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Objective The aim of this study is to investigate how anticipatory driving is influenced by distraction. Background The anticipation of future events in traffic can allow potential gains in recognition and response times. Anticipatory actions (i.e., control actions in preparation for potential traffic changes) have been found to be more prevalent among experienced drivers in simulator studies when driving was the sole task. Despite the prevalence of visual-manual distractions and their negative effects on road safety, their influence on anticipatory driving has not yet been investigated beyond hazard anticipation. Methods A simulator experiment was conducted with 16 experienced and 16 novice drivers. Half of the participants were provided with a self-paced visual-manual secondary task presented on a dashboard display. Results More anticipatory actions were observed among experienced drivers; experienced drivers also exhibited more efficient visual scanning behaviors as indicated by higher glance rates toward and percent times looking at cues that facilitate the anticipation of upcoming events. Regardless of experience, those with the secondary task displayed reduced anticipatory actions and paid less attention toward anticipatory cues. However, experienced drivers had lower odds of exhibiting long glances toward the secondary task compared to novices. Further, the inclusion of glance duration on anticipatory cues increased the accuracy of a model predicting anticipatory actions based on on-road glance durations. Conclusion The results provide additional evidence to existing literature supporting the role of driving experience and distraction engagement in anticipatory driving. Application These findings can guide the design of in-vehicle systems and guide training programs to support anticipatory driving.

Objective To explore the scope of available research and to identify research gaps on in-vehicle interventions for drowsiness that utilize driver monitoring systems (DMS). Background DMS are gaining popularity as a countermeasure against drowsiness. However, how these systems can be best utilized to guide driver attention is unclear. Methods A scoping review was conducted in adherence to PRISMA guidelines. Five electronic databases (ACM Digital Library, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, TRID, and SAE Mobilus) were systematically searched in April 2022. Original studies examining in-vehicle drowsiness interventions that use DMS in a driving context (e.g., driving simulator and driver interviews) passed the screening. Data on study details, state detection methods, and interventions were extracted. Results Twenty studies qualified for inclusion. Majority of interventions involved warnings ( n = 16) with an auditory component ( n = 14). Feedback displays ( n = 4) and automation takeover ( n = 4) were also investigated. Multistage interventions ( n = 12) first cautioned the driver, then urged them to take an action, or initiated an automation takeover. Overall, interventions had a positive impact on sleepiness levels, driving performance, and user evaluations. Whether interventions effective for one type of sleepiness (e.g., passive vs. active fatigue) will perform well for another type is unclear. Conclusion Literature mainly focused on developing sensors and improving the accuracy of DMS, but not on the driver interactions with these technologies. More intervention studies are needed in general and for investigating their long-term effects. Application We list gaps and limitations in the DMS literature to guide researchers and practitioners in designing and evaluating effective safety systems for drowsy driving.

Objective To understand the influence of driving experience and distraction on drivers' anticipation of upcoming traffic events in automated vehicles. Background In nonautomated vehicles, experienced drivers spend more time looking at cues that indicate upcoming traffic events compared with novices, and distracted drivers spend less time looking at these cues compared with nondistracted drivers. Further, pre-event actions (i.e., proactive control actions prior to traffic events) are more prevalent among experienced drivers and nondistracted drivers. However, there is a research gap on the combined effects of experience and distraction on driver anticipation in automated vehicles. Methods A simulator experiment was conducted with 16 experienced and 16 novice drivers in a vehicle equipped with adaptive cruise control and lane-keeping assist systems (resulting in SAE Level 2 driving automation). Half of the participants in each experience group were provided with a self-paced primarily visual-manual secondary task. Results Drivers with the task spent less time looking at cues and were less likely to perform anticipatory driving behaviors (i.e., pre-event actions or preparation for pre-event actions such as hovering fingers over the automation disengage button). Experienced drivers exhibited more anticipatory driving behaviors, but their attention toward the cues was similar to novices for both task conditions. Conclusion In line with nonautomated vehicle research, in automated vehicles, secondary task engagement impedes anticipation while driving experience facilitates anticipation. Application Though Level 2 automation can relieve drivers of manually controlling the vehicle and allow engagement in distractions, visual-manual distraction engagement can impede anticipatory driving and should be restricted.

