In contrast to mainstream historiography, secularisation was not a distinct process in nineteenth-century Europe, since the century was a period of religious revival. In the late nineteenth century, in spite of weakening church attendance and rising agnosticism brought on by urbanisation and migration, religion remained attractive for the middle class and social movements related to church membership emerged in politics. In this chapter the diversity of religion in Europe is treated. The author distinguishes between hierarchical and nonhierarchical types of Christian churches, and between four religious regions in Europe. This situation had effects on the relationship between state and religion.
The effects of the decline of industry on urban development can particularly be felt in the former nineteenth-century industrial regions in Europe. In Germany the Ruhr Area was one of the most important industrial regions with a dominance of heavy industry (coal, steel, chemicals and energy). Although the area had a strong urbanisation level, the urbanisation pattern was strongly influ-enced by the development of industry. Thus, the southern parts were more urbanised as the later developed northern parts and suburbs in the neighbourhood of the plants soon dominated the urban fabric to the detriment of the former centres. Although the area had a population of over 5 million inhabitants and the urbanisation level was quite high, plans to make one administrative region never were successful. The decline of heavy industry, which started in the 1970s., showed a comparable pattern as in other European (and American) industrial regions. Compared to other regions of Europe, which were affected by the decline of industry, the Ruhr Area did not collapse totally.Thanks to the policies of the central and regional government (Bund and Land) it was possible to transform the area partially (ecological, cultural and educational policies). However, the existence of independent urban communities could be seen as a problem, because it led to strong inter-urban competition at a moment that the incomes of these communities dimin-ished. The decline of industry not only meant the development of social weaker traditional urban centres with mass unemployment, but also placed a heavy burden on urban governments to supply social help.
The aim of this article is to make a comparative study of the history of European ports during the last two centuries showing their complexity and specific characteristics. Whereas during the process of waterfront development, local governments emphasize the relationship of ports with sailing ships as a marketing instrument, the industrial history of those ports are mostly neglected. This article focuses on the industrial port, showing differences in the chronology of construction and in their urban impact. Hinterland and inland transportation were responsible for a part of those differences, as well as geographical and political circumstances. However, social aspects as well as technological issues showed comparable evolutions. The decline of the industrial port city is a part of the general process of de-industrialization of Europe, but it has its own specific features. At least it is clear that the development of port cities during the last two centuries is far more complex than some stage theories about port development assume.
