Suchergebnisse

Article purchased; Published online: 28 Feb 2010 ; Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) causes a disease onbanana (Musa spp.) and enset (Ensete spp.) known as banana xanthomonaswilt (BXW). Recent studies have shown that Xcm is a strain of X. vasicola(Aritua et al., 2008). However, the status of pathovars within thespecies remains unclear. Prior to its discovery in Uganda in October 2001,the disease had been limited to Ethiopia (first reported 1968). Since thenthe disease has spread to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda(observed in May 2004 and September 2005 respectively). BXW cancause high yield losses and is a high priority concern within the GreatLakes region. A comprehensive review of the pathogen and diseasewas recently published by Smith et al. (2008). Thus far, outbreaks inTanzania, Kenya and Burundi have only been referred to in symposiumproceedings and on various websites. These new records are thus officiallyreported here for the first time.In Tanzania, the disease was first reported in the Kagera region of northwest Tanzania, bordering Lake Victoria, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi,in September 2005 (Mgenzi et al., 2006). Spread has continued, but not toother major banana growing areas. In Kenya, the disease was firstreported in September 2006 in the Teso District, of western Kenya,bordering Uganda (Anon, 2006). Spread has since been reported as slow.In Burundi the disease was first observed during October 2006 (Anon.,2006). The current status of BXW in Burundi is unclear with no recentsubstantiated reports.Bacterial cultures were isolated from diseased racemes from Tanzaniaand Burundi at CABI, UK and from Kenya at KARI (NARL). All cultureswere identified to species level at FERA by fatty acid profiling (MIDI system)and DNA analysis using X. vasicola specific primers (Aritua et al.,unpublished data) and partial sequencing of the gyrase B gene (Parkinsonet al., 2007). Koch's postulates were fulfilled for all strains at FERA bystem inoculation of banana plants (height approximately 30 cm) with abacterial suspension (200 lL with ~107 cfu ⁄ mL) under controlled environmentalconditions (minimum temperature 27ºC). Identification ofXcm isolates from Burundi and Kenya was further supported by OhioState University and KARI, respectively, using X. vasicola specific primers(Lewis-Levy Miller, unpublished data) that have a different target site tothose of Aritua et al. (unpublished data).Reference cultures are held by the UK National Collection of PlantPathogenic Bacteria, Accession Nos. NCPPB 4392-5 (Tanzania), 4434(Kenya) and 4433 (Burundi). ; Peer Review

Background: The scale-up of tobacco control, especially after the adoption of the Framework Convention for Tobacco Control, is a major public health success story. Nonetheless, smoking remains a leading risk for early death and disability worldwide, and therefore continues to require sustained political commitment. The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) offers a robust platform through which global, regional, and national progress toward achieving smoking-related targets can be assessed. Methods: We synthesised 2818 data sources with spatiotemporal Gaussian process regression and produced estimates of daily smoking prevalence by sex, age group, and year for 195 countries and territories from 1990 to 2015. We analysed 38 risk-outcome pairs to generate estimates of smoking-attributable mortality and disease burden, as measured by disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs). We then performed a cohort analysis of smoking prevalence by birth-year cohort to better understand temporal age patterns in smoking. We also did a decomposition analysis, in which we parsed out changes in all-cause smoking-attributable DALYs due to changes in population growth, population ageing, smoking prevalence, and risk-deleted DALY rates. Finally, we explored results by level of development using the Socio-demographic Index (SDI). Findings: Worldwide, the age-standardised prevalence of daily smoking was 25·0% (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 24·2–25·7) for men and 5·4% (5·1–5·7) for women, representing 28·4% (25·8–31·1) and 34·4% (29·4–38·6) reductions, respectively, since 1990. A greater percentage of countries and territories achieved significant annualised rates of decline in smoking prevalence from 1990 to 2005 than in between 2005 and 2015; however, only four countries had significant annualised increases in smoking prevalence between 2005 and 2015 (Congo [Brazzaville] and Azerbaijan for men and Kuwait and Timor-Leste for women). In 2015, 11·5% of global deaths (6·4 million [95% UI 5·7–7·0 million]) were attributable to smoking worldwide, of which 52·2% took place in four countries (China, India, the USA, and Russia). Smoking was ranked among the five leading risk factors by DALYs in 109 countries and territories in 2015, rising from 88 geographies in 1990. In terms of birth cohorts, male smoking prevalence followed similar age patterns across levels of SDI, whereas much more heterogeneity was found in age patterns for female smokers by level of development. While smoking prevalence and risk-deleted DALY rates mostly decreased by sex and SDI quintile, population growth, population ageing, or a combination of both, drove rises in overall smoking-attributable DALYs in low-SDI to middle-SDI geographies between 2005 and 2015. Interpretation: The pace of progress in reducing smoking prevalence has been heterogeneous across geographies, development status, and sex, and as highlighted by more recent trends, maintaining past rates of decline should not be taken for granted, especially in women and in low-SDI to middle-SDI countries. Beyond the effect of the tobacco industry and societal mores, a crucial challenge facing tobacco control initiatives is that demographic forces are poised to heighten smoking's global toll, unless progress in preventing initiation and promoting cessation can be substantially accelerated. Greater success in tobacco control is possible but requires effective, comprehensive, and adequately implemented and enforced policies, which might in turn require global and national levels of political commitment beyond what has been achieved during the past 25 years. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and Bloomberg Philanthropies.