform additional analysis to synthesize a conceptual framework called reform-ecosystem (RE-ECO) framework. Findings: The RE-ECO framework depicts the interplay between an OGD reform and an OGD ecosystem and how it could affect the ecosystem's health. An OGD reform is conceptualized as a checkerboard and an OGD ecosystem as an ocean ecosystem. OGD actors transform a reciprocal structure to coalesce an OGD ecosystem through persuasion, collaboration, transformation, and evaluation. The OGD ecosystem consists of strands of data-information cycles and identification nodes, which work to realize certain benefits. The OGD actors can transform local conditions, step between ecosystems, and mutation-load to affect the health of an OGD ecosystem. Contribution: The theoretical contribution of this doctoral thesis is the RE-ECO framework. The thesis also concludes that an OGD ecosystem is an ancillary, symbiotic ecosystem; mutation-loading can control and fuel the change of actors; OGD actors can step between their OGD reform, their OGD ecosystem, and other ecosystems; the landscape metaphor reveals how an OGD reform can constrain the health of an OGD ecosystem; and actors can experience tensions between an OGD reform and an OGD ecosystem. OGD researchers are suggested to further study the interplay between an OGD reform and an OGD ecosystem. OGD practitioners should follow ``high-value, high-impact'' and ``publish with purpose'' principles rather than ``open by default'' or ``raw data now'' principles. ; Introduktion: Öppna data är data som tillgängliggörs av offentliga organisationer (eng. open government data [OGD]) enligt vissa principer för att låta vem som helst återanvända data. I denna doktorsavhandling inom ämnet informationssystem undersöker jag samspelet mellan en OGD-reform och ett OGD-ekosystem samt olika typer av roller för aktörer. En OGD-reform förändrar delar av ett samhälle så att ett OGD-ekosystem kan organiseras för att realisera olika fördelar (till exempel ekonomisk tillväxt eller transparens). Ett OGD-ekosystem består i att aktörer delar data (tillhandahållare [eng. providers]) och vem som helst använder data. Rollen berikare (eng. enrichers) använder data för att utveckla produkter eller tjänster och sökare (eng. seekers) använder data, produkterna eller tjänsterna för att tillgodose deras behov. Problem och Syfte: Tidigare OGD-forskning tenderar att inkludera en OGD-reform i ett OGD-ekosystem, vilket kan begränsa möjligheterna att förstå ett ekosystems evolution och dess hälsa. Därför att en OGD-reform är tillfälliga förvandlingar, medan ett OGD-ekosystem är återkommande processer för ett mera specifikt ändamål. Denna situation kan dölja hur samspelet mellan en OGD-reform och ett OGD-ekosystem kan påverka OGD-ekosystemets hälsa. Hälsa är ett OGD-ekosystems förmåga att uppnå ett högre ändamål samtidigt som det gynnar dess aktörer utan att skada andra. Reform relaterar till evolution då båda berör förändringar av aktörer. Denna avhandling syftar till att reda ut detta samspel för att förstå hur samspelet kan påverka OGD-ekosysemets hälsa. Forskningsdesign: I avhandlingen studerades det svenska OGD-ekosystemet mellan 2016 och 2019, vilket senare utvidgades till internationella samarbeten mellan 2019 och 2021. Forskningen är kvalitativ och avhandlingen består av en kappa med fem artiklar: (1) en jämförelse mellan två organisationer som tillhandahåller öppna data, (2) ett ramverk som beskriver berikares arbete, (3) en diagnos av det svenska OGD-ekosystemet, (4) lärdomar från allmännyttiga tjänster (t.ex. vatten, el och kollektivtrafik) och (5) hur tillhandahållare och berikare kan beakta sökare i sitt arbete. Ett centralt, och syntetiserande, resultat i kappan är ett konceptuellt ramverk;\textbf{re}form\textbf{-eko}system (RE-EKO) ramverket. Resultat: RE-ECO-ramverket beskriver samspelet mellan en OGD-reform och ett OGD-ekosystem samt hur det kan påverka ekosystemets hälsa. En OGD-reform är konceptualiserad som ett spelbräde och ett OGD-ekosystem som ett havsekosystem. OGD-aktörer förändrar en ömsesidig struktur för att organisera ett OGD-ekosystem genom aktiviteter så som övertala, samarbeta, förändra och utvärdera. OGD-ekosystemet består av datacykler och identifieringsnoder som arbetar för att förverkliga vissa fördelar. OGD-aktörerna kan påverka hälsan hos ett OGD-ekosystem genom att omvandla deras lokala förhållanden, kliva mellan en OGD-reform och ett OGD-ekosystem och lastningar av mutationer. Bidrag: Doktorsavhandlingens teoretiska bidrag är RE-ECO-ramverket samt slutsatserna att (1) ett OGD-ekosystem är ett stödjande, symbiotiskt ekosystem; (2) lastningar av mutationer kan styra och driva förändringar; (3) OGD-aktörer kan röra sig mellan en OGD-reform, ett OGD-ekosystem och andra ekosystem; (4) landskapsmetaforen kan användas för att avslöja hur en OGD-reform kan begränsa ett OGD-ekosystems hälsa; och (5) hur aktörer kan uppleva spänningar mellan en OGD-reform och ett OGD-ekosystem. Förslag till vidare forskning ges i form av fördjupade studier av samspelet mellan en OGD-reform och ett OGD-ekosystem. Vidare diskuteras också principer för praktiker inom området för att nå god nytta av OGD.

