Suchergebnisse

Intro -- Title Page -- Dedication -- Copyright -- Contents -- List of Figures -- Introduction: The Uncommunal Community -- Chapter One. The Republic of Letters: Pen-Pal Science -- 1.1. Introduction: The End of Splendid Solitude -- 1.2. The Dance of Distance and Proximity -- 1.3. Mobilizing the Academies: The Transits of Venus -- 1.4. Centralizing Everything: The Mannheim Meteorological Network -- 1.5. Conclusion: Where Was Community? -- Chapter Two. Internationalism: Science as a World Project -- 2.1. Introduction: Thinking Globally -- 2.2. A Universal Parliament -- 2.3. The Carte du Ciel: The Diplomatic Model -- 2.4. The International Cloud Atlas: The Voluntarist Model -- 2.5. Conclusion: Cooperate or Defect? -- Chapter Three. The Scientific Community: Governance without Governments -- 3.1. Introduction: The Cosmic Community -- 3.2. The Academy of Academies: Top-Down Governance -- 3.3. Scientific Internationalism, United Nations Style: The World Meteorological Organization -- 3.4. The Scientific Community in the Cold War: Governance against Governments -- 3.5. Conclusion: The Numbers Game -- Epilogue: Being in the Room Together -- Acknowledgments -- Further Reading -- Notes -- Back Cover.

Cover -- Contents -- List of Illustrations -- 1. Introduction: The Hidden History of Rules -- Clues to a Hidden History -- Rules as Both Paradigms and Algorithms -- Universals and Particulars -- A History of the Self-Evident -- 2. Ancient Rules: Straightedges, Models, and Laws -- Three Semantic Clusters -- The Rule Is the Abbot -- Following Models -- Conclusion: Rules between Science and Craft -- 3. The Rules of Art: Head and Hand United -- The Understanding Hand -- Thick Rules -- Rules at War -- Cookbook Knowledge -- Conclusion: Back and Forth, Betwixt and Between -- 4. Algorithms before Mechanical Calculation -- The Classroom -- What Was an Algorithm? -- Generality without Algebra -- Computing before Computers -- Conclusion: Thin Rules -- 5. Algorithmic Intelligence in the Age of Calculating Machines -- Mechanical Rule-Following: Babbage versus Wittgenstein -- "First Organize, Then Mechanize": The Human-Machine Workflow -- Mechanical Mindfulness -- Algorithms and Intelligence -- Conclusion: From Mechanical to Artificial Intelligence -- 6. Rules and Regulations -- Laws, Rules, and Regulations -- Five Hundred Years of Rule Failure: The War on Fashion -- Rules for an Unruly City: Policing the Streets of Enlightenment Paris -- Rules that Succeed Too Well: How and How Not to Spell -- Conclusion: From Rules to Norms -- 7. Natural Laws and Laws of Nature -- The Grandest Rules of All -- Natural Law -- Laws of Nature -- Conclusion: Universal Legality -- 8. Bending and Breaking Rules -- At the Limit -- Casuistry: Hard Cases and Tender Consciences -- Equity: When the Law Commits Injustice -- Prerogative and States of Exception: Rulers and the Rule of Law -- Conclusion: Which Came First, the Rule or the Exception? -- Epilogue: More Honored in the Breach -- Acknowledgments -- Notes -- Bibliography -- Index.

A panoramic history of rules in the Western worldRules order almost every aspect of our lives. They set our work hours, dictate how we drive and set the table, tell us whether to offer an extended hand or cheek in greeting, and organize the rites of life, from birth through death. We may chafe under the rules we have, and yearn for ones we don't, yet no culture could do without them. In Rules, historian Lorraine Daston traces their development in the Western tradition and shows how rules have evolved from ancient to modern times. Drawing on a rich trove of examples, including legal treatises, cookbooks, military manuals, traffic regulations, and game handbooks, Daston demonstrates that while the content of rules is dazzlingly diverse, the forms that they take are surprisingly few and long-lived.Daston uncovers three enduring kinds of rules: the algorithms that calculate and measure, the laws that govern, and the models that teach. She vividly illustrates how rules can change—how supple rules stiffen, or vice versa, and how once bothersome regulations become everyday norms. Rules have been devised for almost every imaginable activity and range from meticulous regulations to the laws of nature. Daston probes beneath this variety to investigate when rules work and when they don't, and why some philosophical problems about rules are as ancient as philosophy itself while others are as modern as calculating machines.Rules offers a wide-angle view on the history of the constraints that guide us—whether we know it or not

Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) is the bestselling and most-cited book ever published in the history and philosophy of science. Yet very few scholars in those fields would now endorse the book's main claims, and many are critical of its central premise: namely, that major changes in different disciplines and diverse historical contexts conform to a single "structure." Key Kuhnian concepts such as "paradigm shift" have become part of everyday language but all but disappeared from specialist publications. Nonetheless, the book still galvanizes readers encountering it for the first time—or even scholars who haven't reread it since their own student days. Kuhn's description of allencompassing and incommensurable mental worlds inhabited by scientists who practice in different paradigms resonates with the experience of readers who have experienced seismic changes in moral and political intuitions.

Que veut dire « l'interprétation classique » du calcul des probabilités ? Lorsqu'en 1933 Kolmogorov réussit à axiomatiser ce calcul, il a défini une théorie mathématique : son essence se trouve dans la validité formelle des axiomes, définitions et théorèmes qui permettent une foule d'interprétations. Ce système formel ne nous oblige en aucune manière à choisir telle ou telle interprétation de la probabilité : au point de vue de la théorie mathématique, on ne peut pas choisir entre probabilité comme fréquence et probabilité comme degré de certitude ou entre bien d'autres interprétations possibles. D'ailleurs, notre choix d'une interprétation ne dit rien sur la validité de la théorie mathématique purement formelle. Cependant, la distinction habituelle (et post-hilbertienne) entre la théorie formelle et ses interprétations — ou même celle du xixe siècle entre mathématiques pures et appliquées — aurait été étrangère aux probabilistes du XVIIIesiècle. Ils se seraient définis comme des praticiens des « mathématiques mixtes ».

Impressum -- Inhalt -- 1 Einleitung Die verborgene Geschichte der Regeln -- Hinweise auf eine verborgene Geschichte -- Regeln als Paradigmen und Algorithmen -- Universalien und Einzeldinge -- Eine Geschichte des Selbstverständlichen -- 2 Antike Regeln Richtscheite, Modelle und Gesetze -- Drei semantische Cluster -- Die Regel ist der Abt -- Vorbildern folgen -- Schluss: Regeln zwischen Wissenschaft und Handwerk -- 3 Die Regeln der Kunst: Kopf und Hand vereint -- Die verstehende Hand -- Füllige Regeln -- Regeln im Krieg -- Kochbuchwissen -- Schluss: Hin und her, weder das eine noch das andere -- 4 Algorithmen vor der mechanischen Berechnung -- Das Klassenzimmer -- Was war ein Algorithmus? -- Allgemeinheit ohne Algebra -- Rechner vor den Rechnern -- Schluss: Schlanke Regeln -- 5 Algorithmische Intelligenz im Zeitalter der Rechenmaschinen -- Mechanische Befolgung von Regeln: Babbage und Wittgenstein -- »Erst organisieren, dann mechanisieren«: Der Mensch-Maschine-Workflow -- Mechanische Achtsamkeit -- Algorithmen und Intelligenz -- Schluss: Von der mechanischen zur künstlichen Intelligenz -- 6 Regeln und Vorschriften -- Gesetze, Regeln und Vorschriften -- 500 Jahre Regelversagen: Der Kampf gegen die Mode -- Regeln für eine widerborstige Stadt: Die Straßen im Paris der Aufklärungszeit unter Kontrolle bringen -- Allzu erfolgreiche Regeln: Die Rechtschreibung -- Schluss: Von Regeln zu Normen -- 7 Gesetze des Naturrechts und Naturgesetze -- Die grandiosesten Regeln von allen -- Naturrecht -- Naturgesetze -- Schluss: Universelle Gesetzlichkeit -- 8 Das Beugen und Brechen von Regeln -- Am Limit -- Kasuistik: Harte Fälle und zarte Gemüter -- Billigkeit: Wenn Recht zu Unrecht wird -- Vorrecht und Ausnahmezustand: Herrscher und die Herrschaft des Rechts -- Schluss: Was war zuerst, die Regel oder die Ausnahme?.