Objective To investigate the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback based on peer social norms in mitigating teen driver distraction. Background Distraction is a significant problem among teen drivers. Research into the use of in-vehicle technologies to mitigate this issue has been limited. In particular, there is a need to study whether social norms interventions provided through in-vehicle feedback can be effective. Peers are important social referents for teens; thus, normative intervention based on this group is promising. Socially proximal referents have a greater influence on behavior; thus, tailoring peer norm feedback based on gender may provide additional benefits. Method In this study, 57 teens completed a driving simulator experiment while performing a secondary task in three between-subject conditions: (a) postdrive feedback incorporating same-gender peer norms, (b) postdrive feedback incorporating opposite-gender peer norms, and (c) no feedback. Feedback involved information based on descriptive norms (what others do). Results Teens' self-reported frequency of distraction engagement was positively correlated with their perceptions of their peers' engagement in and approval of distractions. Feedback based on peer norms was effective in reducing distraction engagement and improving driving performance, with no difference between same- and opposite-gender feedback. Conclusion/Application Feedback based on peer norms can help mitigate driver distraction among teens. Tailoring social norms feedback to teen gender appears to not provide any additional benefits. Longer-term effectiveness in real-world settings should be investigated.

Objective: This article is an investigation of the effectiveness of sonifications, which are continuous auditory alerts mapped to the state of a monitored task, in supporting unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) supervisory control. Background: UAV supervisory control requires monitoring a UAV across multiple tasks (e.g., course maintenance) via a predominantly visual display, which currently is supported with discrete auditory alerts. Sonification has been shown to enhance monitoring performance in domains such as anesthesiology by allowing an operator to immediately determine an entity's (e.g., patient) current and projected states, and is a promising alternative to discrete alerts in UAV control. However, minimal research compares sonification to discrete alerts, and no research assesses the effectiveness of sonification for monitoring multiple entities (e.g., multiple UAVs). Method: The authors conducted an experiment with 39 military personnel, using a simulated setup. Participants controlled single and multiple UAVs and received sonifications or discrete alerts based on UAV course deviations and late target arrivals. Results: Regardless of the number of UAVs supervised, the course deviation sonification resulted in reactions to course deviations that were 1.9 s faster, a 19% enhancement, compared with discrete alerts. However, course deviation sonifications interfered with the effectiveness of discrete late arrival alerts in general and with operator responses to late arrivals when supervising multiple vehicles. Conclusions: Sonifications can outperform discrete alerts when designed to aid operators to predict future states of monitored tasks. However, sonifications may mask other auditory alerts and interfere with other monitoring tasks that require divided attention. Applications: This research has implications for supervisory control display design.

With vehicle automation becoming more commonplace, the role of the human driver is shifting from that of system operator to that of system supervisor. With this shift comes the risk of drivers becoming more disengaged from the task of supervising the system functioning, thus increasing the need for technology to keep drivers alert. This special issue includes the most up-to-date research on how drivers use vehicle automation, and the safety risks it may pose. It also investigates the accuracy that driver monitoring systems have in detecting conditions like driver distraction and drowsiness, and explores ways future drivers may respond to the broader introduction of this technology on passenger vehicles.

Objectives: An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of distraction mitigation strategies on drivers? performance and productivity while engaged in an in-vehicle information system task. Background: Previous studies show that in-vehicle tasks undermine driver safety and there is a need to mitigate driver distraction. Method: An advising strategy that alerts drivers to potential dangers and a locking strategy that prevents the driver from continuing the distracting task were presented to 16 middle-aged and 12 older drivers in a driving simulator in two modes (auditory, visual) and two road conditions (curves, braking events). Results: Distraction was a problem for both age groups. Visual distractions were more detrimental than auditory ones for curve negotiation, as depicted by more erratic steering, F(6, 155) = 26.76, p < .05. Drivers did brake more abruptly under auditory distractions, but this effect was mitigated by both the advising, t(155) = 8.37, p < .05, and locking strategies, t(155) = 8.49, p < .05. The locking strategy also resulted in longer minimum time to collision for middle-aged drivers engaged in visual distractions, F(6, 138) = 2.43, p < .05. Conclusions: Adaptive interfaces can reduce abrupt braking on curve entries resulting from auditory distractions and can also improve the braking response for distracted drivers. Application: These strategies can be incorporated into existing in-vehicle systems, thus mitigating the effects of distraction and improving driver performance.