Introduction: This compilation licentiate thesis focuses on open government data (OGD). The thesis is based on three papers. OGD is a system that is organized when publishers collect and share data with users, who can unrestrictedly reuse the data. In my research, I have explored why it can be challenging to cultivate OGD. Cultivation is human activities that change, encourage, or guide human organizations towards a higher purpose by changing, introducing, managing, or removing conditions. Here, the higher purpose is OGD to realize believed benefits. Thus, OGD cultivation is an attempt to stimulate actors into organizing as OGD. Problem and Purpose: OGD is believed to lead to several benefits. However, the worldwide OGD movement has slowed down, and researchers have noted a lack of use. Publishers and users are experiencing a set of different impediments that are challenging to solve. In previous research, there is a need for more knowledge about what can impede the OGD organization, cause non-valuable organizing, or even collapse the organization. At the same time, there is a lack of knowledge about how impediments shape the organization of OGD. This gap can make it hard to solve and overcome the impediments experienced by publishers and users. The sought-after knowledge can bring some understanding of the current situation of OGD. In this research, I have viewed the organization of OGD as an ecosystem. The purpose of this thesis is to draw lessons about why it can be challenging to cultivate OGD ecosystems by understanding OGD impediments from an ecosystem perspective. Research Design: I set out to explore OGD through qualitative research from 2016 to 2018. My research started with a pilot case study that led to three studies. The studies are each reported in a paper and the papers form the base of this thesis. The first paper aims to stimulate the conceptually oriented discussion about actors' roles in OGD by developing a framework that was tested on a Swedish public agency. The second paper has the purpose of expanding the scope surrounding impediments and was based in a review and systematization of previous research about OGD impediments. The third paper presents an exploration of impediments experienced by publishers, users, and cultivators in the Swedish national OGD ecosystem to identify faults. From the three papers, lessons were drawn in turn and together, that are presented in this thesis. Findings: Cultivators when cultivating OGD ecosystems are facing towering challenges. The following three main challenges are identified in this thesis: (1) to cultivate a system that can manage stability by itself without constant involvement, (2) to cultivate a system that is capable of evolving towards a "greater good" by itself, and (3) to have an up-to-date precise vocabulary for a self-evolving system that enables inter-subjective understand for coordinating problem-solving. Contribution: The theoretical contribution of this thesis is that OGD ecosystems can be viewed as a public utility. Moreover, I recommend that researchers approach the organizing of OGD as the cultivation of evolution, rather than the construction of a structure; to consider the stability of the system in growth, value, and participation; and to be cautious with how they label and describe OGD actors. For actors that are cultivating OGD, I recommend that they guide the OGD actors to help them organize; view OGD cultivation as the management of evolution (growth) towards a purpose; and view cultivation as a collaborative effort where they can supply ideas, technologies, practices, and expertise. ; The series name in the thesis Linköping University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences thesis is incorrect. The correct series name is FiF-avhandling .

