Suchergebnisse

Abstract
This paper aims to elaborate on the dilemmas Hungarian courts face when they appear in the forefront of policy implementation. Firstly, what kind of (legal) sources and documents should the court involve in in its legal interpretation? Secondly, what are the trade-offs between offering effective remedy sanctions and respecting the differences between branches of law and the division of power? For purpose of this analysis, we turn to the example of school segregation lawsuits between 2007 and 2022. In terms of equal and equitable education, the regulatory frameworks in the CEE Countries are harmonized to the EU standards and are strongly based on the anti-discrimination approach. In theory, policy programs and documents could be used as a source of facts, as well as a source of information regarding legislative goals and policy context. In theory, courts should aim to opt for sanctions with the most potential to achieve effective remedy. If this leads to specific policy-type sanctions, within the bounds of the parties' actions courts should be able to decide so. However, courts tend to refrain from such sources and decisions. In the context of democratic backsliding the possibilities of such activism are somewhat unclear. Issues around the independence of the judiciary, the attitude of the executive branch towards certain social policy issues, and the practice of overwriting by amendment on part of the National Assembly supermajority may discourage courts and judges from policy-sensitive or innovative adjudication of cases with social policy relevance.

The Porto Metropolitan Area (Área Metropolitana do Porto, AMP) is a framework of cooperation between 17 municipalities and several districts. This metropolitan area has a specific, inter-municipal model of urban governance. In our research, we found that cooperation is significant mainly in sectors where the central legislature has essentially made this mandatory, by designing the AMP and defining its powers. In addition to AMP, only partial cooperation has been established in the field of waste management, and in the field of human public services and in the performance of public authority, there is essentially a set of autonomous organisational solutions. However, despite all this fragmentation, the above system ensures the satisfactory functioning of the metropolitan agglomeration. This also underlines the importance of transport management in urban areas, since this functioning system is based on an integrated and intermodal transport system ; Obszar metropolitalny Porto (Área Metropolitana do Porto, AMP) składa się z 17 gmin i kilku okręgów. Przyjęto tu specyficzny, międzygminny model zarządzania. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań stwierdzono, że współpraca jest znacząca głównie w sektorach, którym centralny prawodawca zasadniczo nadał taki obowiązek, projektując AMP i określając jego uprawnienia. Oprócz AMP nawiązano jedynie częściową współpracę w zakresie gospodarki odpadami, a w zakresie usług publicznych i wykonywania władzy publicznej istnieje w zasadzie zestaw autonomicznych rozwiązań organizacyjnych. Pomimo całego tego rozdrobnienia system ten zapewnia odpowiednie funkcjonowanie aglomeracji metropolitalnej. Istotne jest również zarządzanie transportem na obszarach miejskich, ponieważ jest ono oparte na zintegrowanym i intermodalnym systemie transportowym.