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This book offers a comprehensive analysis of the international law applicable to cyber operations, including a systematic examination of attribution, lawfulness and remedies. It demonstrates the importance of countermeasures as a form of remedies and also shows the limits of international law, highlighting its limits in resolving issues related to cyber operations. There are several situations in which international law leaves the victim State of cyber operations helpless. Two main streams of limits are identified. First, in the case of cyber operations conducted by non-state actors on the behalf of a State, new technologies offer various ways to coordinate cyber operations without a high level of organization. Second, the law of State responsibility offers a range of solutions to respond to cyber operations and seek reparation, but it does not provide an answer in every case and it cannot solve the problem related to technical capabilities of the victim.

International law, and in particular the Charter of the United Nations, are the backbone of international relations and are crucial for maintaining international peace and security. From this perspective, it is important to note that the applicability of international law to cyberspace and cyber operations has been a matter of controversy. There are two main challenges in this regard: on the one hand, given the unique characteristics of cyberspace, interpreting the application of the norms of international law to cyber operations may require a certain level of adaptation, not transformation. On the other hand, the subjects of international law, and particularly States, may have different if not divergent interpretations of certain specific norms of international law. This article aims at outlining the major international processes and initiatives dealing with the question of application of international law to cyberspace and cyber operations. This article shows the specific situation of the European Union and its Member States in these processes. It focuses first on the cooperation at the multilateral level, and mainly within the United Nations. The second part highlights the diversity of States' approaches on these questions. Finally, the two last parts exposes the growing involvement of non-state actors, notably major companies and the academic community.

Résumé Le 12 décembre 2016, le ministre de la Défense a prononcé un discours important sur la cyberdéfense française, rappelant que le droit, et en particulier le droit international, est applicable à l'espace numérique. L'applicabilité du droit international à l'espace numérique avait déjà été affirmée par le Livre blanc de 2013 et la Stratégie nationale pour la sécurité du numérique de 2015. La présente contribution s'inscrit dans la continuité de ce discours et souligne l'importance d'intégrer une dimension juridique à la stratégie française de cyberdéfense. Partant du postulat que le droit international est applicable au cyberespace et que les cyber opérations doivent respecter les normes internationales, cette contribution identifie les points clés découlant de l'applicabilité du droit international et les conséquences pour la stratégie et la pratique des services de l'État. Le groupe d'experts gouvernementaux de l'ONU s'est séparé en juin 2017 sur de profonds désaccords à propos de l'application des normes de droit international à l'espace numérique. Cette situation souligne l'importance pour la France de définir clairement sa stratégie juridique, de continuer à s'impliquer dans les processus de négociation en cours à l'ONU, mais aussi dans d'autres organisations internationales, et d'y jouer un rôle moteur, seule ou de concert avec d'autres États européens. Il convient de souligner qu'une partie du constat dressé dans cette contribution est aussi présent dans la Revue stratégique de défense et de sécurité nationale de 2017 qui souligne que « [s]i le principe de l'applicabilité du droit international à l'espace numérique et aux cyber opérations, défendu par la France, fait l'objet d'un consensus croissant, certains États continuent de s'y opposer. Par ailleurs, la question de ses modalités d'application et surtout du contrôle de leur mise en uvre reste ouverte ». Il faudra analyser, dans quelques mois, si la Revue stratégique de cyberdéfense en cours de préparation va plus loin sur ce point.