Purpose - This research aims to develop a user process framework with activities and their variations for the use of open government data (OGD) based on empirical material and previous research. Open government data (OGD) is interoperable data that is shared by public organisations (publishers) for anyone (users) to reuse without restrictions to create new digital products and services. The user process was roughly identified in previous research but lacks an in-depth description. This lack can hamper the ability to encourage the use and the development of related theories. Design/methodology/approach - A three-stage research approach was used. Firstly, a tentative framework was created from previous research and empirical material. This stage involved three different literature reviews, data mapping, and seven interviews with OGD experts. The empirical material was analysed with inductive analysis, and previous research was integrated into the framework through concept mapping. Secondly, the tentative framework was reviewed by informed OGD experts. Thirdly, the framework was finalised with additional literature reviews, eight interviews with OGD users, and a member check, including all the respondents. The framework was used to guide the data collection and as a tool in the analysis. Findings -The user process framework covers activities and related variations, where the included phases are: start, identify, acquire, enrich, and deploy. The start varies relating to the intended use of the OGD. In the identify phase, the user is exploring the accessible data to decide if the data is relevant. In the acquire phase, the user is preparing for the delivery of the data from the publisher and receiving it. In the enrich phase, the user is concocting and making something. In the final deploy phase, the user has a product or service that can be provided to end-users. Research limitations/implications - The framework development has some limitations: the framework needs testing and development in different contexts and further verification. The implications are that the framework can help guide researchers towards relevantand essential data of the user process, be used as a point of compari-son in analysis, and be used as a skeleton for more precious theories. Practical implications - The framework has some practical implications for users, publishers, and portals. It can introduce users to the user process and help them plan for the execution of it. The framework can help publishers understand how the users can work with their data and what can be expected of them. The framework can help portal owners to understand the portal's role between users and publishers and what functionality and features they can provide to support to the user. Originality/value - In previous research, no user process with an in-depth description was identified. However, several studies have given a rough recall. Thus, this research provides an in-depth description of the user process with its variations. The framework can support practice and leads to new research avenues.

When focusing on open government data (OGD) publishing and related barriers, there are several complexities present. Largely, current research is focused on publishing and usage of OGD; and we argue that there are a need to investigate and to systematise OGD barrier research in order to understand and outline an expanded scope of the phenomenon. We expand by clarifying barriers linked to the release decision and the data's organisational context. To investigate the OGD barriers, we conduct a systematic literature review, identifying 34 articles as a point of departure for our analysis. From these articles we create, present and discuss illustrations on historical development, barrier types, and different research focuses on OGD. When analysing the articles, we identify a focus on technical, organisational, and legal barrier types, while studies on open data usage and systems are less frequent. Our analysis also identifies some possible open data research barriers. In the article we also relate barriers to an expanded OGD process (Suitability, Release, Publish, Use, and Evaluation), identifying 46 barriers with possible linkages. The results is an expanded scope and a conceptual illustration of OGD barriers. © IFIP International Federation for Information Processing 2018.