Objective The aim of this study was to explore individual differences in voluntary and involuntary driver-distraction engagement. Background Distractions may stem from intentional engagement in secondary tasks (voluntary) or failing to suppress non-driving-related stimuli or information (involuntary). A wealth of literature has examined voluntary distraction; involuntary distraction is not particularly well understood. Individual factors, such as age, are known to play a role in how drivers engage in distractions. However, it is unclear which individual factors are associated with voluntary- versus involuntary-distraction engagement and whether there is a relation between how drivers engage in these two distraction types. Method Thirty-six participants, ages 25 to 39, drove in a simulator under three conditions: voluntary distraction with a self-paced visual-manual task on a secondary display, involuntary distraction with abrupt onset of irrelevant visual-audio stimuli on the secondary display, and no distraction. Results The number of glances toward the secondary display under voluntary distraction was not correlated to that under involuntary distraction. The former was associated with gender, age, annual mileage, and self-reported distraction engagement; such associations were not observed for the latter. Accelerator release time in response to lead-vehicle braking was delayed similarly under both conditions. Conclusion Propensity to engage in voluntary distractions appears to be not related to the inability of suppressing involuntary distractions. Further, voluntary and involuntary distraction both affect braking response. These findings have implications for design of in-vehicle technologies, which may be sources of both distraction types.

Objective: Interruptions to secondary tasks resulting in multiple tasks to resume may tax working memory. The objective of this research is to study such interruptions experienced by intensive care unit (ICU) nurses. Background: ICU nurses are frequently interrupted, resulting in a switch from primary to secondary tasks. In two recent studies, we observed that some of these secondary tasks also get interrupted, resulting in multiple tasks that have to be resumed, a phenomenon we refer to as nested interruptions. Although completing multiple secondary tasks in a serial fashion during an interruption period can create context-switching costs, we hypothesize that nested interruptions tax the working memory even more than just performing multiple secondary tasks sequentially because the nurse would have to encode in working memory the resumption goals for both the primary and the interrupted secondary tasks. Method: We conducted a laboratory study with 30 ICU nurses, who performed an electronic order-entry task under three interruption conditions: (a) baseline—no secondary task during the interruption period; (2) serial—performance of two tasks one after the other during the interruption period; and (3) nested—performance of two tasks during the interruption period, one of which was also interrupted. Results: Nested interruptions resulted in significantly longer primary-task resumption lag and less accurate task resumption compared with both the serial interruption and baseline conditions. Conclusion: The nested nature of interruptions adds to the resumption lag and diminishes resumption accuracy by likely populating the working memory with goals associated with interrupted secondary tasks.

Objective This study aimed to explore the relationship between system interface elements' design features and interaction performance in simulated vehicle vibration environments. Background Touch screens have been widely used in vehicle information systems, but few studies have focused on the decline of touchscreen interaction performance and task load increase when driving on unpaved roads. Method The interaction performance (reaction time and task accuracy rate) with vibration frequencies below 3 Hz (1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 Hz) and different interface design elements was investigated employing a touch screen computer and E-prime software. Results The results indicate that vehicle vibration (below 3 Hz) can significantly reduce interaction performance with a vehicle information system interface. Conclusion An appropriate increase in the physical size of the interface design features (visual stimulus materials and touch buttons) can help to mitigate this negative effect of vibration. Application The results and findings of this study can be utilized for the design of information system interfaces as it relates to the vibration scenario of unpaved roads.