Defence date: 9 November 2016 ; Examining Board: Professor Nehal Bhuta, European University Institute (EUI Supervisor); Professor Jean d'Aspremont, University of Manchester; Professor Marco Roscini, University of Westminster; Professor Joseph H. H. Weiler, European University Institute & New York University ; This doctoral dissertation investigates the wide range of conceptualizations and categorizations that are applicable to state-sponsored cyber operations. State-sponsored cyber operations, namely recourse to cyber means by one State against another, are generally labelled 'cyber warfare'. This is neither a legal nor a prescriptive term; it reflects, however, a disproportionate focus on the realm of warfare. Avoiding hasty or overly simplistic characterizations of situations as cyber warfare is important to avoid further deterioration of their relations leading potentially to military escalation. This dissertation defines state-sponsored cyber operations according to international law and demonstrates that the majority of these incidents fall outside of the realm of (cyber) warfare and, therefore, need to be addressed separately and approached differently. Most state-sponsored cyber operations do not actually violate the prohibition of the use of force or the law of armed conflict, but rather they impinge the territorial sovereignty of the targeted States, the principle of nonintervention, or human rights. Cyber warfare is only the tip of the iceberg. An entire world lies submerged: cyber operations below the threshold of cyber warfare. While the emerged part concerning cyber warfare is well-studied and widely known, this thesis endeavours to shed light on the submerged, and arguably bigger, part that has been understudied and is less known. Parts I and II map the circumstances in which state-sponsored cyber operations violate international law. They demonstrate inter alia that most cyber operations remain under the threshold of cyber warfare, while they may constitute a breach of territorial sovereignty, the principle of non-intervention or even human rights law in most cases. Part I also analyzes the duty of diligence of third States. Part III deals with the attribution of cyber operations, analysing the attribution to the machine, to the human perpetrator, and focusing more specifically on the attribution to the sponsoring State. Part IV focuses on the consequences of an internationally wrongful cyber operation, mainly the obligations deriving from the law of State responsibility, and the remedies to address it, notably the recourse to self-defence, retorsion and countermeasures.

This edited volume explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming international conflict in cyberspace. Over the past three decades, cyberspace developed into a crucial frontier and issue of international conflict. However, scholarly work on the relationship between AI and conflict in cyberspace has been produced along somewhat rigid disciplinary boundaries and an even more rigid sociotechnical divide - wherein technical and social scholarship are seldomly brought into a conversation. This is the first volume to address these themes through a comprehensive and cross-disciplinary approach. With the intent of exploring the question 'what is at stake with the use of automation in international conflict in cyberspace through AI?', the chapters in the volume focus on three broad themes, namely: (1) technical and operational, (2) strategic and geopolitical, and (3) normative and legal. These also constitute the three parts in which the chapters of this volume are organised, although these thematic sections should not be considered as an analytical or a disciplinary demarcation.

This edited volume explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming international conflict in cyberspace.

Over the past three decades, cyberspace developed into a crucial frontier and issue of international conflict. However, scholarly work on the relationship between AI and conflict in cyberspace has been produced along somewhat rigid disciplinary boundaries and an even more rigid sociotechnical divide – wherein technical and social scholarship are seldomly brought into a conversation. This is the first volume to address these themes through a comprehensive and cross-disciplinary approach. With the intent of exploring the question 'what is at stake with the use of automation in international conflict in cyberspace through AI?', the chapters in the volume focus on three broad themes, namely: (1) technical and operational, (2) strategic and geopolitical and (3) normative and legal. These also constitute the three parts in which the chapters of this volume are organised, although these thematic sections should not be considered as an analytical or a disciplinary demarcation.

This book will be of much interest to students of cyber-conflict, AI, security studies and International Relations.


The Open Access version of this book is available for free in PDF format as Open Access from the individual product page at www.routledge.com. It has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license.

"This edited volume explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming international conflict in cyberspace. Over the past three decades, cyberspace developed into a crucial frontier and issue of international conflict. However, scholarly work on the relationship between AI and conflict in cyberspace has been produced along somewhat rigid disciplinary boundaries and an even more rigid sociotechnical divide - wherein technical and social scholarship are seldomly brought into a conversation. This is the first volume to address these themes through a comprehensive and cross-disciplinary approach. With the intent of exploring the question 'what is at stake with the use of automation in international conflict in cyberspace through AI?', the chapters in the volume focus on three broad themes, namely: (1) technical and operational, (2) strategic and geopolitical, and (3) normative and legal. These also constitute the three parts in which the chapters of this volume are organised, although these thematic sections should not be considered as an analytical or a disciplinary demarcation. This book will be of much interest to students of cyber-conflict, artificial intelligence, security studies and International Relations"--