PurposeThis paper aims to develop a user process framework with activities and their variations for the use of open government data (OGD) based on empirical material and previous research. OGD is interoperable data that is shared by public organisations (publishers) for anyone (users) to reuse without restrictions to create new digital products and services. The user process was roughly identified in previous research but lacks an in-depth description. This lack can hamper the ability to encourage the use and the development of related theories.Design/methodology/approachA three-stage research approach was used. First, a tentative framework was created from previous research and empirical material. This stage involved three different literature reviews, data mapping and seven interviews with OGD experts. The empirical material was analysed with inductive analysis, and previous research was integrated into the framework through concept mapping. Second, the tentative framework was reviewed by informed OGD experts. Third, the framework was finalised with additional literature reviews, eight interviews with OGD users, and a member check, including all the respondents. The framework was used to guide the data collection and as a tool in the analysis.FindingsThe user process framework covers activities and related variations, where the included phases are: start, identify, acquire, enrich and deploy. The start varies relating to the intended use of the OGD. In the identify phase, the user is exploring the accessible data to decide if the data are relevant. In the acquire phase, the user is preparing for the delivery of the data from the publisher and receiving it. In the enrich phase, the user is concocting and making something. In the final deploy phase, the user has a product or service that can be provided to end-users.Research limitations/implicationsThe framework development has some limitations: the framework needs testing and development in different contexts and further verification. The implications are that the framework can help guide researchers towards relevant and essential data of the user process, be used as a point of comparison in analysis, and be used as a skeleton for more precious theories.Practical implicationsThe framework has some practical implications for users, publishers and portals. It can introduce users to the user process and help them plan for the execution of it. The framework can help publishers understand how the users can work with their data and what can be expected of them. The framework can help portal owners to understand the portal's role between users and publishers and what functionality and features they can provide to support to the user.Originality/valueIn previous research, no user process with an in-depth description was identified. However, several studies have given a rough recall. Thus, this research provides an in-depth description of the user process with its variations. The framework can support practice and leads to new research avenues.

Sonderheft über die wirtschaftlichen Beziehungen der Niederlande zu einzelnen Ländern der Region mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Bausektors, der Beratertätigkeit, einzelner Wirtschaftszweige und ausgewählter Statistiken zum Außenhandel. (DÜI-Sdt)

Data providers share open government data (OGD) to be transformed by intermediaries into products and services (solutions). OGD is believed to lead to many benefits. However, OGD is not reaching its expected level of reuse, which can come from a lack of awareness, interest to fulfil the user's needs, or novel perspectives to understand them. This paper presents a set of design principles to develop tailored mixed methods that capture activity-based information needs of users which could be satisfied by building information products based on OGD. The produced insights can help data providers and intermediaries to realign ideas of solutions to the user's information needs. The set of nine design principles are developed using design science research and are based on previous research and empirical testing. They have been implemented with two groups of users and three groups of data providers as participants of, respectively, face-to-face and digital workshops. The design principles and the produced insights were evaluated with practitioners. Implications for practice are that starting with the users' information needs can open a broader range of solutions and potential paths of OGD reuses, while following the design principles can help the practitioners cope with the fuzziness of the information needs and ideation process. For research, we propose a novel method that goes beyond the exclusive data provider-intermediary interaction to study new paths to improve the realization of OGD benefits.

Data providers share open government data (OGD) to be transformed by intermediaries into products and services (solutions). OGD is believed to lead to many benefits. However, OGD is not reaching its expected level of reuse, which can come from a lack of awareness, interest to fulfil the user's needs, or novel perspectives to understand them. This paper presents a set of design principles to develop tailored mixed methods that capture activity-based information needs of users which could be satisfied by building information products based on OGD. The produced insights can help data providers and intermediaries to realign ideas of solutions to the user's information needs. The set of nine design principles are developed using design science research and are based on previous research and empirical testing. They have been implemented with two groups of users and three groups of data providers as participants of, respectively, face-to-face and digital workshops. The design principles and the produced insights were evaluated with practitioners. Implications for practice are that starting with the users' information needs can open a broader range of solutions and potential paths of OGD reuses, while following the design principles can help the practitioners cope with the fuzziness of the information needs and ideation process. For research, we propose a novel method that goes beyond the exclusive data provider-intermediary interaction to study new paths to improve the realization of OGD benefits.

Data providers share open government data (OGD) to be transformed by intermediaries into products and services (solutions). OGD is believed to lead to many benefits. However, OGD is not reaching its expected level of reuse, which can come from a lack of awareness, interest to fulfil the user's needs, or novel perspectives to understand them. This paper presents a set of design principles to develop tailored mixed methods that capture activity-based information needs of users which could be satisfied by building information products based on OGD. The produced insights can help data providers and intermediaries to realign ideas of solutions to the user's information needs. The set of nine design principles are developed using design science research and are based on previous research and empirical testing. They have been implemented with two groups of users and three groups of data providers as participants of, respectively, face-to-face and digital workshops. The design principles and the produced insights were evaluated with practitioners. Implications for practice are that starting with the users' information needs can open a broader range of solutions and potential paths of OGD reuses, while following the design principles can help the practitioners cope with the fuzziness of the information needs and ideation process. For research, we propose a novel method that goes beyond the exclusive data provider-intermediary interaction to study new paths to improve the realization of OGD benefits. ; In this paper, the data are the developed design principles and tools made accessible in the popular science article (at http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-181126). The data to produce them (e.g., evaluations and participants' written notes specific to each iteration) arel ess relevant for the readers and, therefore, unpublished.

Previous research on Open Government Data (OGD) struggleswith synthesising a holistic perspective of OGD systems. A perspectivethat has dealt with vast, complex systems is public utility. Publicutilities are, for example, water supply networks and electric power grids.This study explores what we can learn from a public utility perspectivewhen perceiving and organising OGD systems. We used a hermeneuticliterature review combined with a snowballing approach, resulting in aselection of 39 studies. We compare public utilities and OGD systems toderive ve lessons: (1) an OGD system can be perceived from a node- owview, (2) the foundational data ow of an OGD system starts at datacollection and ends at data used by the public in an everyday context, (3)the organisation of OGD systems needs to consider the combinability, interpretability,and boundless reusability of data, (4) OGD systems needgovernance organisations that cover the whole system, and (5) OGD systemscould replace existing data provision systems and be made a publicutility if certain characteristic problems are overcome.

Public organizations in the role of publishers publish datafor anyone to reuse, which can lead to benets. However, the processdescriptions for this publishing work focus on one or a few issues, whichleaves out important areas and decisions. Little seems to be known aboutvariations between publishers based on one common point of comparison.Therefore, this paper presents a comparison between two publishers:Namur (Belgium) and Linkoping (Sweden). The comparison is based ona process framework, seven in-depth interviews, document studies, anda verication meeting with one respondent. We learned that the OGD manager is an agent of change who need to balance implementation andguidance, the orthodox method of e-mail registration can be used toengage users and monitor impact, the organizational unit for OGD iscross-organizational, and the publisher process framework could be usedas ex-ante strategic guidelines and context-specic recommendations.

Information seekers can use products and services based onopen government data (OGD) to satisfy their information needs. Thesesolutions are provided by data transformers reusing OGD shared by publishers.OGD is believed to lead to several benets, such as transparencyand innovation. However, there is a noted lack of OGD use, and littleseems to be known about the need for OGD. Therefore, we developed atentative conceptual model, from which data transformers and publisherscan understand and consider the information needs of informationseekers. We used design science research to develop the model basedon previous research and empirical material from workshops. We conductedworkshops in Belgium with nine researchers and eleven studentsand presented the model at a Scandinavian e-government workshop. Thendings from the study show that information needs are complex andcan be challenging to capture, but are one possible way to understandhow the benets of OGD could be realized. One practical implication isthat publishers and data transformers should identify information needsin society, study existing solutions, and attempt to go beyond them withOGD. The synthesized theoretical implication is that information needsmight help to guide on the role of OGD in society.